LIGHT

T
he world is largely known through comb and close all its openings
the senses. The sense of sight except one in the middle. You can
is one of the most important use a strip of black paper for
senses. Through it we see mountains, this purpose. Hold the comb
rivers, trees, plants, chairs, people and perpendicular to the sheet of paper.
so many other things around us. We also
Throw light from a torch through
see clouds, rainbows and birds flying
the opening of the comb from one
in the sky. At night we see the moon
side (Fig. 16.1). With slight
and the stars. You are able to see the
adjustment of the torch and the
words and sentences printed on this
comb you will see a ray of light along
page. How is seeing made possible?
the paper on the other side of the
16.1 What makes Things comb. Keep the comb and the torch
steady. Place a strip of plane mirror
Visible
in the path of the light ray (Fig.
Have you ever thought how we see the 16.1). What do you observe?
various objects? You may say that eyes
see the objects. But, can you see an
object in the dark? It means that eyes
alone cannot see any object. It is only
when light from an object enters our
eyes that we see the object. The light
may have been emitted by the object, or
may have been reflected by it.
You learnt in Class VII that a polished
or a shiny surface can act as a mirror. A
mirror changes the direction of light
that falls on it. Can you tell in which
direction the light falling on a surface Fig. 16.1 : Arrangement for showing reflection
will be reflected? Let us find out.
After striking the mirror, the ray of
16.2 Laws of Reflection light is reflected in another direction.
Activity 16.1 The light ray, which strikes any surface,
is called the incident ray. The ray that
Fix a white sheet of paper on a comes back from the surface after
drawing board or a table. Take a reflection is known as the reflected ray.
 A ray of light is an idealization. In Table 16.1 : Angles of Incidence
reality, we have a narrow beam of and Reflection
light which is made up of several S. Angle of Angle of
rays. For simplicity, we use the term No. incidence (∠∠i) reflection (∠
∠r)
ray for a narrow beam of light.
1.
Draw lines showing the position of 2.
the plane mirror, the incident ray and
3.
the reflected ray on the paper with the
help of your friends. Remove the mirror 4.
and the comb. Draw a line making an 5.
angle of 90º to the line representing the
mirror at the point where the incident Do you see any relation between the
ray strikes the mirror. This line is known angle of incidence and the angle of
as the normal to the reflecting surface reflection. Are they approximately equal?
at that point (Fig. 16.2). The angle If the experiment is carried out carefully,
it is seen that the angle of incidence is
always equal to the angle of reflection.
This is known as the law of reflection.
Let us perform another activity on
reflection.

Fig. 16.2 : Drawing the normal

What would happen if I
between the normal and incident ray is threw the light on the
called the angle of incidence (∠i). The mirror along the normal.
angle between the normal and the
reflected ray is known as the angle of Activity 16.2
reflection (∠r) (Fig. 16.3). Measure the
angle of incidence and the angle of Perform Activity 16.1 again. This
reflection. Repeat the activity several time use a sheet of stiff paper or a
times by changing the angle of chart paper. Let the sheet project a
incidence. Enter the data in Table 16.1. little beyond the edge of the Table
(Fig. 16.4). Cut the projecting
portion of the sheet in the middle.
Look at the reflected ray. Make sure
Reflected Incident that the reflected ray extends to the
ray ray
projected portion of the paper. Bend
Normal that part of the projected portion on
which the reflected ray falls. Can
you still see the reflected ray? Bring
Fig. 16.3 : Angle of incidence and angle of the paper back to the original
reflection
202 SCIENCE
 position. Can you see the reflected with the sun as the source of light instead
ray again? What do you infer? of a torch. You, too, can use the sun as
the source of light.

These activities can also be performed

by making use of the Ray Streak
Apparatus (available in the kit
prepared by NCERT).

Bhoojo remembered that he had

studied in Class VII some features of the
image of an object formed by a plane
mirror. Paheli asked him to recall those
(a)
features:
(i) Was the image erect or upside
down?
(ii) Was it of the same size as the
object?
(iii) Did the image appear at the same
distance behind the mirror as the
object was in front of it?
(iv) Could it be obtained on a screen?
Let us understand a little more about
(b) the formation of image by a plane mirror
Fig. 16.4 (a), (b) : Incident ray, reflected ray
and the normal at the point in the following way:
of incidence lie in the same
plane Activity 16.3
When the whole sheet of paper is A source of light O is placed in front
spread on the table, it represents one of a plane mirror PQ. Two rays OA
plane. The incident ray, the normal at and OC are incident on it (Fig. 16.5).
the point of incidence and the reflected Can you find out the direction of
ray are all in this plane. When you bend the reflected rays?
the paper you create a plane different Draw normals to the surface of the
from the plane in which the incident mirror PQ, at the points A and C.
ray and the normal lie. Then you do not Then draw the reflected rays at the
see the reflected ray. What does it points A and C. How would you
indicate? It indicates that the incident draw these rays? Call the reflected
ray, the normal at the point of rays AB and CD, respectively.
incidence and the reflected ray all lie Extend them further. Do they meet?
in the same plane. This is another law Extend them backwards. Do they
of reflection. meet now? If they meet, mark this
Paheli and Bhoojo performed the point as I. For a viewer’s eye at E
above activities outside the classroom (Fig. 16.5), do the reflected rays
LIGHT 203
 Fig. 16.6 : Parallel rays incident on
an irregular surface

Fig. 16.5 : Image formation in a plane mirror

appear to come from the point I.
Since the reflected rays do not
actually meet at I, but only appear
to do so, we say that a virtual image Fig. 16.7 : Rays reflected from irregular
of the point O is formed at I. As you surface
have learnt already in Class VII,
such an image cannot be obtained When all the parallel rays reflected
on a screen. from a plane surface are not parallel,
You may recall that in an image the reflection is known as diffused or
formed by a mirror the left of the object irregular reflection. Remember that the
appears on the right and the right diffused reflection is not due to the
appears on the left. This is known as failure of the laws of reflection. It is
lateral inversion. caused by the irregularities in the
reflecting sur face, like that of a
16.3 Regular and Diffused cardboard.
On the other hand reflection from
Reflection
a smooth surface like that of a mirror
Activity 16.4 is called regular reflection (Fig. 16.8).
Images are formed by regular
Imagine that parallel rays are reflection.
incident on an irregular surface as
shown in Fig. 16.6. Remember that
the laws of reflection are valid at
each point of the surface. Use these
laws to construct reflected rays at
various points. Are they parallel to
one another? You will find that
these rays are reflected in different
directions. (Fig. 16.7) Fig. 16.8 : Regular reflection

204 SCIENCE
 Do We See all Objects due to Reflected Light?
Nearly everything you see around is seen due to reflected light. Moon, for example,
receives light from the sun and reflects it. That’s how we see the moon. The objects
which shine in the light of other objects are called illuminated objects. Can you
name some other such objects?
There are other objects, which give their own light, such as the sun, fire, flame
of a candle and an electric lamp. Their light falls on our eyes. That is how we see
them. The objects which emit their own light are known as luminous objects.

Paheli recalls having constructed a

periscope as an Extended Activity in
I have a question. Can the Class VI. The periscope makes use of
reflected rays be further reflected two plane mirrors. Can you explain
if incident on another mirror? how reflection from the two mirrors
enables you to see objects which are
Let us find out.
not visible directly? Periscopes are
16.4 Reflected Light Can be used in submarines, tanks and also
Reflected Again by soldiers in bunkers to see things
outside.
Recall the last time you visited a hair
dresser. She/he makes you sit in front of 16.5 Multiple Images
a mirror. After your hair cut is complete,
she/he places a mirror at your back to You are aware that a plane mirror forms
show you how the hair has been cut only a single image of an object. What
(Fig. 16.9). Can you think how you could happens if two plane mirrors in
see the hair at the back of your head? combination are used? Let us see.

Fig. 16.9 : Mirror at the hair dresser shop

LIGHT 205
Activity 16.5 Can you now explain how you can
see the back of your head at the hair
Take two plane mirrors. Set them dresser’s shop?
at right angles to each other with This idea of number of images formed
their edges touching (Fig. 16.10). To by mirrors placed at an angle to one
hinge them you can use adhesive another is used in a kaleidoscope to
tape. Place a coin in between the make numerous beautiful patterns. You
mirrors. How many images of the can also make a kaleidoscope yourself.
coin do you see (Fig. 16.10)?
Kaleidoscope

Activity 16.6
To make a kaleidoscope, get three
rectangular mirror strips about 15
cm long and 4 cm wide each. Join
them together to form a prism as
shown in Fig. 16.12(a). Fix them
in a circular cardboard tube or tube
Fig. 16.10 : Images in plane mirror at right
angle to each other of a thick chart paper. Make sure
that the tube is slightly longer than
Now hinge the mirrors using the
the mirror strips. Close one end of
adhesive tape at different angles, say
the tube by a cardboard disc
45º, 60º, 120º, 180º etc. Place some
having a hole in the centre,
object (say a candle) in between
through which you can see [Fig.
them. Note down the number of
16.12(b)]. To make the disc durable,
images of the object in each case.
paste a piece of transparent plastic
Finally, set the two mirrors
sheet under the cardboard disc. At
parallel to each other. Find out how
many images of a candle placed
between them are formed (Fig.
16.11).

mirrors

Fig. 16.11 : Image in plane mirror parallel b c

to each other Fig. 16.12 : Making a kaleidoscope

206 SCIENCE
 the other end, touching the
16.6 Sunlight — White or
mirrors, fix a circular plane glass Coloured
plate [Fig. 16.12(c)]. Place on this In Class VII, you learnt that the sunlight
glass plate several small pieces of is referred to as white light. You also
coloured glass (broken pieces of learnt that it consists of seven colours.
coloured bangles). Close this end Here is another activity (Activity 16.7)
of the tube by a ground glass plate. showing that sunlight consists of several
Allow enough space for the colour colours.
pieces to move around.
16.7 What is inside Our Eyes?
Your kaleidoscope is ready. When
you peep through the hole, you will be We see things only when light coming
able to see a variety of patterns in the from them enters our eyes. Eye is one
tube. Interesting feature of a of our most important sense organs. It
kaleidoscope is that you will never see is, therefore, important to understand
the same pattern again. Designers of its structure and working.
wallpapers and fabrics and artists use The eye has a roughly spherical
kaleidoscopes to get ideas for new shape. Outer coat of the eye is white. It
patterns. To make your toy attractive, is tough so that it can protect the
you can wrap the kaleidoscope in a interior of the eye from accidents. Its
coloured paper. transparent front part is called cornea

Activity 16.7
Get a plane mirror of suitable size. up the light into its colours, as you
Place it in a bowl (Katori) as shown learnt in Class VII. Splitting of light
in Fig. 16.13. Fill the bowl with water. into its colours is known as
Put this arrangement near a window dispersion of light. Rainbow is a
such that direct sunlight falls on the natural phenomenon showing
mirror. Adjust the position of the bowl dispersion.
such that the
reflected light from
the mirror falls on
a wall. If the wall is
not white, fix a sheet
of white paper on it.
Reflected light will
be seen to have
many colours. How
can you explain
this? The mirror
and water form a
prism. This breaks Fig. 16.13 : Dispersion of light

LIGHT 207

Refraction - When light travels from air into water, it slows down, causing it to change
direction slightly. This change of direction is called refraction
(Fig. 16.14). Behind the cornea, we find Class VII. The lens focuses light on the
a dark muscular structure called iris. back of the eye, on a layer called retina
In the iris, there is a small opening (Fig. 16.14). Retina contains several
called the pupil. The size of the pupil nerve cells. Sensations felt by the nerve
is controlled by the iris. The iris is the cells are then transmitted to the brain
part of that eye which gives it its through the optic nerve.
distinctive colour. When we say that a There are two kinds of cells
person has green eyes, we refer actually (i) cones, which are sensitive to bright
to the colour of the iris. The iris controls light and
the amount of light entering into the (ii) rods, which are sensitive to dim light.
eye. Let us see how. Besides, cones sense colour. At the
junction of the optic nerve and the
Ciliary
retina, there are no sensory cells, so no
muscle
vision is possible at that spot. This is
Iris called the blind spot. Its existence can
Optic
Nerve be demonstrated as follows:
Lens

Cornea Activity 16.9

Make a round mark and a cross on
Retina
a sheet of paper with the spot to the
Fig. 16.14 : Human eye right of the cross (Fig. 16.15). The
distance between two marks may be
Caution : For this activity, never use 6-8 cm. Hold the sheet of paper at
a laser torch. arms length from the eye. Close
Activity 16.8 your left eye. Look continuously at
the cross. Move the sheet slowly
Look into your friend’s eye. Observe towards you, keeping your eye on
the size of the pupil. Throw light on the cross. What do you find? Does
her eye with a torch. Observe the the round mark disappear at some
pupil now. Switch off the torch, and point? Now close your right eye.
observe her pupil once again. Do Look at the round mark now and
you notice any change in the size repeat the activity. Does the cross
of the pupil? In which case was the disappear? The disappearance of the
pupil larger? Why do you think it cross or the round mark shows that
was so? there is a point on the retina which
In which case do you need to cannot send messages to the brain
allow more light in the eye, when when light falls on it.
the light is dim or bright?

Behind the pupil of the eye is a lens

which is thicker in the centre. What
kind of lens is thicker at the centre?
Fig. 16.15 : Demonstration of blind spot
Recall what you learnt about lenses in
208 SCIENCE
 The impression of an image does not Nature has provided eyes with
vanish immediately from the retina. It eyelids to protect from any object
persists there for about 1/16th of a entering the eye. Eyelids also shut out
second. So, if still images of a moving light when not required.
object are flashed on the eye at a rate Eye is such a wonderful instrument
faster than 16 per second, then the eye that it (normal) can see distant objects
perceives this object as moving. as well near objects clearly. The
minimum distance at which the eye can
Activity 16.10 see objects distinctly varies with age. The
most comfortable distance at which one
Get a square piece of cardboard of can read with a normal eye is about
side 6-8 cm. Make two holes as 25 cm.
shown in Fig. 16.16. Thread a Some persons can see near objects
string through the two holes. Draw/ clearly but cannot see distant objects
paste a cage on one side of the
so clearly. On the other hand, some
cardboard and a bird on the other
persons cannot see near objects clearly
side. Twist the string and make the
but they can see distant objects quite
card twirl rapidly. Do you see the
well. With suitable corrective lenses,
bird in the cage?
these defects of the eye can be
corrected.
Sometimes, particularly in old age,
eyesight becomes foggy. It is due to the
Reverse side Front side of eye lens becoming cloudy. When it
of cardboard cardboard
happens, persons are said to have
cataract. There is a loss of vision,
sometimes extremely severe. It is
possible to treat this defect. The opaque
lens is removed and a new artificial
lens is inserted. Modern technology
has made this procedure simpler
and safer.

16.8 Care of Eyes

It is necessary that you take proper care
Fig. 16.16 : Bird in cage
of your eyes. If there is any problem
you should go to an eye specialist. Have
The movies that we see are actually
a regular checkup.
a number of separate pictures in

If advised, use suitable spectacles.
proper sequence. They are made to
move across the eye usually at the rate
Too little or too much light is bad
of 24 pictures per second (faster than for eyes. Insufficient light causes
16 per second). So, we see a moving eyestrain and headaches. Too much
picture. light, like that of the sun, a powerful

LIGHT 209
 Did you know?
Animals have eyes shaped in different ways. Eyes of a crab are quite small but
they enable the crab to look all around. So, the crab can sense even if the enemy
approaches from behind. Butterfly has large eyes that seem to be made up of
thousands of little eyes (Fig.
16.17). It can see not only in the
front and the sides but the back Eyes
as well.
A night bird (owl) can see very well
in the night but not during the
day. On the other hand, day light
birds (kite, eagle) can see well
during the day but not in the
night. The Owl has a large cornea
and a large pupil to allow more
light in its eye. Also, it has on its
retina a large number of rods and
only a few cones. The day birds
on the other hand, have more Fig. 16.17 : Eyes of butterfly
cones and fewer rods.

lamp or a laser torch can injure the Raw carrots, broccoli and green
retina. vegetables (such as spinach) and cod

Do not look at the sun or a powerful
liver oil are rich in vitamin A. Eggs,
milk, curd, cheese, butter and fruits
light directly.
such as papaya and mango are also rich

Never rub your eyes. If particles of in vitamin A.
dust go into your eyes, wash your
eyes with clean water. If there is no 16.9 Visually Challenged
improvement go to a doctor. Persons Can Read and

Wash your eyes frequently with Write
clean water.

Always read at the normal distance Some persons, including children, can
for vision. Do not read by bringing be visually handicapped. They have very
your book too close to your eyes or limited vision to see things. Some
keeping it too far. persons cannot see at all since birth.
You learnt about balanced diet in Some persons may lose their eyesight
Class VI. If food is deficient in some because of a disease. Such persons try
components, eye may also suffer. Lack to identify things by touching and
of vitamin A in foodstuff is responsible listening to voices more carefully. They
for many eye troubles. Most common develop their other senses more sharply.
amongst them is night blindness. However, additional resources can
One should, therefore, include in the enable them to develop their capabilities
diet components which have vitamin A. further.
210 SCIENCE
 Resources can be of two types : Non-optical aids and optical aids.
Non-optical aids include visual aids, tactual aids (using the sense of touch),
auditory aids (using the sense of hearing) and electronic aids. Visual aids, can
magnify words, can provide suitable intensity of light and material at proper
distances. Tactual aids, including Braille writer slate and stylus, help the visually
challenged persons in taking notes, reading and writing. Auditory aids include
cassettes, tape recorders, talking books and other such devices. Electronic aids,
such as talking calculators, are also available for performing many computational
tasks. Closed circuit television, also an electronic aid, enlarges printed material
with suitable contrast and illumination. Nowadays, use of audio CDs and voice
boxes with computers are also very helpful for listening to and writing the desired
text.
Optical aids include bifocal lenses, contact lenses, tinted lenses, magnifiers and
telescopic aids. While the lens combinations are used to rectify visual limitations,
telescopic aids are available to view chalkboard and class demonstrations.

16.10 What is a Braille Braille system has 63 dot patterns or

System? characters. Each character
represents a letter, a combination of
The most popular resource for visually letters, a common word or a
challenged persons is known as Braille. grammatical sign. Dots are arranged
in cells of two vertical rows of three
Louis Braille, himself a visually dots each.
challenged person, developed a
system for visually challenged persons
and published it in 1821.

Fig. 16.18 : Example of dot patterns used

in Braille System

Patterns of dots to represent some

Louis Braille English alphabets and some common
words are shown below.
The present system was adopted in These patterns when embossed on
1932. There is Braille code for common Braille sheets help visually
languages, mathematics and scientific challenged to recognise words by
notation. Many Indian languages can touching. To make them easier to
be read using the Braille system. touch, the dots are raised slightly.

LIGHT 211
 Visually challenged people learn the character has to be memorised. Braille
Braille system by beginning with texts can be produced by hand or by
letters, then special characters and machine. Type writer - like devices and
letter combinations. Methods depend printing machines have now been
upon recognition by touching. Each developed.

Some visually challenged Indians have great achievements to their

credit. Diwakar, a child prodigy has given amazing performances
as a singer.
Mr. Ravindra Jain, born completely visually challenged,
obtained his Sangeet Prabhakar degree from Allahabad. He has
shown his excellence as a lyricist, singer and music composer.
Mr. Lal Advani, himself visually challenged, established an
Association for special education and rehabilitation of disabled
Helen A Keller
in India. Besides, he represented India on Braille problems to
UNESCO.
Helen A Keller, an American author and lecturer, is perhaps the most well-
known and inspiring visually challenged person. She lost her sight when she was
only 18 months old. But because of her resolve and courage she could complete
her graduation from a university. She wrote a number of books including The
Story of my Life (1903).

212 SCIENCE
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
ANGLE OF  Light is reflected from all surfaces.
INCIDENCE  Regular reflection takes place when light is
ANGLE OF incident on smooth, polished and regular
REFLECTION surfaces.

BLIND SPOT  Diffused/irregular reflection takes place from

rough surfaces.
BRAILLE
 Two laws of reflection are
CONES (i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
CORNEA of reflection.
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal
DIFFUSED/
drawn at the point of incidence to the
IRREGULAR
reflecting surface, lie in the same plane.
REFLECTION
 Image formed in a plane mirror undergoes
DISPERSION
lateral inversion.
INCIDENT RAYS  Two mirrors inclined to each other give multiple
IRIS images.
 Beautiful patterns are formed in a
KALEIDOSCOPE
kaleidoscope because of multiple reflections.
LATERAL INVERSION
 Sunlight, called white light, consists of seven
LAWS OF colours.
REFLECTION  Splitting of light into its constituent colours is
PUPIL known as dispersion.
 Important parts of the eye are cornea, iris,
REFLECTED RAYS
pupil, lens, retina and optic nerve.
REFLECTION
 A normal eye can see nearby and distant
REGULAR objects clearly.
REFLECTION  Visually challenged persons can read and
RETINA write using Braille system.
 Visually challenged persons develop their
RODS
other senses more sharply to improve their
interaction with their environment.

LIGHT 213
 Exercises

1. Suppose you are in a dark room. Can you see objects in the room? Can
you see objects outside the room. Explain.
2. Differentiate between regular and diffused reflection. Does diffused
reflection mean the failure of the laws of reflection?

3. Mention against each of the following whether regular or diffused reflection

will take place when a beam of light strikes. Justify your answer in each
case.

(a) Polished wooden table (b) Chalk powder

(c) Cardboard surface (d) Marble floor with water
spread over it
(e) Mirror (f) Piece of paper
4. State the laws of reflection.
5. Describe an activity to show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and
the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
6. Fill in the blanks in the following :
(a) A person 1 m in front of a plane mirror seems to be _______________ m
from his image.

(b) If you touch your ____________ ear with right hand in front of a plane
mirror it will be seen in the mirror that your right ear is touched with
____________

(c) The size of the pupil becomes ____________ when you see in dim light.
(d) Night birds have ____________ cones than rods in their eyes..

Choose the correct option in Questions 7 – 8

7. Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

(a) Always (b) Sometimes
(c) Under special conditions (d) Never

8. Image formed by a plane mirror is

(a) virtual, behind the mirror and enlarged
(b) virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object
(c) real at the surface of the mirror and enlarged
(d) real, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
9. Describe the construction of a kaleidoscope.
10. Draw a labeled sketch of the human eye.
214 SCIENCE
 11. Gurmit wanted to perform Activity 16.8 using a laser torch. Her teacher
EXERCISES advised her not to do so. Can you explain the basis of the teachers advise?
12. Explain how you can take care of your eyes.
13. What is the angle of incidence of a ray if the reflected ray is at an angle of
90° to the incident ray?
14. How many images of a candle will be formed if it is placed between two
parallel plane mirrors separated by 40 cm?
15. Two mirrors meet at right angles. A ray of light is incident on one at an
angle of 30° as shown in Fig. 16.19. Draw the reflected ray from the second
mirror.

Fig. 16.19
16. Boojho stands at A just on the side of a plane mirror as shown in Fig.
16.20. Can he see himself in the mirror? Also can he see the image of
objects situated at P, Q and R?

Fig. 16.20

17. (a) Find out the position of the image of an object situated at A in the
plane mirror (Fig. 16.21).
(b) Can Paheli at B see this image?
(c) Can Boojho at C see this image?
(d) When Paheli moves from B to C, where does the image of A move?

Fig. 16.21

LIGHT 215
 Extended Learning — Activities and Project
1. Make your own mirror. Take a glass strip or glass slab. Clean it and
put it on a white sheet of paper. See yourself in the glass. Next put
the glass slab on a black sheet of paper. Again look into the glass.
In which case you see yourself better and why?
2. Make friends with some visually challenged students. Enquire from
them how they read and write. Also find out how they are able to
recognise objects, hurdles and currency notes.
3. Meet an eye specialist. Get your eye sight checked and discuss how
to take care of your eyes.
4. Survey your neighbourhood. Find out how many children below
the age of 12 years use spectacles. Find out from their parents
what, in their view, could be the reason for the weak eyesight of
their children.
You can read more on this topic on the following websites:

www. glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/mmedia/optics/
ifpm.html.

www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/class/refln/
u1311b.html.

Did You Know?

Eyes can be donated by any person as an invaluable gift to visually
challenged persons suffering from corneal blindness, The person may be:
(a) male or female
(b) of any age
(c) of any social status
(d) using spectacles
(e) suffering from any normal disease but not AIDS, Hepatitis B or C,
Rabies, Leukemia, Tetanus, Cholera, Encephalitis.
The eyes have to be donated within 4-6 hours after death at any
place, home or hospital.
A person who wants to donate the eyes has to pledge eyes during his/her
lifetime to any registered eye bank. He/she should also inform his/her
relatives about this pledge so that they can take necessary action after
his/her death.

You can also donate a Braille kit. Contact :

Give India, National Association for the Blind. [The cost of a Braille kit is
Rs. 750/-]

216 SCIENCE