Principles of Seed Technology

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 Index
Lecture Lecture name Page
Lecture Seed production 5-12
1
Lecture Seed policy 13-16
2
Lecture Seed demand forecasting and planning for 17-23
3 certified,
foundation and breeder seed production
Lecture Deterioration of crop varieties – causes and 24-28
4 maintenance
Lecture Seed quality 29-37
5
Lecture Classes of seed 38-43
6
Lecture Seed production in maize 44-54
7
Lecture Hybrid seed production in maize 55-65
8
Lecture Seed production techniques in paddy varieties 66-78
9
Lecture Hybrid seed production in paddy 79-88
10
Lecture Seed production in sorghum 89-96
11
Lecture Hybrid seed production in sorghum 97-
12 102
Lecture Seed production in pearl millet 103-
13 113
Lecture Seed production in cotton varieties and 114-
 14 hybrids 124
Lecture Seed production in sunflower 125-
15 134
Lecture Seed production in varieties and hybrids of 135-
16 castor 140
Lecture Seed production techniques in vegetables 141-
17 149
Lecture Brinjal (solanum melongena) 150-
18 153
Lecture Chilli (capsicum frutescense) 154-
19 156
Lecture Bhendi (abelmoschus esculentus) 157-
20 160
Lecture Onion (allium cepa) 161-
21 172
Lecture Seed production of cucurbitaceous vegetables 173-
22 178
Lecture Seed certification 179-
23 191
Lecture Seeds act and rules 192-
24 212
Lecture Intellectual property rights (IPRS) 213-
25 217
Lecture Varietal identification 218-222
26
Lecture Seed drying 223-230
27
Lecture Seed processing 231-247
28
Lecture Seed treatment 248-259
29
Lecture Seed storage 260-276
30
Lecture Seed marketing 277-284
31
Lecture Pricing policy 285-288
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Lecture 01: SEED PRODUCTION

Availability of quality seeds of improved cultivars is considered crucial for realizing

productivity and adoption of cultivars in different agro-climatic conditions. The quality of
seed alone is known to account for at least 10-15% increase in the productivity (ICAR 1993).
However, lack of quality seed continues to be one of the greatest impediments to bridging the
vast yield gap. Therefore, to approach the potentially realizable yield of a cultivar, production
and distribution of quality seed is essential. The good quality seed should have the following
characters:

 Genetic purity, and uniformity and should conform to the standards of the
particular cultivar.
 Disease free, viable seeds.
 Free from admixtures of other crop seeds, weeds and inert matter.
 Acceptable uniformity with respect to size, shape and color.

Seed Production
Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production adequate
care is given from the purchase of seeds upto harvest adopting proper seed and crop
management techniques.
The benefits of seed production are

 Higher income
 Higher quality seed for next sowing

Difference between seed and crop production

Crop production
Seed production
Basic seed should be from an authentic source Any seed material can be used
Seed plot should be selected carefully for Can be grown in any area
better
performance, as per edaphic and
environmental requirement
Needs isolation from other varieties Isolation is not necessary
Needs technical skill for maintenance of Special technical skill is not
quality required

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Maintenance of genetic purity is important Genetic purity is not required

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Roguing is compulsorily practiced Roguing is not practiced
Harvesting should be done at physiological/ Harvested at field maturity
harvestable maturity
Resultant seed should be vigorous and viable Question of viability does not arise
Importance is given to seed quality rather than Importance is given more to yield
the yield

There are two types (major) of seed production ie. Varietal and hybrid

Seed production based on the type of seed used for multiplication .The difference between
varietal and hybrid seed production are as follows
Varietal seed production Hybrid seed production
It is single parent multiplication It needs two to many parents
Isolation distance requirement is less Isolation distance requirement is more
Production is by open pollination Production is by managed control
pollination (Female)
Seed can be used continuously for Seed has to be changed every time
3/4/5 generations
Production technique is Technique differ with crop
uniform
(multiplication)
Production care is less Production care is more
Yield will be lower Yield will be higher
Profit is less Profit is higher

SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF SEED PRODUCTION

Indian Agriculture has made enormous progress in the last 50 years. Food grains
production has risen from 50 million tons in 1947 to 212 million tons in 2003-04. The country
has advanced from a situation of food scarcity and imports to that of food security and
exportable surpluses. The Green Revolution of India has been universally acclaimed as a
successful enterprise of the farmers, the Scientists and the Government. The land mark
achievements in agriculture in the 60s and 70s were the result of a combination of inputs like
introduction of high yielding varieties, increased fertilizer use, expansion of irrigation
facilities, massive extension efforts, improved farm practices and, above all, ingenuity and
industry of the Indian farmers. However, the growth of agriculture sector has not kept pace

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with the growth of the population and has stagnated. The unsatisfactory growth of
agriculture,

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apart from serious implications for food security of the country, has been adversely
impacting the growth rate of country‟s economy. The imperative of National food security,
nutritional security and economic development demand a very focused and determined
approach to raise productivity and production in agriculture. In view of the fact, that the area
under cultivation is unlikely to increase significantly, thrust will have to be on raising
productivity per unit of cultivated land.

Substantial increase in yield and quality of crops depends upon a number of factors viz.,
inputs like fertilizers, irrigation and plant protection measures and suitable agronomic
practices. However, the use of high quality seed thus plays a pivotal role in the crop
production. The use of poor quality seeds nullifies the utility of all agronomic practices and
every other input applied to the crop no matter how lavishly they are applied. Economically,
the cost of seed is a very small component of the total cost of production. Sindhur Sen
(1974) summarizes the importance of seed quality thus “What are known as the seeds of
hope may turn into seeds of frustration” if they are not of high quality. It is therefore,
important to use the seed confirming to the prescribed standards in terms of high genetic
purity, physical purity, physiological quality and health quality. Since ages, Indian farmers
were mostly dependent on traditional varieties; therefore seed requirements were met
through farm saved seeds. The use of traditional varieties coupled with farm saved seeds
whose quality is not guaranteed, resulted in drastic reduction in production.

Seed is the critical determinant of agricultural production on which depends the

performance and efficacy of other inputs. Quality seeds appropriate to different agro-climatic
conditions and in sufficient quantity at affordable prices are required to raise productivity.
Availability and use of quality seeds is not a onetime affair. Sustained increase in agriculture
production and productivity necessarily requires continuous development of new and
improved varieties of crops and efficient system of production and supply of seeds to
farmers. The National Seeds Policy 2002 clearly emphasizes that “It has become evident that
in order to achieve the food production targets of the future, a major effort will be required to
enhance the seed replacement rates of various crops. This would require a major increase in
the production of quality seeds ” According to the National seeds Policy 2002, the thrust
areas have to be
-

i) Varietal Development.
ii) Seed Production.
iii) Seed Replacement Rate Enhancement.
iv) Primary responsibility for production of breeder seed to be that of the
ICAR/State Agriculture Universities.
v) An effective seed production programme.

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vi) Popularization of new varieties.
vii) Availability of newly developed varieties to farmers with minimum time gap.

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viii) Provision of incentives to domestic seed industry to enable it to produce seeds of
high yielding varieties and hybrid seeds at a faster pace to meet the challenges of
domestic requirements.

After the genesis of NSP, NSE & SSC and private seed companies, production of certified
and foundation seeds have been undertaken by them.

Crop/Season-wise Requirement and Availability of Certified/Quality Seeds in India (2008- 2009)

(Indiastat.com)

Crop Requirement Availability

Cereals Total 13343953 16964189
Pulses Total 1749254 1829974
Oil Seed Total 4814665 5349716
Fibre Total 302279 361151
Patato 430000 430000

The Indian seed industry is the eighth largest in the world with an estimated value of
INR 49 billion (USD 1.06 Billion) and with an annual growth rate of 12% to 13 %. The
industry has shown a buoyant growth over the last two years on well supportive monsoons.
The development of private seed industry is no more confined to just production and
marketing of seed. It has well acquired technological strength to cater to the varietal needs of
tomorrow.
Along with industries Indian farmers have in recent years adopted intensive cultivation
practices in order to meet the growing demand for agricultural produce.

India is bestowed with varied agro climatic conditions / zones, experienced and
dedicated farmers, viable seed industry, legislations etc favouring the production of quality
seeds. However, there is an urgent need for streamlining all our strengths to overpower the
weaknesses.

Strengths

 A well developed and knitted seed multiplication and distribution systems linked
with several ICAR institutes / SAUs / NSC / SFCI etc.
 A network of 20 seed certification agencies and more than 96 notified seed testing
laboratories to legally assure the quality seeds moving in the seed market.
 A large number of varieties in different vegetable crops are available suited to
varied agro climatic conditions. This makes the selection easier for taking up

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production in a particular area.

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 Our county is bestowed with varied agro climatic conditions, which can be exploited
for taking up seed production of vegetables at any time of the year in one or other past
of the country.
 A very fast development of private seed companies which are helpful in bridging. The
gap between demand and supply of vegetable seeds in the country.

Weaknesses

 Vegetable seed production in the country has been vulnerable to vagaries of

weather resulting in production of poor quality seeds.
 Availability of realistic data on actual area under vegetable and requirements
of vegetable seeds is inappropriate.
 Maintenance of isolation distance. Since in our system there is no restriction for
planting any particular vegetable crops in any particular area, it becomes difficult
many times to maintain the recommended isolation distance.
 Very low or no indents for new improved varieties due to ignorance about
the performance of newly developed improved varieties.
 Non-availability of adequate nucleus and breeder seeds in the seed production chain.
 Problems in lifting produced seeds against indents.

Factors which affect demand

It is important to distinguish between actual demand, perceived demand and what the
government expects the farmers to buy. The total amount of certified or labelled seed sold
may be quite a small proportion of the total requirement.

Many factors have to be considered while assessing and forecasting demand. Some of
these are:

 Cropping pattern and intensity

 Type of seed used
 Climate
 Demand for crop products
 Market scenario
 Disposable farm income
 Rate or level of adoption of new technology
 Government policy
 Crop cycles
 Habits and tradition
 Product performance
 Competitiveness

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 Price
 Promotion

The most important factors that need to be taken into account when an individual company
or organization is estimating the market share that may be gained by its own products are
product performance, competitive positioning, price and promotion. This will form the basis
of sales forecasting and production planning.

Demand Forecasting of seed

In adequate estimation of demand and the consequences of over production or under
production can cause serious financial consequences for a seed company. Too many
carryovers and stock write-offs will prove to be expensive, while lack of seed means a loss of
revenue and a source of frustration for the sales force and the dealer network. This
combination of special features in the seed industry makes the accurate assessment of
demand even more critical.
Some of these features are

 Longer period of time for the development new products from breeding programmes
 Seasonality of production
 Production subject to variables like agro climatic conditions outside the control
of management
 Statutory controls and quality standards
 Existence of a generation system – where by the production in one year is the
progenitor the next
 Limited shelf like and loss of germination
 Seed replacement rate: Seed Replacement Rate is the rate at which the farmers replace
the seeds instead of using their own seeds

Seed Replacement Rate of Select Crops: 2005-06

Crop SRR (%)

Paddy 17
Millets 7
Pulses 12.5
Cottton (Rainfed /Irrigated) 10/15
Groundnut 5
Gingelly 15
Sunflower 50
Castor 30
Soyabean 20

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Source: Narrative notes on Plan Programme-2005-06, S.P.C,
,Chennai.

In demand forecasting the first step is to calculate the existing requirement multiplied by
percent bought seed, which is the amount of commercial seed purchased by farmers. In
calculating seed requirement, seed multiplication rates must be taken into account. Seed
Multiplication Ratio is the ratio at which the seed multiplies.

In the present Indian scenario, seed production can be taken up as a small-scale industry or it
can be taken up as under contract for the other seed companies. In either way, seed production
has huge potential to ensure better returns.

SCOPE FOR SEEDS EXPORT

There is lot of scope for marketing of seed by Indian seed companies in countries lying
between 300 North and South latitudes, which are having similar agro-climatic situations and
the varieties bred in India are suitable as well as comparable to varieties produced in
European Union (EU), USA and Japan etc. In addition, wage rates and consumption pattern of
those areas are comparable to Indian conditions. The seed can be exported from India to
Indonesia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, African countries. Central and South America and
markets in developed countries. The Indian cotton hybrids are suitable for African countries,
where the wage rates are low for hand picking in indeterminate types. The hybrid seeds of
paddy, cotton, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, sunflower, varietal seeds of paddy, vegetables
(tomato, brinjal, gourds and bhendi) can be produced more economically in AP for export
purposes.

Export opportunities
The export opportunities can be classified into two major categories.

 Custom production of vegetable seeds (including hybrid vegetables)

 Export of branded seeds

i. Custom production of vegetable seeds (including hybrid vegetables)

Hybrid vegetable seed production is highly labour intensive. As the competition is going up,
most of the major global companies are outsourcing the seed production to the countries
having labour cost advantage viz., China, Thailand, Vietnam, Chile, India etc. several Indian
companies have established good reputation over the past 10 years by supplying good
quality seed under contract production. We also have experienced and skilled manpower to
take up this activity on large scale. If we look at the production capacity 70% of India‟s

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seeds‟ sales come from farmer bred seeds, 26% from those bred in publicly financed
institutions, and only

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4% from researched hybrids. The domestic hybrid seeds market is placed at INR 4.9 Billion
and is annually growing at 10% a year, against the 5% global growth rate.

ii. Export of branded seeds

Over the last 15-20 years, Indian seed industry has emerged as a vibrant research
based industry (in vegetable as well as field crops). Several innovative superior products
have been developed for widely varying agro-climatic conditions in the Indian agriculture. It
is reported that Indian germplasm / seeds can adopt very well in the countries failing in the
region 300 North and South on the equator. This would cover markets of several developing
countries from Central / South America, Africa and Asia. Incidentally, both Africa and Asia
are presently the fastest growing markets. Indian seed sector with its vast germplasm base
and trained man power would become a strong technology source for such countries.

Agri –export zones

India has her own inherent strength in agriculture and agriculture exports. Now
these have been strengthened with the liberalization, privatization polices of the
government and the positive clauses in the World Trade Agreement with which India can
poise to double its agro exports to Rs.200 billion by 2007.

With a view to promoting agricultural exports from the country and remunerative
returns to the farming community in a sustained manner, the concept of Agri Export Zones
(AEZ) was floated. These zones have been set up for end-to-end development for export of
specific products from a geographically contiguous area.

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Lecture 02:
SEED POLICY

National Seed Policy, 2002

The Seed Act, 1966, seed control order 1983 and New Policy on Seeds
Development, 1988, from the basis of promotion and regulation of the Indian Seed
Industry.

The “New Seed Policy” of 1988 ushered in a new area of growth and phenomenal
development. Because, it allowed limited import of commercial seed, remove curbs on
imports of seeds of vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants and even allowed import of
seed of course cereals, pulses and oilseeds for a period of two years.

The important constraints were

 Non existence of National Seed Policy

 IPR laws
 Restrictions and licenses on seed exports and imports
 Lack of incentives for the public and private seed sectors of the country

India later developed the National Seed Policy in 2002. The main objectives are the
provision of an appropriate climate for the seed industry to utilize available and prospective
opportunities, safe guarding of the interests of Indian farmers and the conservation of agro-
biodiversity.

Thrust Areas

1. Varietal Development and PVP

2. Seed Production
3. Quality Assurance
4. Seed Distribution and Marketing.
5. Infrastructure facilities
6. Transgenic Plant Varieties
7. Import of seeds and planting material
8. Export of seeds
9. Promotion of Domestic Seed

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10. Strengthening of monitoring system

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1. Varietal Development and PVP

To stimulate investment in research and development (R&D) new varieties

an effective sui generic system for IPR will be implemented.

 Establishment of PVPFRA (Plant Varieties Protection and Farmers Rights Authority,

to implement PVPFR Act, 2001.
 Under this Act, Plant Varieties will be registered based on Novelty,
Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability (DUS) characters.
 Farmers Rights: Farmers can save, use, exchange, share or sell seeds of protected variety
but not under the brand name.
 Researchers Rights: Seed / planting material of protected varieties can be used for
research and breeding new varieties.
 Breeders Rights: Benefit arising out of use of varieties upon commercialization of
seeds of new variety, will be shared with the respective breeder.
 Community Rights: Benefit sharing with Farmers / Village communities will be
ensured for contributing in evaluation of plant variety upon registration.

2. Seed Production

India seed programme will adheres to generation system of multiplication namely

nucleus, breeder, foundation and certified seed.

Public seed sector will be restructured and will continue to have free access to breeder
seed, while Private Seed Sector will have conditional access. Seed village scheme will be
facilitated to upgrade the quality of farmers saved seeds.
Seed Replacement will be raised progressively, National Seed Map will be prepared to
identify potential areas of seed production, seed banks will be established with cold storage
facilities, seed mini kits will be supplied for popularizing new varieties and will Seed Crop
Insurance will be encouraged.

3. Quality Assurance

1. New Seed Act will be enacted.

2. National Seed Board will be established as apex body in place of existing Central
Seed Committee to implement New Seed Act.
3. National Seeds Register will be maintained varieties will be registered based on
“Value for Cultivation and Usage”. (VCU).
4. Farmers will retain rights to save, use, exchange, share or sell seeds of any variety
but not under the brand name.

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4. Seed Distribution and Marketing.

o Seed Distribution and Marketing of any variety will be subject to

registry in NSB.

o National Seed Grid will be established as a data base on

seed requirement, production, distribution and farmers preference.

o Access to finance from commercial banks will be facilitated.

o Availability of high quality seed will be ensured through improved

distribution system and efficient marketing set up.

5. Infrastructure facilities

 National Seed Research and Training center (NSRTC) will be set up.
 Seed processing and storage faculties will be augmented.
 Computerized National Seed Grid will be established to provide information on
seeds marketing.

6. Transgenic Plant Varieties

1. All GM crops will be tested for environment and bio safety before commercial release
as per EPA (1986).
2. Seeds of GM crops will be imported only through NBPGR as per the EPA (1986).
3. Required infrastructure will be developed for testing, identification and evaluation
of transgenic planting material.

 Import of seeds and planting material

Provision will be made to make available best planting material from anywhere in the
world to Indian farmers without any compromise on quarantine requirements.

 Export of seeds

Long term policy will be evolved to exploit varied agro climatic condition of India and strong
seed production system, to raise seed export from present level of less than 1% to 10% by 2020.

1. Seed export promotion zones will be established and strengthened.

2. Data Bank on International Market will be created.

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 Promotion of Domestic Seed Industry

It will be facilitated by providing incentives to domestic seed industry, financial support

through NABARD, commercial and co-operative banks, considering tax rebate / concessions
for R&D, reduction of import duty on machines and equipment used for seed production and
encouragement of membership in National and International organization related to seed.

 Strengthening of monitoring system

Strengthening of Department of Agriculture and Co-operation (DAC) will supervise the

implementation of National Seed Policy.

National Seed Policy will be vital in doubling food production of India

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Lecture 03:

SEED DEMAND FORECASTING AND PLANNING FOR CERTIFIED, FOUNDATION AND

BREEDER SEED PRODUCTION

Demand Forecasting of seed

In adequate estimation of demand and the consequences of over production or under

production can cause serious financial consequences for a seed company. Too many
carryovers and stock write-offs will prove to be expensive, while lack of seed means a loss of
revenue and a source of frustration for the sales force and the dealer network. This
combination of special features in the seed industry makes the accurate assessment of
demand even more critical.
Some of these features are

 Longer period of time for the development new products from breeding programmes
 Seasonality of production
 Production subject to variables like agro climatic conditions outside the control
of management
 Statutory controls and quality standards
 Existence of a generation system – where by the production in one year is the
progenitor the next
 Limited shelf like and loss of germination
 Seed replacement rate: Seed Replacement Rate is the rate at which the farmers replace
the seeds instead of using their own seeds

Seed Replacement Rate of Select Crops: 2005-06

Crop SRR (%)

Paddy 17
Milletss 7
Pulses 12.5
Cottton - Rainfed /Irrigated 10/15
Groundnut 5
Gingelly 15
Sunflower 50
Castor 30
Soyabean 20

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Source: Narrative notes on Plan Programme-2005-06, S.P.C.,
Chennai.

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Technology

In demand forecasting the first step is to calculate the existing requirement multiplied by
percent bought seed, which is the amount of commercial seed purchased by farmers. In
calculating seed requirement, seed multiplication rates must be taken into account. Seed
Multiplication Ratio is the ratio at which the seed multiplies.
In the present Indian scenario, seed production can be taken up as a small-scale industry or it
can be taken up as under contract for the other seed companies. In either way, seed production
has huge potential to ensure better returns.

Factors which affect demand

It is important to distinguish between actual demand, perceived demand and what the
government expects the farmers to buy. The total amount of certified or labelled seed sold
may be quite a small proportion of the total requirement.
Many factors have to be considered while assessing and forecasting demand. Some of these
are:

 Cropping pattern and intensity

 Type of seed used
 Climate
 Demand for crop products
 Market scenario
 Disposable farm income
 Rate or level of adoption of new technology
 Government policy
 Crop cycles
 Habits and tradition
 Product performance
 Competitiveness
 Price
 Promotion

The most important factors that need to be taken into account when an individual company
or organization is estimating the market share that may be gained by its own products are
product performance, competitive positioning, price and promotion. This will form the basis
of sales forecasting and production planning.

Demand forecasting techniques

Forecasting is the process of making projections of demand for products by examining past
and present performance levels, combined with an assessment of available products and
markets. This may be carried out within the government service or by individual companies
in a purely commercial context. The following approaches can be used:

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Target setting: This method is commonly used in developing countries where government is
directly involved in planning and seed supply. In a centrally managed economy, targets are
likely to be set at a national level and production plans fixed for each region.
India is an example of a more open economy where both the public and private sectors
coexist in a well-developed seed industry, but where the government retains a coordinating
function and has the ultimate responsibility for the security of seed supply. The Ministry of
Agriculture sets the targets and organizes meetings to establish the supply situation and
production plans of the various organizations involved.
Companies may opt to set a target for an ideal sales level while, at the same time, recognizing
that this is unlikely to be achieved and budgeting for a more achievable situation.

Growth trends: This approach is based on the assumption that the rate of growth of seed
demand as seen in past years will continue. This may give unrealistically high forecasts and
will depend on the stage of market development for improved seeds. Small increases in
volume in the early stages of improved seed use will represent a large increase in percentage
terms, which may not be possible to sustain.

Growth rates adjusted for new technology adoption: Using this approach a given region is
considered on the basis of degrees of new technology uptake and the likely speed of change.
Each part of the region can then be categorized as 'low' to 'medium' or 'high' growth, better
reflecting the overall situation.

Sampling: The accuracy of the above approaches can be improved if sample groups of
farmers are questioned to gauge their anticipated demand for seed. This exercise is more
reliable where there is a reasonable awareness of the benefits of using improved seeds.

SEED PRODUCTION
To meet the Nation's food security needs, it is important to make available to Indian farmers
a wide range of seeds of superior quality, in adequate quantity on a timely basis. Public
Sector Seed Institutions will be encouraged to enhance production of seed towards meeting
the objective of food and nutritional security.
The Indian seed programme adheres to the limited three generation system of seed
multiplication, namely, breeder, foundation and certified seed. Breeder seed is the
progeny of nucleus seed.

 Nucleus seed is the seed produced by the breeder to develop the particular variety
and is directly used for multiplication as breeder seed.

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 Breeder seed is the seed material directly controlled by the originating or the
sponsoring breeder or Institution for the initial and recurring production of foundation
seed.

 Foundation seed is the progeny of breeder seed. Foundation seed may also be
produced from foundation seed. Production of foundation seed stage-I and stage-II
may thus be permitted, if supervised and approved by the Certification Agency and if
the production process is so handled as to maintain specific genetic purity and
identity.

 Certified seed is the progeny of foundation seed or the progeny of certified seed. If
the certified seed is the progeny of certified seed, then this reproduction will not
exceed three generations beyond foundation stage-I and it will be ascertained by the
Certification Agency that genetic identity and genetic purity has not been
significantly altered.

Public Sector Seed Production Agencies will continue to have free access to breeder
seed under the National Agriculture Research System. The State Farms Corporation
of India and National Seeds Corporation will be restructured to make productive use
of these organisations in the planned growth of the Seed Sector.

Private Seed Production Agencies will also have access to breeder seed subject to
terms and conditions to be decided by Government of India.

State Agriculture Universities/ICAR Institutes will have the primary responsibility for
production of breeder seed as per the requirements of the respective States.

Special attention will be given to the need to upgrade the quality of farmers‟ saved
seeds through interventions such as the Seed Village Scheme.

Seed replacement rates will be raised progressively with the objective of

expanding the use of quality seeds.

DAC, in consultation with ICAR and States, will prepare a National Seed Map to identify
potential, alternative and non-traditional areas for seed production of specific crops.

To put in place an effective seed production programme, each State will undertake
advance planning and prepare a perspective plan for seed production and distribution over a
rolling (five to six year) period. Seed Banks will be set up in nontraditional areas to meet

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demands for seeds during natural calamities.

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The 'Seed Village Scheme' will be promoted to facilitate production and timely availability of
seed of desired crops/varieties at the local level. Special emphasis will
be given to seed multiplication for building adequate stocks of certified/quality seeds by
providing foundation seed to farmers.

For popularizing newly developed varieties and promoting seed production of these
varieties, seed minikits of pioneering seed varieties will be supplied to farmers. Seed
exchange among farmers and seed producers will be encouraged to popularize new/non-
traditional varieties.

Seeds of newly developed varieties must be made available to farmers with minimum time
gap. Seed producing agencies will be encouraged to tie up with Research Institutions for
popularization and commercialization of these varieties.

As hybrids have the potential to improve plant vigour and increase yield, support for
production of hybrid seed will be provided.

Seed production will be extended to agro -climatic zones which are outside the traditional seed
growing areas, in order to avoid un-remunerative seed farming in
unsuitable areas.

Seed Banks will be established for stocking specified quantities of seed of required
crops/varieties for ensuring timely and adequate supply of seeds to farmers during
adverse situations such as natural calamities, shortfalls in production, etc. Seed Banks will be
suitably strengthened with cold storage and pest control facilities.

The storage of seed at the village level will be encouraged to facilitate immediate availability
of seeds in the event of natural calamities and unforeseen situations. For the storage of seeds
at farm level, scientific storage structures will be popularized and techniques of scientific
storage of seeds will be promoted among farmers as an extension practice.

Seed growers will be encouraged to avail of Seed Crop Insurance to cover risk factors
involved in production of seeds. The Seed Crop Insurance Scheme will be reviewed so as to
provide effective risk cover to seed producers and will be extended to all traditional and non-
traditional areas covered under the seed production programme.

Recommended System of Breeder Seed Indent and Supply:

1. Every State shall provide the agro-climatic zone-wise, district-wise and variety-wise
quantity of certified/quality seeds sold and area covered in the previous Kharif/Rabi
season

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 Principles of Seed
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along with SRR, productivity data to ICAR, DAC and SAUs by 1st December for Kharif
crops and 1st May for Rabi crops.

2. ICAR shall prepare and circulate a list of State/area/agro-climatic zone-specific

recommended varieties/hybrids of seeds particularly the newly released varieties/hybrids
for cultivation along with relevant data regarding their yield potential, duration etc. to every
State on or before 1st January for Kharif crops and 1st June for Rabi Crops
with copy to Seed Division, DAC.

3. SAUs shall do a similar exercise in respect of State varieties.

4. Each State in consultation with ICAR Institutes, SAUs and Seed producing Agencies shall
formulate seed plan (for Breeder, Foundation and Certified Seed) for the cropping seasons on
the basis of an assessment of existing and new varieties in terms of actual or potential yield
in each district/agro-climatic zone.

5. State Governments shall submit the seed plan and the Breeder Seeds indent to DAC, ICAR,
SAUs. The Breeder Seed Indent shall be submitted to the SAUs directly for State varieties
and submitted to Seeds Division DAC/ICAR for national varieties by 15th January for
Kharif crops and 15th June for Rabi crops.

6. Private seed companies will also place the breeder seed indent by 15th January for
Kharif crops and 15th June for Rabi crops through National Seeds Association
of India (NSAI) to Seeds Division, DAC.

7. DAC shall compile all the Breeder Seed Indents of States and private seed companies
and furnish them to ICAR/ concerned PDs/PCs for production of the breeder seeds.
8. The breeder seed will be allotted to all States and private seed companies for lifting
from institutes of ICAR, SAUs to produce foundation and certified seed.

9. The Lifting of Breeder Seed is to be monitored every 15 days jointly by DAC and ICAR.

10. To popularise new varieties and to induce confidence among the farmers apart from
Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs), each ICAR centre, SAU and KVK shall adopt 1-2 villages
in a block in an agroclimatic zone of the State for demonstration in participatory mode in
the farmers fields to demonstrate the productivity/potential of the new variety with an
appropriate mix of inputs and practices. State Government extension staff willfully
participates in the finalisation plan of FLDs-list of farmers training etc.

11. In case of hybrids of important food crops such as paddy hybrids the State Agriculture
Universities shall take the responsibility in large scale production of Pure high quality
parental

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lines (A Lines, R Lines) (Breeder and foundation seed). It would be ensured that NSC, SFCI,
State Seeds Corporations will procure the foundation seeds on priority.

12. SAUs shall provide foundation seed to all State Seed Corporations, State Seed Farms, NSC,
SFCI and Private Seed Companies for taking up large scale hybrid seed production and make
it available to farmers at affordable prices. SAUs may also take up large-scale hybrid seed
production in their Farms.

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Lecture 04:

DETERIORATION OF CROP VARIETIES – CAUSES AND MAINTENANCE

Deterioration of Genetic Purity

The genetic purity of a variety or trueness to its type deteriorates due to several factors during
the production cycles. Kadam (1942) listed the following important factors responsible for
deterioration of varieties.

 Developmental variations
 Mechanical mixtures
 Mutations
 Natural crossing
 Minor genetic variations
 Selected influence of pest and diseases
 The techniques of the plant breeder

1. Developmental Variations
When seed crops are grown under environments with differing soil fertility, climate,
photoperiods, or at different elevations for several consecutive generation's developmental
variations may set in as differential growth responses.
It is therefore, preferred to grow the varieties of crops in the areas of their natural adaptation
to minimize developmental shifts.

2. Mechanical Mixtures
Mechanical mixtures, the most important reason for varietal deterioration, often take
place at the time of sowing if more than one variety is sown with the same seed drill, through
volunteer plants of the same crop in the seed field, or through different varieties grown in
adjacent fields. Two varieties growing next to each other field is usually mixed during
harvesting and threshing operations. The threshing equipment is often contaminated with
seeds of other varieties. Similarly, the gunny bags, seed bins and elevators are also often
contaminate, adding to the mechanical mixtures of varieties.
Rouging the seed fields critically and using utmost care during seed production and
processing are necessary to avoid such mechanical contamination.

3. Mutations
Mutations do not seriously deteriorate varieties. It is often difficult to identify or detect

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minor mutations occurring naturally. Mutants such as, 'fatuoids' in oats or 'rabbit ear' in peas
may be removed by rouging from seed plots to purify the seeds.

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4. Natural Crossing
Natural crossing can be an important source of varietal deterioration in sexually propagated
crops. The extent of contamination depends upon the magnitude of natural cross-
fertilization. The deterioration sets in due to natural crossing with undesirable types,
diseased plants or off types. In self-fertilized crops, natural crossing is not a serious source of
contamination unless variety is male sterile and is grown in close proximity with other
varieties. The natural crossing, however, can be major source of contamination due to natural
crossing are the breeding system of the species, isolation distance, varietal mass and
pollinating agent. The direction of prevailing winds, the numbers of insects present and their
activity and mass of varieties are also important considerations in contamination by natural
crossing.
The isolation of seed crops is the most important factor in avoiding contamination of the cross-
fertilized crops.

5. Minor Genetic Variations

Minor genetic variations can occur even in varieties appearing phenotypically uniform
and homogenous when released. The variations may lost during later production cycles
owing to selective elimination by the nature. The yield trials of lines propagated from
plants of breeder's seed to maintain the purity of self-pollinated crop varieties can overcome
these minor variations. Due care during the maintenance of nucleus and breeder's seed of
cross- fertilized varieties of crop is necessary.

6. Selected Influence of Pest and Diseases

New crop varieties often are susceptible to newer races of pests and diseases caused
by obligate parasites and thus selectively influence deterioration. The vegetatively
propagated stock also can deteriorate quickly if infected by virus, fungi or bacteria. Seed
production under strict disease free conditions is therefore essential.

7. The Techniques of the Plant Breeder:

Serious instabilities may occur in varieties owing to cytogenetic irregularities in the
form of improper assessments in the release of new varieties. Premature release of varieties,
still segregating for resistance and susceptibility to diseases or other factors can cause
significant deterioration of varieties. This failure can be attributed to the variety testing
programme.
In addition to these factors, other heritable variations due to recombination's and
polyploidisation may also take place in varieties during seed production, which can be
avoided by periodical selection during maintenance of the seed stock.

Maintenance of Genetic Purity during seed Production

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The various steps suggested, to maintain varietal purity, are as follows.

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 Use of approved seed only in seed multiplication.
 Inspection and approval of fields prior to planting.
 Field inspection and approval of growing crops at critical stages for verification of
genetic purity, detection of mixtures, weeds, and for freedom from noxious weeds and
seed borne diseases etc.
 Sampling and sealing of cleaned lots
 Growing of samples of potentially approved stocks for comparison with authentic
stocks.

The various steps suggested for maintaining genetic purity are as follows:

a. Providing adequate isolation to prevent contamination by natural crossing

or mechanical mixtures
b. Rouging of seed fields prior to the stage at which they could contaminate the seed crop.
c. Periodic testing of varieties for genetic purity.
d. Avoiding genetic shifts by growing crops in areas in their adaptation only.
e. Certification of seed crops to maintain genetic purity and quality of seed.
f. Adopting the generation system.
g. Grow out tests.

Genetic Purity Maintenance in Hybrid Seeds

Maintenance of the genetic purity of hybrid seeds is a complicated one requiring elaborate
procedures.

Nucleus Seed of Inbred Lines

 The nucleus seed of inbred lines can be maintained by self pollination, sib-pollination,
or a combination of the two procedures (hand pollination).
 Some breeders prefer 'sibbing" because it maintains vigour. "Selfing" is used to stabilize
inbred lines if a change in breeding behavior is noticed.
 Some parental material is preferably maintained by alternate selfing and sibbing from
one generation to other.
 Individually selfed or sibbed ears should be examined critically, discarding off types or
inferior characteristics (texture, colour, seed size, chaff color and shape of earhead).
 The uniform ears are then threshed separately and planted in ear to row method to
easily detect and discard off types from individual ears if any.
 Alternatively all of the ears from an individual inbred line may be composited for bulk
planting in the next season.
 The hand pollination seed is sown on clean, fertile soil having no previous crop of the
same kind or variety during the previous year (bearing maize).

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 Principles of Seed
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 It is rather important to ensure that the crop is well isolated, with the requirement
varying from crop to crop and depending upon the nature of the material to be
protected by isolation, the nature of the contaminant, and the direction of the prevailing
wind.
 The isolation can be achieved either by distance or by time (maize). The inbred line may
be composited for bulk planting in the next season.
 Maintenance of genetic purity in inbred lines through hand pollination and adequate
isolation alone is not enough to achieve perfection.
 The isolated fields must be critically rogued for off types and other impure types prior
to the shedding of pollen.
 The nucleus seed crop is harvested after physiological maturity if artificial drying
facilities exist.
 Ear to harvest lines are harvested separately and piled; These are again critically
examined for ear characteristics, sorting out of all off-coloured, diseased, or otherwise
undesirable ears.
 If the overall percentage of off types exceeds 0.1%, hand pollination should be repeated
to produce the second year's breeders seed.
 The uniform ears are bulked, dried in a clean dry bin at temperatures not exceeding 430C,
shelled, cleaned, treated with pesticides, and stored under ideal storage conditions as
breeder stock seed. This seed may be increased during the following season by paying
adequate attention to isolation, roguing, etc., to maintain high genetic purity of the seed.

Nucleus Seed of Non-Inbred Lines

 To maintain in the genetic purity of the nucleus seed of non-inbred lines, the number of
plants for hand pollination should be large enough to preserve genetic make up of the
variety, narrowing the genetic base by sibbing only a few plants (about 5000 plants or
more).
 The sibbed ears are examined critically, discarding of colour, texture, or diseased ones.
 Uniform ears are bulked, dried, shelled, cleaned, treated and stored as usual.

o Other practices of seeding sibbed nucleus seeds are similar to those described
earlier for inbred lines.
o Roguing however, needs to be observed more critically by individuals with good
knowledge of the material.
o The breeder's stock seed thus produced from the nucleus seed can be utilized to
increase the breeder's stock of non-inbred lines, paying adequate attention to

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land requirements, isolation, roguing, harvesting and handling of seed to achieve
maximum genetic purity.
o The breeder's seed of the established varieties of cross-pollinated crops can be
maintained by raising breeder's seed crop in isolation and roguing the crop
thoroughly at various stages.
o It is often purified by mass selection.
o The crop is grown in isolation and rogued carefully as described earlier.
o At maturity about 20,000 - 25000 true to type plants are selected, harvested
separately, and bulked after careful examination.
o This constitutes the breeder's stock seed. The seed may be carried over to ensure
against possible failures or unforeseen shortages

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Lecture 05:
SEED QUALITY

Seed is a basic input in agriculture. Strictly speaking seed is an embryo, a living organism
embedded in the supporting or the food storage tissue. In seed, the importance is given to the
biological existence whereas; in grain the importance is given to the supporting tissue the
economic produce.

Seed is defined as

 A ripened ovule or a fertilized matured ovule containing embryo which has developed
after fertilisation.
 The dry dispersal unit or matured ovule developed after fertilization
 Any part (or) organ of plant which has the capability to regenerate into a new plant
 A propagule responsible for maintaining the intrinsic (or) genetic qualities of the variety
/ hybrid.
 An „embryo‟, a living organism embeded in the supporting (or) the food storage tissue
and a protective coat.
 Any propagative material.
 Miniature plant.
 Dormant plant
 Link between two generations
 Carrier of service material.
 Generative part of a plant that develop into a new plant.

However, the widely accepted definition for a seed is matured ovule that consisting of an
embryonic plant together with a store of food, all surrounded by a protective coat.

As per Seed Act (1966) seed includes

 Seed of food crops including edible oil seeds and seeds of fruits & vegetables.
 Cotton seeds
 Seeds of cattle fodder
 Jute seeds
 Seedlings, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, all types of grafts and other
vegetative propagated material for food crops (or) cattle fodder.

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Differences between seed and grain

GRAIN
SEED

It should be a viable one Need not be a viable one

It should have maximum genetic & physical purity Not so
Should satisfy minimum seed certification standards No such requirements
It should be completely treated with pesticide It should never be treated with any
/fungicide to protect seed against storage pests chemicals, since used for
and fungi consumption
Respiration rate and other physiological and No such specifications
biological processes should be kept at low
level
during storage
Should be compulsorily certified / truthful labelled No such condition in grain production
Should never be converted into grain unless Can be converted as seed provided the
warranted situation warrants
It should satisfy all the quality norms Not considered

Importance of seedSeed is the vital input in crop production because through seed only the
investment made on other inputs like pesticide, fertilizer, irrigation and crop maintenance
can be realized. The seed required for raising the crop is quite small and its cost is also less
compare to other inputs, but the greater income farmer gets depends upon the quality of the
small quantity of seed he uses. In addition to above seed is the basic for the following event of
agriculture.

A carrier of new technologies

o In India for instance, the cultivation of high yielding varieties have helped to
increase food production from 52 million tonnes to more than 200 million tones
over a period of 50 years.

A basic tool for secured food supply

o The successful implementation of the High Yielding Varieties Programme

(HYVP) in India has led to a remarkable increase in production and to a
new assessment of future development potential. As a result, food imports
from other countries have been substantially brought down inspite of the
rapid population increase.

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 Principles of Seed
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The principal means to secure crop yields in less favorable production areas

o The supply of good quality seeds of improved varieties suitable to these areas
is one of the few important immediate contribution to secure higher crop
yields.

A medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural disaster

o Widespread floods and droughts in various parts of the country and elsewhere
have focused attention on these recurrent crises and the accompanying threats of
famine and starvation. The establishment of National Seed Reserve Stocks
should receive high priority for meeting such natural calamities.
 This would provide improved seeds in emergency periods to production areas for rapid
production of food grains.
 This would supply seeds to disaster regions for resowing, as no seed would normally
be available in such regions.

SEED QUALITY
Seed quality is the possession of seed with required genetic and physical purity that is
accompanied with physiological soundness and health status.
The major seed quality characters are summarized as below.

1. Physical Quality:
It is the cleanliness of seed from other seeds, debris, inert matter, diseased seed and insect
damaged seed. The seed with physical quality should have uniform size, weight, and colour
and should be free from stones, debris, and dust, leafs, twigs, stems, flowers, fruit well
without other crop seeds and inert material. It also should be devoid of shriveled, diseased
mottled, molded, discolored, damaged and empty seeds. The seed should be easily identifiable
as a species of specific category of specific species. Lack of this quality character will
indirectly influence the field establishment and planting value of seed.
This quality character could be obtained with seed lots by proper cleaning and grading of seed
(processing) after collection and before sowing / storage.

2. Genetic purity:
It is the true to type nature of the seed. i.e., the seedling / plant / tree from the seed should
resemble its mother in all aspects. This quality character is important for achieving the desired
goal of raising the crop either yield or for resistance or for desired quality factors.

3. Physiological Quality:

It is the actual expression of seed in further generation / multiplication. Physiological quality

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 Principles of Seed
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characters of seed comprises of seed germination and seed vigour.

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 Principles of Seed
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The liveliness of a seed is known as viability. The extent of liveliness for production of good
seedling or the ability of seed for production of seedling with normal root and shoot under
favorable condition is known as germinability. Seed vigour is the energy or stamina of the
seed in producing elite seedling. It is the sum total of all seed attributes that enables its
regeneration of under any given conditions. Seed vigour determines the level of performance
of seed or seed lot during germination and seedling emergence.

Seed which perform well at sowing are termed as quality seed and based on the degree of
performance in production of elite seedling it is classified as high, medium and low vigour
seed. The difference in seed vigour is the differential manifestation of the deteriorative
process occurring in the seed before the ultimate loss of ability to germinate. Difference in
seed vigour will be expressed in rate of emergence, uniformity of emergence and loss of seed
germination.

Hence it is understood that all viable seeds need not be germinable but all germinable seed
will be viable. Similarly all vigourous seeds will be germinable but all germinable seed need
not be vigourous. Physiological quality of seed could be achieved through proper selection of
seed (matured seed) used for sowing and by caring for quality characters during extraction,
drying and storage.

Seed with good vigour is preferable for raising a good plantation as the fruits, the economic
come out are to be realized after several years. Hence selection of seed based on seed vigour
is important for raising perfect finalize plantation.

4. Seed Health
Health status of seed is nothing but the absence of insect infestation and fungal infection, in
or on the seed. Seed should not be infected with fungi or infested with insect pests as these
will reduce the physiological quality of the seed and also the physical quality of the seed in
long term storage. The health status of seed also includes the deterioration status of seed
which also expressed through low vigour status of seed. The health status of seed influences
the seed quality characters directly and warrants their soundness in seed for the production
of elite seedlings at nursery / field.
Hence the quality seed should have

 High genetic purity

 High pure seed percentage ( physical purity)
 High germinability
 High vigour
 Higher field establishment
 Free from pest and disease

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 Principles of Seed
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 Good shape, size, colour etc., according to the specification of variety
 High longevity / shelf life.
 Optimum moisture content for storage
 High market value

Characteristics of good quality

seed

 Higher genetically purity:

Breeder /Nucleus - 100%

Foundation seed - 99.5%
Certified seed - 99.0%

 Higher physical purity for certification

Maize , Bhendi 99%

All crops ( most) 98%
Carrot 95%
Sesame, soybean &jute 97 %
Ground nut 96 %

 Possession of good shape, size, colour, etc., according to specifications of variety

 Higher physical soundness and weight
 Higher germination ( 90 to 35 % depending on the crop)
 Higher physiological vigour and stamina
 Higher storage capacity
 Free from other crop seeds ( Expressed in number /kg)

Crop Designated inseparable other crop seeds

Barley Wheat ,oats & gram
Oats Wheat ,gram & barley
Wheat Oats, gram & barley

Other crop seeds are the plants of cultivated crops found in the seed field and whose seed are
so similar to crop seed that is difficult to separate them economically by mechanical means.
Cause physical admixture with the crop seed only when these crop mature approximately at
the same time when seed crop matures.

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 Principles of Seed
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 It should be free from objectionable weed seeds

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These are plants of weed species which are harmful in one or more of the following ways.

 The size and shape of their seeds are so similar to that of the crop seed that is
difficult to remove their seed economically by mechanical means.
 Their growth habit is detrimental to the growing seed crop due to competing effect.
 Their plant parts are poisonous or injurious to human and animal beings
 They serve as alternate hosts for crop pests and diseases.

Objectionable Weeds of Seed Crop Plants

Crop Objectionable weeds

Berseem Chicory(Chicorum intybus)
Cucurbits Wild Cucurbita sp.
Kasuri methi Melilous sp.
Lettuce Wild lettuce(Lactuca sativa)
Bhendi Wild Abelmoschus sp
Rape &Mustard Argemone mexicona
Wheat Convolvulus arvensis (Hiran kuri)
Paddy Wild paddy (Oryza sativa var. Fatua)

 It should be free from designated diseases

It refers to the diseases specified for the certification of seeds and for which certification
standards are to be met with. These diseases would cause contamination, when they are
present in the seed field or with in the specified isolation distance ( eg. loose smut of wheat).
For this the the certification distance has been prescribed as 180 meters.

Crop Designated disease Causal organism

Wheat Loose smut Ustilago tritici

Sorghum Grain smut Kernel smut Sphacelotheca sorghii
Mustard Alternaria blight Alternaria sp
Pearl millet Grain smut Tolyposporium
Green ear penicillariae
Ergot Sclerospora
graminicola
Claviceps microcephala
Sesame Leaf spot Alternaria sp
Brinjal Little leaf Datura virus 2
Chilies Anthracnose leaf blight Gloesporium piperatum
Leaf blight Alternaria solani

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Cucurbits Mosaic Cucumis virus
Cowpea Anthracnose Colletotricum sp
Bhendi Yellow vein mosaic Hibiscus virus 1
Potato Brown rot Pseudomonas
Root knot nematode solanacearum
Meloidogyne incognita
Tomato Early blight Alternaria solani
Leaf spot Xanthomonas vesicatoria

 It should have optimum moisture content for storage

Long term storage -6-8

% Short term storage - 10-
13%

 It should have high market value

Role of good quality seed

Therefore at most care must be given upon the use of quality seed and thus certification
guarantees quality and ensures high and assured yield under environmental stress
conditions. This emphasizes the need for increasing the area under quality seed production.
So one has to take efforts to produce quality seed and boost the yield by seed to seed seedling
concept.
Significance of quality seed

 Ensures genetic and physical purity of the crops

 Gives desired plant population
 Capacity to withstand the adverse conditions
 Seedlings produced will be more vigourous, fast growing and can resist pest
and disease incidence to certain extent
 Ensures uniform growth and maturity
 Development of root system will be more efficient that aids absorption of
nutrients efficiently and result in higher yield.
 It will respond well to added fertilizer and other inputs.
 Good quality seeds of improved varieties ensures higher yield atleast 10 – 12 %

SEED AND ITS MULTIPLICATION

Seed multiplication ratio

It is the ratio of seed yield per seed generation i.e. many seeds are produced from a single
seed.

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Seed renewal period

Seeds undergo genetic deterioration on continuous usage for reproduction, due to the

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developmental variation, mechanical mixture mutation, natural crossing, minor genetic
variation, selective influence of pest and disease and techniques of plant breeder. Hence some
seed should be used for multiplication continuously. Hence selectively multiplied seed should
be used after certain generation, i.e. seed should be renewed after certain generations
adopting generation systems.

Seed replacement rate

Seed replacement rate is the quantity of quality seed that have replaced the actual seed
requirement of the location that are normally produced by the farmer using their own seed.
SRR = x / y x 100
Where x = Quantity of actual quality seed sown / used in an area /
location
Y = Quantity of quality seed (certified) required for the entire production area / location

This replacement rate can give an idea on how much certified (quality) seed is being
used. The seed replacement rate in India is around 15 – 20% which may vary with crop
varieties. However it will be 100% for hybrid seeds. This SRR give an idea on how much
certified seed is being used as a base seed for production of crops by farmers which will
indirectly stresses or expose the requirement of quality seed for further production.

Generation system
In seed production as per Seed Act and Rules seeds are multiplied in definite system
which is known as generation system of seed production. It involves three stages of
multiplication known as Breeder seed, Foundation seed and certified seed. This generation
system can be altered depending on pollination behaviour and demand if warranted.

Multiplication ratios and seed multiplication stages

S.No Seed crop Multiplication Seed renewal Seed multiplication

ratio period (times) stages
BS FS CS
1. Paddy 152 4 1 1 2
2. Wheat 49 4 1 1 2
3. Barley 26 4 1 1 2
4. Maize hybrid 248 1 1 1 1
5. Maize variety 115 3 1 1 1
6. Jowar hybrid 179 1 1 1 1
7. Jowar variety 94 3 1 1 1
8. Bajra hybrid 380 1 1 1 1

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9. Bajra variety 175 3 1 1 1
10. Ragi 420 4 1 1 2
11. Gram & Peas 24 3 1 1 2
12. Pigeon peas 150 3 1 1 1
13. Other pulses 125 3 1 1 1
14. Groundnut 18 5 1 2 2
15. Brassicas 200 3 1 1 1
16. Sesamum 200 3 1 1 1
17. Linseed 42 4 1 1 2
18. Other oil crops (73-100) 3 1 1 1
19. Cotton 46 3 1 1 1
20. Jute 120 3 1 1 1
21. Fodder 75 3 1 1 1

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Lecture 06: CLASSES OF SEED

The four generally recognized classes of seeds are: Breeder's seed, Foundation seed,
Registered seed and Certified seed. The Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies
(AOSCA) has defined these seed classes as follows:

Breeder seed
The seed or vegetatively propagated material directly controlled by the originating or the
sponsoring breeder or institution which is the basic seed for recurring increase of foundation
seed.

Foundation seed
It is the progeny of breeder seed. The seed stock handled to maintain specific identity and
genetic purity, which may be designated or distributed and produced under careful
supervision of an agricultural experiment station. This seed is the source of all other certified
seed classes either directly or through registered seed.

Registered seed
The progeny of the foundation seed so handled as to maintain its genetic identity and purity
and approved and certified by a certifying agency. It should be of quality suitable to produce
certified seed.

Certified seed
It is the progeny of the foundation seed. Its production is so handled to maintain genetical
identity and physical purity according to standards specified for the crop being certified. It
should have the minimum genetical purity of 99%. Certified seed may be the progeny of
certified seed , provided this reproduction does not exceed two generations beyond
foundation seed and provided that if certification agency determines the genetic and physical
purity, if not be significantly altered. In case of highly self pollinated crops certification of
one further generation may be permitted. Certified seed produced from certified seed shall be
eligible for further seed increase under certification, except in case of highly self-pollinated
crops, where certification of one further generation may be permitted. Certification tags
issued once for certified seed not eligible for further seed increase under certification.

 For paddy and wheat , certified seed produced from certified seed is eligible for
certification by NSC up to two generations from foundation seed

Foundation seed - Certified seed (I) - Certified seed (II)

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 For barley, garden pea ,ground nut, soyabean, certified seed produced from certified
seed is eligible for certification up to 3 generations from foundation seed

Foundation seed - Certified seed (I) - Certified seed (II) - Certified seed (III)

Certification of certified seed produced from certified seed is not permitted for crops other
than those listed above.
Differences between certified seed and truthful labelled seed

Certified seed Truthful labeled seed

Certification is voluntary Truthful labeling is compulsory for notified
kind of varieties
Applicable to notified kinds only Applicable to both notified and
released varieties
It should satisfy both minimum field and seed Tested for physical purity and germination
standards
Seed certification officer ,seed inspectors can Seed inspectors alone can take samples for
take samples for inspection checking the seed quality.

GENERATION SYSTEM OF SEED MULTIPLICATION

Generation system of seed multiplication

Generation system of seed multiplication is nothing but the production of a particular class of
seed from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage. The choice of a proper seed
multiplication model is the key to further success of a seed programme. This basically
depends upon

 The rate of genetic deterioration

 Seed multiplication ratio and
 Total seed demand

Based on these factors different seed multiplication models may be derived for each crop and
the seed multiplication agency should decide how quickly the farmers can be supplied with
the seed of newly released varieties, after the nucleus seed stock has been handed over to the
concerned agency, so that it may replace the old varieties. In view of the basic factors, the
chain of seed multiplication models could be.,

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 Three - Generation model

Breeder seed - Foundation seed - Certified seed

b. Four - Generation model
Breeder seed - Foundation seed (I) Foundation seed (II) - Certified seed
c. Five - Generation model
Breeder seed - Foundation seed (I)- Foundation seed (II) -Certified seed (I) - Certified seed
(II) For most of the often cross pollinated and cross pollinated crops 3 & 4 generation models
is usually suggested for seed multiplication. Ex: Castor, Redgram, Jute, Greengram, Rape,
Mustard, Sesame, Sunflower and most of the vegetable crops.

GENERATION SYSTEM OF SEED MULTIPLICATION AND QUALITY CONTROL

(NOTIFIED VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS)

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Nucleus and Breeders seed production
The initial handful of seeds obtained from selected individual plants of a particular
variety, for the purposes purifying and maintaining that variety by the originating plant
breeder and its further multiplication under his own supervision, or the supervision of a
qualified plant breeder, to provide Breeder‟s Seed constitutes the basis for all further seed
production. The varietal purity of subsequently multiplied foundation, registered and certified
seed largely depend upon the quality of the nucleus/breeder‟s seed. Unless the nucleus/
breeder‟s seed is of highest purity and quality the seed multiplied from it cannot be regarded
as of satisfactory genetic purity. Unsatisfactory genetic purity, especially in cross pollinated
crops, could ultimately severely affect the performance of a variety. It is therefore, of utmost
importance that the nucleus/breeder‟s seed is produced in such a manner that satisfactory
genetic purity, identity and the other good qualities of seed are maintained.
Methods of maintenance of nucleus and breeder’s seed in self fertilized crops
Methods of maintaining nucleus seed/breeder‟s can be conveniently divided into the
following two groups:

1. Maintenance of newly released varieties

2. Maintenance of established varieties

Maintenance of Nucleus Seed of Pre-released or Newly Released Varieties

The procedure outlined by Harrington (1952) for the maintenance of nucleus seed of pre-
released or newly released varieties is described below:

a. Sampling of the variety to obtain nucleus seed. New numbers, lines or selection which
are highly promising, on the basis of performance in breeding nurseries and yield
trials, should be sampled for seed purification. These samples provide a beginning for
purifying new varieties and for possible increase and distribution to farmers. Not
more than fifteen new varieties in any one crop at a station should be sampled in one
year.
b. Table examination of samples: The two hundred plants of each sample should be
threshed separately and the seed should be examined in piles on the table. Discard
any pile appearing obviously off type, diseased or otherwise unacceptable. The seeds
of each two hundred plant samples or less is now ready to be sown in a variety
purification nursery called as nucleus.
c. Locating and seeding of nucleus: Each nucleus seed should be grown on clean fertile
land at an experiment station in the region or in area in which this new variety could
be grown, in the event of its release. The land must not have had a crop of the same
kind in the previous year.
d. Inspection of nucleus two-row plots and removal of off types: Throughout the season

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of growth, from the seedling stage until maturity, the nucleus plot should be examined
critically. Differences in the habit of early plant growth, leaf colour, rate of growth,
time

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of heading, height head characteristics and diseases reactions should be looked for. If
a plot differs distinctly from the average in the preheading stages of growth, it should
be removed before heading.
e. Harvesting and threshing of nucleus; each remaining plot, of which there should be at
least 180 out of the original 200. Should be harvested individually with a sickle and
tied in a bundle. The total bundles of each nucleus should be labelled and stored until
the current years yield rests for trials are obtained. The nucleus bundles of any new
variety should be discarded, if it is found unworthy of being continued.

Later the seed should be cleaned in a fanning mill or by hand methods, the grain from
each nucleus plot being placed in a pile on the seed table. The 180 or more piles of seed of
one nucleus must be examined for approximate uniformity of seed appearance, and any pile,
which appears to be off type discarded. All the remaining piles of the seed should be masked
together in one lot. This should treated with fungicide and insecticide, bagged, labelled and
stored as "Breeder‟s Stock Seed" for use in the next year. Breeder‟s stock seed is the original
purified seed stock of a new variety in the hands of the plant breeders.
Maintenance of Breeder’s Seed of Pre-released or Newly Released Varieties
The following steps are involved in the maintenance of breeder‟s seed.

a. Breeder‟s stock seed from the nucleus should be sown on the clean, fertile land,
which did not grow a crop of the same kind in the previous year. The space required for
the seeding the breeder‟s stock is about 1.2 ha in the case of wheat and as much as 3
ha in the case of transplanted rice.
b. The field should properly isolated.
c. The best farm procedures should be used in the sowing, raising and harvesting of
breeder‟s stock.
d. It should be produced at the experiment station in the area in which the new variety has
been bred.
e. The seeding should be done in such a way as to make the best use of the limited
amount of seed available and to facilitate roguing. The row spacing should be sufficient
to permit examination of plants in rows for possible mixture or off types.
f. Roguing: All plants not typical of the variety should be pulled and removed. There
should be very few plants to rogue out if the previous years nucleus breeder‟s stock
seed was well protected from natural crossing and careful roguing was done and there
were no impurities during cleaning etc. The rouging should be done before flowering,
as was done for the nucleus/breeder‟s stock seed.
g. Harvesting the breeder‟s stock: In the breeder‟s stock is harvested and threshed, the
equipment used must be scrupulously clean and free from seeds of any other varieties.
This cleanliness should be extended to cards and bags as well as threshing machine it
self. The seed should now be about 99.9 per cent pure as to variety. These breeder‟s

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seed

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is ready now for increase of foundation seed. A portion of this breeder‟s seed should be
retained by the breeders to sown a continuation breeders seed of the variety.

Maintenance of breeder’s seed of established varieties

The breeder‟s seed of established varieties could be maintained satisfactorily by any one of the
following methods

a) By raising the crop in isolation: The breeder‟s seed of local varieties could be maintained
by growing them in isolated plots and by very rigorous roguing during various stages of crop
growth, where the various plant characters are observable. The method of handling the
breeder seed crop is the same as described earlier for breeder‟s seed of newly released
varieties.

b) By bulk selection: The genetic purity of established varieties could be satisfactorily

improved by bulk selection. In this method 2,000 to 2,500 plants typical of the variety are
selected, harvested ,and threshed separately. The seeds from each plant are examined and any
pile which shows any obvious off-types, or otherwise appears dissimilar, are discarded. The
remaining piles of seed are bulked to constitute the breeder‟s seed. The other practices of
handling remains the same.

Carry-over Seed
The breeder must carry-over at least enough seed to safeguard against, the loss of variety if
there is a complete failure during the foundation seed multiplication phase. In addition, the
breeder should further safeguard variety by arranging to have a portion of the seed originally
released stored under the ideal conditions.

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Lecture 07:
SEED PRODUCTION IN MAIZE

Maize is common millet of India with wider industrial and household utility. It is used a feed,
food and raw material in soft drink industry. Botanically it is known as Zea mays and
belongs to the family poaceae.

Floral biology
Botanical name : Zea
mays Chromosome number
: 2n=20
Botanical Family : Poaceae
Inflorescence : Panicle cob, as the crop is monoceious in nature
Type of flowers : Female : Cob (axillary inflorescence in the middle portion of
plants)

Male : Tassel (terminal inflorescence)

Husk : Enlarged leaf sheaths from each node, forming a

protective covering around the inflorescence.
Pollination : Cross pollination
Special character : Protandry
Flowering pattern : Top to bottom (Tassel) Bottom to top (Cob)
Anthesis : Pollen shedding begins 1 to 3 days before the silk emerge
from the cob.
Fertilization : Within 12 to 18 hrs after silk emergence

The entire silk is receptive. Silk will be pinkish and sticky at

the beginning (receptive) after fertilization it will be
chocolate/ brown colour.
No. of pollen in tassel : 2,50,00,000
Pollen viability : 12-18h
Silk receptive : 8-10 days
Male flower anthesis : 6.00 am to 8.00 a.m
Duration of flowering : 2-14 days

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Tassel Cob Husk Silk

Seed

Types and Methods of seed production in maize

In maize, open pollinated varieties, synthetics, composites and hybrids are available.

1. Open pollinated varieties

Raise the varieties under isolation of 400 m in foundation seed stage and 200 m in certified
seed stage and allow the plants to openly pollinate among themselves and set seed.

1. Synthetics

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In cross pollinated species, a variety obtained by in mating in all possible combinations, a
number of lines (>5) that combine well with each other. COBC 1 (Baby corn).

1. Composite varieties

These are produced by open pollination among a number of outstanding strains usually
not selected for combining ability with each other e.g. K1, Jawahar, Vikram, Sona, Amber,
CO 1 and Kisan.
d. Inbreds
It is relatively true breeding strain resulting from repeated selfing (5 times.)

Varietal seed production technique

Open pollination under isolation is the common method of varietal seed production.

Stages of seed multiplication

In maize seed (varieties composites and synthetics) is multiplied adopting three generation
system, as breeder seed, foundation seed and certified seed as the crop is highly cross
pollinated crop , where the chances for genetic contamination is high.

Popular varieties
In Tamil Nadu, CO1, K1, COH3, COH4, are the popular varieties for grain purpose, while
African tall is a fodder maize.COBC1 is a variety identified for salad purpose.

Season
The best season for production is June - July, November- December and
January – February and the flowering should not coincide either with rain or high RH and the
maturation should coincide with dry weather. The temperature of 37°C is favourable for better
seed setting.

Land requirement
The land required for open pollinated variety, composites and synthetics should be fertile
and problem soils will lead to low pollen fertility and will adversely affect the quality and the
seed set will be poor. The previous crop should not be the same crop to avoid the occurrence
of volunteer plants and if to be the same crop it has to be the same variety and should be
certified and has to be accepted for certification. The field should not have any volunteer
plants.
Isolation distance and Modification of isolation distance

1. Composite, Synthetics and OPV = (FS:CS 400 : 200 m)

Differential blooming dates are permitted for modifying isolation distance provided 5.0%

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or more of the plants in the seed parent do not have receptive silks when more than 0.50%
of

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plants in the adjacent field (s) within the isolation distance are shedding pollen.
Distances less than 200 meters may be modified by planting border rows of male parent, if
the kernel colour and the texture of the contaminant are the same as that of seed parent. The
number of border rows shall be determined by the size of the field and isolation distance
from the contaminant.

Selection of Seed
For production of foundation seed, breeder seed is used as the base material, while
for certified seed, foundation seed should be used as the base material. The seed used
should be from authenticated source with tag and bill. The required seed rate will be 20kg
/ha or 8kg/ acre.

Pre sowing seed treatment

The seeds are given with any one of the seed treatment or in combination. Seeds are soaked
in 2% KH2PO4 for 16h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06 and are dried back to their
original moisture content of 8-9% .This management could be used both for dryland
agriculture as well as gardenland.

Seeds are also treated with 5% carbofuran 3G to protect the seed from shoofly infection. Seed
treatment with chlorpyriphos @4 ml /kg is also recommended against the attack by shootfly.
Seeds are dry dressed with bavistin @2g/kg of seed to protect against seed borne pathogens
and soil borne pathogen.

Seeds are also treated with azospirillum @50g/kg of seed to fix atmospheric N. Any one of
these treatment or combination of treatment is adopted for better productivity.
Seeds are also treated with polycoat @ 3g/kg of seed diluted in 5ml of water to invigourate
the seed towards better marketability and production. Pink coloured polycoat performed
better than other colour polymers. On adoption of sequence of treatment physiological
should be followed with physical seed treatment.

Sowing
The seed are sown at a spacing of 45 x 10 cm or 60 x 20 cm at a depth of 2-4 cm based on the
specific features of the variety. Nursery production will not be suited to this crop. In the main
field seeds are sown either in ridges and furrows or under beds and channels. The seedlings
are thinned and gap filled should be done 7-8 days after sowing.

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Plant spacing Row spacing

Seed rate

Varieties : 20 kg /ha

Nutrient application
At last ploughing apply 12.5 tonnes of compost per hectare

Fertilizers(varieties) 150:75:75

 Basal 40:75:40 NPK kg/ha

 1st top 20 DAS 50:0 :0 kg/ha
 2nd top 40 DAS 60:0:35 kg/ha.

Micronutrients
2% DAP is sprayed at 50% flowering stage to enhance uniform flowering and increased seed
set
If Zn deficiency is found apply 20 kg of zinc sulphate / ha.
If Fe deficiency is found apply 12.5 kg /ha micronutrient mixture

 The crop is mostly affected by micronutrient deficiencies by N,P,Mg,Mn,Zn,Fe and K.

Apply 12.5kg of micro nutrients in furrows and the mixture in the soil.

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Weeding
Application of atrazine @ 500g per ha as pre-emergence herbicide control the growth of weeds
upto 20-25 days.(If pulses is used as intercrop do not use atrazine) One hand weeding at 17-18
days after sowing keep the field free of weeds.Weeding after boot leaf stage is not economical
and shade will also minimize the weed flora . On organic production, 2 hand weeding at
seedling stage and other at boot leaf formation will keep the field weed free.
Irrigation
The crop should be irrigated once in 10-15days for enhanced seed set and formation of
bolder grains. The critical stages of irrigation are primordial initiation stage, vegetative
stage , flowering, milky and maturation stage. If the irrigation is withheld in these stages seed
set will be poor and seed size will be reduced.

Pest and disease management

Shoot fly Monocrotophos 0.03%

Stem borer Rogar 0.3% / Carbaryl 50 WP 1kg.per heactre on 20th day
Lesion Carbofuran 3 G@30kg./ha.in seed holes at the time
nematodes of sowing.
Downy Mancozeb @ 1kg/ha.
mildew
Leaf spot Mancozeb or captan @ 1kg/ha
Cob borer Apply carbaryl 10% dust @ 25kg/ha. At milky stage repeat it 15 days thereafter.
(50 lts. Spray fluid per ha)
Roguing

It is specific to seed crop and is done from seedling stage to harvesting stage based on the
phenotypic characters. Off types can be identified through stem colour,plant structure,
number of leaves ,auricles, nodal colour, tassel colour,sheath colour ,grain colour etc. The
field standard for seed crop is as follows

Seed Certification
Number of Inspections
A minimum of two inspections shall be made at flowering and another during
flowering.

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Field Standards
General: Maize field should be isolated from contaminants as follows

Minimum distance(meters)
Contaminants Foundation stage Certified stage
Fields of other varieties 400 200
Fields of same variety not confirming to varietal 400 200
purity requirements for certification and teosinte
In maize hybrid alone increasing the border row and minimising the isolation is
permitted
Specific standard: These are verified at the final inspection

Maximum permitted (%)

Factor FS CS
Off types plants that have shed are or shedding pollen at 1.0 1.0
anyone of the inspections during flowering when 5%or more
of the plants in the seed field have receptive silks .

Preharvest sanitation spray

Spraying of endosulphan @ 0.07% and bavistin@10g /lit 10 days prior to harvest prevent the
seed weevil ( Sitophilus oryzae) infestation at storage.

Seed maturation
• 14-20 DAA milky stages (starch in fluid stage)
• 35 DAA : Soft dough stage
• 45 DAA : Glazad dough stage
• 55 DAA : Ripe dough stage

Symptom of Physiological maturation

 Cob sheath turn straw yellow colour

 The funicular degeneration
 Formation of dunken layer
 Moisture content of seed 35%

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Matured cob Dunken layer

Harvesting

The crop attains physiological maturity 30-35 days after 50% flowering and the seed moisture
at this stage will be around 25-30%. The crop is harvested as cob harvesting when the sheath
of cob dries and attains straw yellow color. The crop is harvested as once over harvest for
seed purpose.

Dehusking
After harvest manually the sheath are removed, which is known as dehusking.

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Cob sorting
Based on the kernel arrangements on the shank as irregular discoloured, diseased and ill
filling the Cobs are sorted out and cobs with characteristic kernel colour and shank colour
and regular row arrangements are selected for seed purpose. The kernel discolouration
should not 10% for certification.

Zenia and metazenia

The discolouration in cobs may be due to disease infection or genetic contamination. The
effect of foreign pollen on kernel colour is known as Zenia, metazenia effect which causes
genetic contamination in the seed lot. Zenia is the effect of foreign pollen of same generation
and metazenia is the effect of foreign pollen in next generation.

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Shelling
The cobs are dried under sun and threshed with fliable stick for extraction of seeds the
moisture content of seed at the time of threshing will be 15-18%.On large scale production
cob shellers are used, but care should be given to avoid mechanical damage, which in turn
will reduce the seed quality and storability.

Drying
The seeds are dried to 8 to10 % moisture content either under sun or adopting mechanical
driers for long term storage as the seeds is orthodox in nature.

Processing
Mechanical grading can be done with cleaner cum grader, which will remove the undersized
immature and chaffy seeds .The middle screen size should be 18/64” round perforated
sieves. The size can vary depending on the variety from 14/64 to 20/64 inch round
perforated sieves.

Seed treatment
The seeds are infested with several storage pests, to protect against these pests the seeds are
given protective treatment with bavistin @2g/kg of seed with carbaryl @200mg/kg of seed as
slurry treatment. Bifenthrin @5mg /kg of seed or diflubenzuran @ 200 ppm per kg of seed or
imidachlopride @ 3 ml per kg of seed is also recommended for better seeds storage .

Seed packing
Seeds are packed in gunny bag for short term storage while in HDPE and polylined gunny bag
for long term storage.

Storage
The treated seed can be stored up to 12 months provided the seeds are not infected with
storage pests. Seed can be stored up to 3 years if the seeds are packed in moisture containers
and are stored at low temperature .The godown should be kept clean as the possibility of
secondary infestation with Trifolium (red flour weevil ) is much in these crop. The major
problem in storage is incidence of grain weevil which will powder the seed material in a short
period.

Seed yield: 3 to 4.0 tones

Seed standard
The processed seed should have the following seed quality characters both for certification and
labeling.

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A. Seed ears inspected after harvest shall not contains in excess of 1.0% of offtype ears
including the ears with off-coloured kernels.

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B. Shelling
Shelling of the seed ears is to be done after obtaining approval from the Certification Agency

Factor Standards for each class

FOUNDATION CERTIFIED
Pure seed ( maximum) 98.0% 98.0%
Inertmatter(maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seed (maximum) 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seed None None
Other distinguishable varieties based on kernel colour 10/kg (by 20/kg (by
and texture (max) number) number)
Germination ( Minimum) 90% 90%
Moisture (maximum) 12.0% 12.0%
For vapour proof container (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%

Mid storage correction

The seeds lose their quality during storage due to deterioration and pest infestation,
when the germination falls below 5-10 % of the required standard the seeds are imposed with
mid storage correction, where the seeds are soaked in double the volume of 10-4 M solution of
potassium di-hydrogen phosphate (3.6mg/lit of water) for 6 hours and the seeds are dried
back to original moisture content (8-9%).

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Lecture 08:
HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN MAIZE

Crossing technique : Manual emasculation by detasseling

Detasseling : Removal of male inflorescence from the monoecious crop

Time for detasseling : The time taken for shedding of pollen from the tassel in 1-2
days after emergence. Hence the tassel should be removed before the
shedding of pollen.

Detasseling
Detasseling is the removal of tassel from female parent. Detasseling is done when the tassel
emerged out of the boot leaf, but before anthesis have shed pollen. Anthers take 2-4 days to
dehisce after complete emergence. Only in few cases, the anthers start dehisce before its
complete emergence. In such case detasseling should be done earlier. Detasseling is done
every day from the emergence of tassel upto 14 days.

Method

 Hold the stem below the boot leaf in left hand and the base of the basal in right
hand and pull it out in a single pull.
 Grasp entire tassel so that all the pollen parts are fully removed.
 Do not break or remove leaves as removal will reduce yields and will result in
lower quality of seed.

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Precautions to be adopted during detasseling

 No part should be left on the plant as it causes contamination.

 It should be uniform process done daily in the morning in a particular direction.
 Donot break the top leaves as the field may be reduced due to the earning of source
material to accumulate in sink [seed ] as removal of 1 leaf course 1.5% loss 2 leaves 5.9%
loss and 3 leaves 14% loss in yield.
 Detassel only after the entire tassel has come out and immature detasseling may lead
to reduced yield and contamination.
 Mark the male rows with marker to avoid mistake in detasseling
 Look out for shedders [shedding tassel] in female rows as the may cause contamination.
 After pulling out the tassel drop it there itself and bury in soil. Otherwise late
emerging pollen from detasseled tassel may cause contamination.
 Do not carry the tassel through the field as any fall of pollen may lead to contamination.
 Donot practice, improper, immature and incomplete detasseling.
 Improper detasseling: A portion of the tassel is remaining in the plant while
detasseling.
 Immature detasseling: Carrying out detasseling work when the tassel is within the
leaves.
 Incomplete detasseling: The tassel is remaining in lower or unseen or unaccounted in
within the whole of leaves.
 There should not be any shedding tassel.
 Shedding tassel: Either full or part of tassel remain in female line after detasseling
and shedding pollen which may contaminate the genetic purity of the crop.

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System of Hybrid seed production

 Detasseling ( Manual creation of male sterility )

Types of hybrids
Single cross hybrid
It is a cross between 2 inbreds. A x B. A genotype will be detasseled and crossed with B
genotypes.

 COH 1- UMI 29 x UMI 51

 COH 2- UMI 810 x UMI 90
 CoH(M) 5-UMI 285 X UMI 61

Double cross

 It is a cross between two single crosses.

 It is a cross between 2 hybrids (A x B) x (C x D) (A x B) single cross hybrid will be
produced by detasseling A and by crossing with B (C x D) hybrid will be produced by
detasseling C and crossing with D.
 Then (A x B) will be detasseled and crossed with (C x D) hybrid.

Example
Ganga 2 : (CM 109 x CM 110) x (CM 202 x CM 111)
Ganga 101 : (CM 103 x CM 104) x (CM 201 x CM
206) COH3 : ( UMI 101 x UMI 130 ) x (UMI 90 x UMI
285 )

Three way cross

 It is a cross between a single cross and an inbred.

 It is first generation resulting from the crossing of on approved inbred line and
a certified open pollinated variety A x variety)
 A will be detasseled and allowed for crossing in the variety.

Example Ganga -5 (CM 202 x CM 111) x CM 500.

COH (M) 4 : (UMI 90 x UMI 285) x UMI 112

Double top crosses : The first generation resulting from the controlled crossing of a
certified single cross and a certified open pollinated variety. : (A x B)
x variety : (Ax B) will be detasseled and crossed with a variety

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Seed production technology

Season - November- December, Mid July, Jan. Feb and Sep. Oct

Isolation distance

Foundation seed (m) Certified seed (m)

1. Inbreds 400 -
2. Single cross hybrid 400 -

Field standards for isolation (modification based on situation) For

(foundation single crosses and hybrid of certified class)

Foundation Certified
stage stage
 Same kernal color 400 200

 Different kernal colour 600 300

 Field of single cross / inbreds not confirming to 400 200

varietal purity

 Single cross with same male parent confirming to 5 5

varietal purity

 Single cross with other male parent not confirming to 400 200
varietal purity

 Differential blooming dates are permitted for modifying isolation distance provided
5.0% or more of the plants in the seed parent do not have receptive silk when more
than 0.20% of the plants in the adjacent field within the prescribed isolation distance
are having shedding pollen.
 In hybrid seed production (certified seed stage) alone the isolation distance (less than
200 meter) can be modified by increasing the border rows of male parent, if the kernal
colour and texture of the contaminant are the same as that of the seed parent.

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The number of border rows to be planted all around the seed field to modify isolation
distance less than 200 m shell also be determined by the size of the field and its distance from
the contaminant as shown below.

Isolation distance (m) Border rows

Area in ha.
< 4 ha 200 1
< 4 ha 150 5
< 4 ha 100 9
< 4 ha 50 13
10-12 ha 180 1
10-12 ha 130 5
10-12 ha 80 9
10-12 ha 30 13
> 16 ha 165 1
> 16 ha 115 5
> 16 ha 65 9
> 16 ha 15 13

Seed production stages and production of parental lines / hybrids

Stage of seed Single Double cross Three way cross Double top cross Top
cross cross
Breeder seed A, B A, B, C, D A, B, C A, B, variety A, variety
Foundation seed A, B (AxB) (CxD) (AxB), C (AxB) variety A, variety
Certified seed AXB (AxB) x (CxD) (AxB) x variety (AxB) x variety Ax variety

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Spacing

Seeds are sown in ridges and furrows

Hybrids : 60x 25 cm
Seed rate : Female : 7 -10 kg ha-1
Male : 3 -4 kg ha-1
Spacing : Female : 60 x 20 to 75 x 30 depending on the area.
Male :45 x 30 cm

Planting ratio:

Single cross : 4:2

Double cross : 6:2
3 way cross : 6:2
Border rows : a. Inbreds & single cross - 4 rows
b. Others - 3 rows

Fertilizer
NPK kg / ha : 200 : 100 :
100 Basal : 100 : 100 : 50
1st Top : 50 : 0 : 0 (20th days -vegetative phase)
2nd Top : 50 : 0 : 50 (Boot leaf stage at 45 days)
Foliar : DAP 2% at 50% flowering
In Zn deficient soil : ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha-1

Roguing
Should be done periodically based on position of cob, colour of silk, arrangements of seeds in
cob, leaves etc. Shedding tassels are to be removed in roguing . It refers to the tassels in female
parents rows, shedding pollen or that has shed pollen in hybrid maize plots. During field
inspection a tassel whose main spike or any side branch or both have shed pollen or shedding
pollen in more than 5 cm of branch length is counted as a shedding tassel during inspection
the shedding tassels are taken into count for acceptance or rejection of production plot.

Field standard (%)

FS CS
Off types 0.2 0.5
Shedding tassel 0.5 1.0 (when receptive silk is 5% or more)
Inseparable other crop : Nil (both stage)
Objectionable weed : Nil (both stage)
Designated diseases : Nil (both stage)

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Field standards –specific

Specific factors Certified stage

Off types shedding pollen when 5 % or more of seed parent in receptive 0 .50 %
silk
Seed parent shedding pollen when 5 % of the seed parent is having 1.0 %
receptive silk
Total of pollen shedding tassel including tassel that had shed pollen for 2 .0 %
all
3 inspections conducted during flowering on different dates
Off types in seed parent at final inspection 0 .5 %

Number of inspection : Four

(Seed certification officers) : One : Before flowering

: Three : During flowering

Harvest

 Harvest when the moisture content falls to 20-25%

 Harvest male first and remove from the field and then harvest female

Threshing
a. Dehusking - The husks are removed manually.
b. Cob sorting - Remove ill filled, diseased cobs and cobs having
kernel colour variation.
Zenia
The direct/visible effects of pollen on endosperm and related tissues in the formation of a
seed colour. e.g. seed colour. In maize, the gene present in sperm cell contributes in the
expression of colour of hybrid seeds.

Matazenia
Is the effect of pollen on the maternal tissues of fruit.

Shelling
Cob sorting should be the first operation it is a post harvest, evaluation for genetic purity. The
sheath is removed and check for kernel colour, shank colour, diseased cobs, kernel
arrangement. The cobs are shelled either mechanically or manually at 15-18% moisture
content. Improper shelling leads to48% damage to kenel Growth of storage fungal Pericarp
damage. Crack on pericarp can be identified by FeCl3 or Tz test. Shelling is done mechanically

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using cob sheller and manually by rubbing with stones.

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Drying
Seeds are dried to 12% moisture content.

Grading
Grade the seeds using 18/64" (7.28 mm) sieve.

Seed treatment
Slurry treat the seeds with 8% moisture content either with captan or thiram 75% W.P. @ 70
g/100 kg with 0.5 litre of water. Treated seeds can be stored for 1 year in cloth bag.

Others: As in varietal seed production

Seed yield : 2.5 - 3.6 t/ha

Seed standard inbred, varieties and

hybrids Hybrids

Parameters Inbreds FS CS
1. Physical purity (%) (min) 98 98 98

2. Inert matter (%) (max) 2 2 2

3. Other crop seed (max) 5 /kg 5 kg-1 10 kg-1
4. ODV seeds (max) 5/kg 5 kg-1 10 kg-1
5 Germination % (min) 80 80 90
6. Moisture content (%) (max)
a. Moisture pervious 12 12 12
b. Moisture vapour proof 8 8 8

Production of Synthetic cultivars

Breeding of cereal and other agronomic crops has contributed significantly to the growth of
agribusiness worldwide. In normally self fertilized crops, new variability may be created
by hybridisation, followed by the selection of desired cultivars in which desirable
characteristics from two or more parents are combined. The type of hybrid cultivar obtained
will depend upon the genetic background of the chosen parents as well on the method of
selection used. A similar situation arises when new variability is artificially induced through

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mutations.

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In pure-line theory of classic plant breeding, a pure line is defined as all the descendants of
single homozygous individual by continued self-fertilization, resulting in a homogeneous
cultivar. Hybridization, however, results in significant heterogenity. The multiplication of
such heterogenous progeny in bulk to select homozygous individuals would be gigantic task.
Most modern hybrid cultivars are, therefore, selected at an early stage (F2) as subsequent
lines and probably released at the F8 and F12 generations. These are obviously not as
homogeneous as a pure line.

Cultivars can also be selected by producing multilines. Whereas normal line selection seeks to
produce a new cultivar on the basis of one line or a few lines that are very similar, multiline
cultivars are essentially different from each other in their characteristics, such as resistance to
pests and diseases or environmental stresses. Thus, by incorporating different sources of
resistance, the newly synthesized cultivar is buffered against changes brought about by
virulent pathognes. These cultivars are however, not very stable compared to those produced
by the conventional methods of selection. A change in the prevalence of a virulent pathogen
may eliminate certain lines from the cultivar. It is, therefore, necessary to return the cultivar to
the plant breeder for its reconstitution. This may be advantageous, because it enables plant
breeders to substitute new sources of resistance in the material.

Alternatively, the plant breeder can create a composite cross by bulking the F2 generations of
several crosses. The composite is allowed to develop for several generations during which
natural selection may occur. If the composite is grown at more than one location, a locally
adapted cultivar may be developed in time. The composite constitutes a gene pool from which
the plant breeder can select a cultivar with desirable characteristics for further multiplication.

An alternative to the composite is the synthetic or artificial method of plant

breeding in which a number of lines are put together by the plant breeder in predetermined
proportions. A synthetic line generally has a limited life, because the proportions of the
constituent lines are likely to change over number of generations. The plant breeder must plan
for seed production of limited generation basis. This system can be extended by using
mixtures of cultivars claimed to be advantageous in some species over a single cultivar,
especially if different resistant genes are present in each cultivar. This method adds to the cost
of mixing, which can be reduced by growing a seed crop for one or two generations after
mixing before using it for crop production.

A hybrid cultivar results from a controlled cross between a male and female parent, the seed
being harvested from female parent only and used for crop production.
In self fertilized crop species, it is easy to produce hybrid cultivars if male sterile lines are
available that can be used as female parents. There are certain substsnces that act as a
gametocides, destroying the pollen of desired female parent, or as inhibitors that prevent

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pollen produced by the female parent from effecting fertilization. The advantage of the
synthetic hybrid cultivar lies in heterosis. Special expensive measures are required to
produce seed that is harvested from the female parent only. The resultant heterosis therefore
must have a profitable effect to compensate for the cost of production of synthetic hybrid
cultivars in the self pollinating crop species.

In the cross pollinated crop species, plant breeders look for parent plants that have good
combining ability. These plants, when allowed to multiply together, produce a desirable
combination of characteristics. Cross fertilization results in greater heterozygosity in these
plants than in the self fertilized plants and therefore less homogeneity. Each generation of an
open pollinated cultivar is thus a mixture of hybrids. The open pollinated cultivars are
generally grown for a limited number of generations and returned to the plant breeder‟s
maintenance material after each cycle of seed production to produce commercial quantities
of seeds.
Putting together a large number of parent plants and allowing random pollination to occur
can create composites. A composite in a cross fertilized species is generally the product of the
first generation of such random pollination.

Production of synthetic cultivars begins with a limited number of specific parents, which are
permitted to interpollinate. The number of generations of multiplication is strictly limited so
as to recreate the synthetic/artificial cultivar at the end of each multiplication cycle. As with
the self fertilized species, synthetic hybrid cultivars of cross fertilized species are created by
controlling pollination to ensure that seed is produced from a desired crossing. This can be
achieved by the following methods.

1) By emasculating the female parent, as is done in monoecious plants like maize, by

removing the male flowers before the release of pollens.

2) By using male sterility in the female line, so as to avoid the physical removal of male
flowers.

3) By using self incompatibility. In this system, the seed crop is harvested as a whole, since all
plants are contributing and receiving pollen. The self incompatibility, however, is not always
complete, and there may be production of some inbred plants. With the excessive production
of such plants, the advantage of heterosis in the subsequent crop is diminished.
The advantage of the synthetic hybrid cultivar in cross pollinated species is not restricted
only to heterosis. Most hybrids are based upon inbred lines. Normally, cross fertilized plants
require inbreeding for several generations to reduce heterozygosity and to include desirable
genes in synthetic cultivars. A controlled cross between two such inbreds produces heterosis

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and desirable combination of genes in the form of a synthetic cultivar.
The major disadvantage of the production of synthetic cultivars is the higher cost of plant
breeding and seed production, requiring considerable time consuming work to produce
desirable inbreds, which alone can be used to synthesize new artificial hybrids. The final seed
crop is not fully productive when male sterility or emasculation is used, because only the
female parent is harvested for seed.

Therefore various other hybrids have been produced. The hybrid resulting from the cross of
two inbred lines is a single cross, whereas the F1 resulting from the cross of two single cross
hybrids as parents is known as a double cross. In a three way cross, an inbred is mated with
an f1 hybrid. A top cross is the F1 resulting from a cross between an inbred or a single cross
and an open pollinated cultivar. All of the forms of hybrid cultivars require a particular cycle
of seed production to produce the seed used in crop production.

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Lecture 09:
SEED PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES IN PADDY VARIETIES

Phrenology:

Botanical Name : Oryza sativa

Chromosome number [2n] 24

Family : Poaceae
Inflorescence : Panicle
Pollination : Self-Pollination
Panicle Emergence : 4 –5 days after boot leaf emergence
Flower Opening Pattern : Tip of primary & secondary branches and proceeds
downward
Duration of Flowering : 6-8 days
Time of Anthesis : 7.00 –10.00 A.M
Speciality with flowering : Flower remain open for 10 minutes and afterwards it closes.
Anther dehiscence : Either before or after flower opening [independent of spikelet
opening
Temperature favorable for : 24 -280C
flowering
Favourable RH for : 70-80%
flowering :
Difference between day : 8-100C
and Night temperature
Stigma receptivity : 3 days
Pollen viability : 10 minutes

Varietal seed production

Stages of seed production
In paddy depending on the demand 3 or 4 or 5 stages of seed multiplications are permitted
under seed certification programme as follows.

 Breeder seed - foundation seed - certified seed

 Breeder seed - foundation seed stage 1- foundation seed stage 2 –certified seed
 Breeder seed - foundation seed stage 1- foundation seed stage 2 -certified seed 1-
certified seed 2

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Land requirement
The land should be free of volunteer plants (crop of previous season occur in this season) and
the same crop or the other varieties of the same crop should not have been grown for the
previous season, if it is the same crop it (previous) should be the same variety that has been
certified. This selection is highly important for maintenance of genetic purity. They should
have adequate irrigation and drainage facilities and the problem soils are not suitable for seed
production.

Isolation
The crop should have 3meters of isolation at all sides of the seed production plot for
maintenance of genetic purity.

Selection of seed
Seed should be from an authenticated source (SAU, NSC, State Department).For
production of certified seed, foundation seed (FS) should be used as source seed which
should be purchased with bill and tag (white for FS seed)

Seasons practiced at Tamil Nadu

In Tamil Nadu the availability of water in cannals, depends on the monsoon. Based on this in
different districts, different sowing seasons are adapted as follows:

Month of sowing Seasons Duration of varieties

December - January Navarai Below 120 days
April – May Sornavari Below 120 days
April – May Early kar Below 120 days
May – June Kar Below 120 days
June – July Kuruvai Below 120 days
July - August Early samba 130 -135 days
August Samba 130-135 & above 150 days
September – October Late samba / thaladi / pishanam 130 - 135 days
November – October Late thaladi 115 -120 days
November - October Late pishanam 130 -135 days

Selection of season
Season should be selected based on duration of the variety and the water availability.

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VARIETIES SEASON DURATION POPULAR VARIETIES
Shout duration November- December Below 120 days TKM9 ,CO 36,
varieties (Karthikai –Margazhi) ADT 36
Medium duration November 130-135 days Bhavani ,CO43,
varieties (Iyyppasi- Karthikai)
Long duration August More than 135 White Ponni,
varieties (Adi-Avani) days
Upland rice July –August ---on All durations but MDU1,PKM1
receipt variety specific Co 43,IR 20
of showers .TKM9 and
IR 50 should be sown
Before 15th of July (direct
seeding)
Rainfed rice June-July and September Specific to ADT 38 ADT39
– location (Medium Duration
October Varieties)

Seed Rate
It varies with varieties and type of cultivation.

Variety / type of cultivation Seed rate

LOW LAND CULTIVATION (transplanting)
Short duration varieties 60 kg /ha
Medium duration varieties 40kg /ha
Long duration varieties 30kg/ha
For low land cultivation by broadcasting 80-100 kg/ha
For rainfed rice 75-100 kg/ha

Seed Management Technique

Dormancy
Paddy exhibits dormancy which varies for duration of 0-30/45days depending on the variety.
This could be broken by either soaking in KNO3 0.5 % for 16 hr or soaking in 0.1N HNO3 for
16 hrs. However the duration and concentration vary with varieties (e.g.) ADT36 exhibit 20-30
days of dormancy period from days to physiological maturity period which could be broken
by soaking the seeds in 0.5%KNO3 for 16 hrs. Practically the intervening duration between the
harvesting, and threshing, and further drying will remove the dormancy.

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Seed Upgradation Technique (Egg Floatation Technique)
Either before processing or after storage or due to improper processing Paddy seed
may have less vigorous seed such as immature, ill filled and insect damaged seed which may
adversely affect the planting value of the seed. Removal of this seed will favour better
establishment and higher production potential. These seed may be removed by adaptation
of a simple water floatation technique based on specific gravity using salt water as a
dissecting solution for separation of good quality seed from low quality seed, and egg is
used as an indicator for specification of specific gravity measurement of 1.03 (120g of salt in
1000ml of water)

Methodology
A bucket of potable water has to be taken and in that water o fresh egg which sinks to the
bottom has to be taken. To the potable water with egg outside slowly the common salt was
added to a level at which the egg floats at top exposing 2.5 cm of its shell outside (check the
egg floatation now and then on addition of salt to the solution). The egg is removed and the
paddy seed are dropped into the solution which separates as sinker and floater .the sinkers
are good seeds while the floaters are less vigorous and dead seeds. The floaters are removed
and used as feed and sinkers are used for further multiplication.

Caution

 Egg is only for measurement of specific gravity and has no work to do with separation.
 If the density of water is more, more portion of egg will float if less egg will be
inside the solution.
 If the density of water is more loss of quality seed may occur ,lesser density
the separation will not be perfect

Sprouting of seeds (pre germination)

Paddy seeds are sown at nursery in pre germinated condition for better establishment for
supply of oxygen at waterlogged condition. Seeds are soaked in big tough for 24 h in gunny
bags tied loosely for easy transmission of water and for ensuring soaking of each and every
seed. Seeds are then tied tightly and incubated in dark for 12h (overnight). White protrusion
of radices by the seed exposed to outside expresses the pre germination of seeds and these
seeds are sown in nursery by broadcasting.

Hardening and other seed management techniques

 In case of implementation of fortification treatment, seed could be soaked in

equal volume of water to ensure that none of the solution is left unimbibied by
the seed

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 For dry land and upland paddy, seed hardening with KCl (1%) and pelleting
with Azospirillum (600g /ha) could be adopted (e.g.) MDU 1,
Paramagudi1.
 Seed colour variation occurs due to bacterial infection at later stages of maturation.
Seed coloring with polycoat @3g kg-1of seed could improve the initial quality and
marketability of such discolored seed.
 Polymer coating of Seed also will help to identify the brand name of seed and
to identify the varietal variation among the cultivars by even the illiterate
labours.

Nursery Management
For raising one hectare of paddy, 20 cent (800m2) nursery is needed. The area should be
prepared by floating the area one or two days before ploughing and allowed the water to
soak in. The soil should be kept at shallow sub emergence. Before ploughing the water
should be allowed to a depth of 2.5cm .Then the land is ploughed and brought to a puddling
condition. The optimum size of the nursery bed will be 2.5 meters broad and with channels
of 30cm width in between. In paddy, on raising more varieties in a same place separate
irrigation channels are to be prepared for each variety to avoid the admixture of seeds and
to maintain the genetic purity.

Nutrient Management
Before the last puddling apply 40kg of DAP and if not readily available apply straight
fertilizers@16 kg of urea and 120kg of super phosphate.
Basal application is required (DAP) if the seedlings are to be pulled out at 20 to 25 days
after sowing. If the seedling are to be pulled out after 25 days application of DAP is done 10
days prior to pulling out of the seedling.
Basal application of phosphorus to the nursery enables the seedling to store phosphorus and
utilize it even in later stages of growth and application of DAP to the nursery is highly
economical.

Sowing
A thin film of water should be maintained
in the nursery, and the sprouted seeds of
paddy should be sown uniformly on the seed
bed.

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Water Management

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o Drain the water 18 to 24 hours after sowing and if there are pockets where water
is stagnating, drain it into the channel as germination will be affected in the
places where the water is being stagnated
o Allow the water to saturate the soil from the third to fifth day
o From the fifth day onwards increase the quantity of water to a depth of 1.5
cm depending on the height of the seedling
o Afterwards, maintain the water level to a depth of 2.5 cm

Weed Management
Apply any one of the pre emergence herbicides viz. butachlor 2l per
ha,thiobencarb@2l/ ha, pendimithalin @ 2.5l/ha on 8th day after sowing to control weeds in
the low land nursery. Keep a thin film of water and allow it to disappear. Avoid drainage of
water. This will control germinating weeds.

Pest Management (NURSERY)

INSECTS CONTROL MEASURES

/DISEASES
Army worm Spray Cholophyriphos 20EC 80ml or
endosulphan 35 EC80ml during the evening
Thrips Phosphamidon85 WSC 25 ml(or)Monocrotophos 36
WSC 40ml (or) Endopsulfan 35 EC 80 Ml
Green leaf hopper As above or maintain 2.5 cm of water in the nursery and broadcastanyone
of the following
Carbofuran3g3.5kg or Phorate 10G1.0kg or Quinalphos 5g 2.0kg
Case worm Mix kerosene in standing water and remove the cases and destroy and
spray
Monocrotophos 36 WSC 40ml (or) Quinalphos 25 EC 80 ml
White tip nematode Sun drying of seeds for two days at 6h interval
Rice root nematode Carbofuran3g at 3.5kg / 20cents
Diseases
Blast Spray with insecticide Copper oxy chloride100g or
Mancozeb 80 g
Brown spot Carbendazim 40 g
Tungro disease Aplly carbofuran 3g at the rate of 3.5 kg ten days after
sowing or spray two rounds of Monocrotophos 36
WSC
40ml or Phosphamidon 85 WSC 25 ml
Age of transplanting
The age of transplanting vary with varieties as follows

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DURATION OF VARIETIES AGE OF TRANSPLANTING
Short duration varieties 18-22days
Medium duration varieties 25-30days
Long duration varieties 35-40days

Pulling out of seedling

o Pull out the seedling at appropriate time

o Do not remove the adhering soil with a hard surface
o Tie the seedling in convenient size for easy handling
o Do not allow the seedling to dry

Main field preparation

 Puddle the soil well

 Apply 12.5tonnes of FYM or compost per ha
 Incorporate green manure into the field by in situ ploughing
 Dig the corners and prepare the bunds well with plastering for effective stagnation
of water
 Apply the phosphorus and potasic fertilizers at last ploughing for
effective availability of nutrients to plants
 Keep a thin film of water at the time of transplanting and raise the water level to
2.5 cm on the next day

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Fertilizer Requirement

CROP DURATION FERTILIZER REQUIRMENT ( Kg / ha )

Nitrogen ( N ) Phosphorus (P ) Potash ( K)
Short duration 120 38 38
Long and medium duration 150 50 50
Bio-fertilizer Azolla @ 1t/ha 3-5 days after weeding
Transplanting

 Dip the root in phosphamidon 0.02 % against rice root nematode 20 minutes prior to
planting
 Plant the seedling at optimum spacing and optimum depth
 Transplant the seedling at 4-5 leaf stage

Details on transplanting

Specifications Duration of cultivars

Short Medium Long
No. of seedling per hill 2-3 2 2
Depth of planting (cm) 3 3 3
Spacing ( cm) 20 x10 20 x15 20 x20
No. of hills/m2 50 33 25
Breeder Adopt double row planting with a spacing of 15 x 10 cm for easy
seed multiplication roughing
- Adjust the sowing in such a way that harvesting does not coincide with rain

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Weed Management
Pre emergence herbicide

Use butachlor 2.5l/ha or thiobencarb 2.5l/ha fluchloralin2l/ha or pendimethalin3l/ha as pre

emergence on third day and is to be followed by hand weeding on 30-35days. On the failure
of pre emergence application, hand weed at 15 days and spray 24Dsodium salt with a high
volume sprayer 3 weeks after transplanting when the weds are in3-4 leaf stage

Gap Filling
It is to be taken up between 7-10days after transplanting

Pest and disease management

Insects Control measures

Stem borer Fenthion100EC @ 500ml
Thrips Phosphamidon85 WSC @ 300ml
Brown plant MonocrotophosWSC @ 500ml
hopper Leaf folder Endosulfan 35EC @ 60ml
Stemborer (white ear 2 %) Quinalphos 25EC @ 1000ml
Mealy bug Phosphamidon85 WSC @ 300ml
Earhead bug Quinalphos 25EC @1000ml
Rice root nematode Carbofuran3g 16.25kgin standing water
Diseases
Blast Carbendazim @ 250g/ha
Brown plant hopper Mancozeb @ 1000g/ha
Sheath rot Carbendazim @ 250g/ha
Sheath blight Difolatan @ 200
Bacterial leaf blight Streptomycine Sulphate+Tetracycline@300g+Copper
Oxychloride @ 1250g/Ha
Grain discolouration Mancozeb@1000g/ha

Water Maintenance of Paddy

 5cm of water should be stand in the field. Normally once ion 2 days for loamy soils
and once in 3 days for clay soils.
 Excess water leads to yellowing of plant. So drain the water
 The critical stages of irrigation are primordial initiation, booting, heading and

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flowering

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Top Dressing
Apply 25% of N and k as basal and remaining 75 % in 3 split doses at active tillering, panicle
initiation, and at heading stage in equal proportion of 1:1.

Foliar Spray

 Spray FeSO4 0.5% to prevent yellowing of plants in calcarious soils.

 Spray DAP 2% to enhance seed set in paddy cultivars (BEST).
 Spray GA3 three times at panicle initiation stage for complete exertion of
panicle (hybrids).
 Spray panchakavya 1% for organic seed production to enhance seed set.
 Spray 0.5 % zinc sulphate thrice during crop growth on 20th 30th and 40th day of
planting for short duration varieties or 30th 40th and 50th day for medium and
long duration varieties in case of zinc deficient soils.

Rouging

 Is important to maintain for maintenance of genetic purity.

 Remove all off types (deviant of the variety) and rouges (variant of the variety).
 Remove when suspected is the thumb rule of roughing.
 Rouging should be done from the sowing up to harvest and remove the as and when
it come across.

Physiological maturity

 Seeds attain maturity with the visual symptom of turning of ear heads to golden
yellow color and when the ear heads exhibit drooping symptomsi.e 28 days after
50% flowering in short and 31 days in medium and 35 in long duration.
 When 80% of the plants are exhibiting the symptom the crop is ready for harvest
 The moisture content of the seed will be 18-20-%.

Pre-harvest Sanitation Spray

Ten days prior to harvesting spray endosulphan 30EC 70ml / ha against storage pests.
Spraying of 10 % prosopis leaf extract is recommended against grain discolouration.

Harvesting

 Lodged plants should not be selected for seed purpose.

 Withhold irrigation one week before harvest.
 Delayed harvest may lead to heavy shattering
 Bundled plants should be stacked as ear heads facing outside to avoid heat damage.

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 Threshed produce should be clean and free of admixture in cracks and crevices.
 Birds scaring are also practiced in places of requirement.

Threshing

 Thresh the seed by beating the plants on a hard surface ,but take care that the
seeds are not mechanically damaged.
 In tractor and machine threshing avoid mechanical damage by proper adjustment
of speed/machine setting.
 Thresh at proper moisture content to avoid crushing / cracking (16-17 per cent).
 Clean the floor, equipment, containers to avoid genetic and physical mixture.

Winnowing and Drying

Threshed produce are cleaned and winnowed to remove the dirt and other unwanted
physical material. Winnowing should be done in a cleaned surface. The seeds are dried in a
threshing floor with adequate stirring which is known as tempering. The seeds are dried to
13
% moisture for better storage .On drying in a threshing avoid drying between 12 noon to
2pm to avoid the ill effects of ultra violet rays of noon sun. Through not for bulk for
prolonged storage this practice should be adopted. Seeds are also can be dried in mechanical
driers in places of high humidity like areas of sea shore.

Grading
The bulk seeds are normally processed through seed cleaner cum grader and the seeds of
middle sieve are selected for seed purpose.

Size of seed Sieve size

Long slender (Ponni, whitePonni) = 1/16 x 3/4 " (1.3mm x 19 mm)
Slender - IR 50 = 1/15 x 3/4" "
Medium slender (IR 20, CO 43) = 1/14 x 3/4" (1.5 mm x 19 mm)
Short bold (ADT 36, 37,38,39,
TKM 9,Ponmani) = 1/13 x 3/4" (1.8 mm x 19 mm)

Seed Treatment
Normally paddy seeds are not treated with chemicals owing to their economic utility. But for
long term storage, treat it with captan or thiram or bavistin @ 2-4g / kg of seed, Halogen
mixture treatment (Chlorine based halogen mixture @3 g /kg of seed) is a eco-friendly
treatment. As a prophylactic measure seed can be fumigated with celphos @ 3-6g/m3. But
the moisture
content of the seed should not be above 10-12% which may interfere with the seed quality in
terms of germination.

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Seed Yield
The yield of crop varies from 3000 to 7000 kg /ha depending on genotypes, location, season
management practices and pest infestation.

Storage
Paddy is a good storer. Generally paddy seeds store well up to 12-36 months depending on the
genotypes but heavy infestation of storage pests reduce the storability of seed even to a month
or two. For prolonged storage HDPE and polylined gunny bags are used, while for normal
storage jute canvas bags are used. However the bags should not be stirred for more than 8
bags height to avoid pressure on seeds of lost bag which may cause damage to the seed.
Polythene bags of 700 gauge is not highly preferable for paddy as the sharp edge may pierce
the bag and convert moisture vapor proof container as moisture pervious container.

Mid storage Correction

Seeds from storage are given with mid storage correction when the seed standard
reduce to 5-10% lesser than recommended. The seeds are soaked in double the volume of
disodium phosphate solution (3.60g dissolved in 100l of water) for 16h and the seeds are dried
back to original moisture content (12-13 percent).

Seed Certification
Land Requirement
The previous crop should not be the same crop and if to be the same crop it has to be the
same variety and should be certified and has to be accepted for certification. The field should
not have any volunteer plants.

Number of Inspections

A minimum of two inspections is needed, one at the time of flowering and another at the time
of or before harvest.

Field Standards
General: Paddy field should be isolated from contaminants as follows

Minimum distance(meters)
Contaminants Foundation stage Certified stage
Fields of other varieties 3 3
Fields of same variety not confirming to 3 3
varietal purity requirements for certification
Specific standard: These are verified at the final inspection

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Maximum permitted (%)
Factor
Off types 0.050 0.20
Objectionable weed plants* 0.010 0.020
*Objectionable weeds are Wild rice (Oryza sativa L.var.fatua Prain

(Syn.O.sativa L.f. spontanea Rosch.)

Seed Standard

Standards for each class

Factor FOUNDATION CERTIFIED
Pure seed ( maximum) 98.0% 98.0%
Inert matter (maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Huskless seed (maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seed (maximum) 10/kg 10/kg
Other distinguishable varieties (maximum) 10/kg 10/kg
Total weed seed (maximum) 10/kg 10/kg
Objectionable weed seed (maximum ) 2/kg 2/kg
Seeds infected with paddy bunt 0.10% (By number) 0.50% (By
(Neovossia horrida (Tak.) ( maximum) number)
Germination ( Minimum) 80% 80%
Moisture (maximum) 13.0% 13.0%
For vapour proof containers (maximum) 8.0% 8.05%

Paddy Bunt

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Lecture 10:
HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN PADDY

Breeding technique for commercial

Hybrid seed production : Cytoplasmic geneic male sterility system

Stages of seed production for certification : Breeder seed – foundation seed certified

Seed Multiplication work at different Stages

Breeder Seed stage : A (AxB), B, R lines are raised separately under
isolation. Foundation Seed stage :A (AxB) and R lines raised separately under isolation.

Certified seed stage : A and R line are crossed under isolation to get hybrid.

Systems of hybrid seed production

 Three line method or CGMS system (popular)

 Two line method or environmental genetic male sterility (EGMS) system that involve
PGMS (photosensitive genetic male sterility) and TGMS (Thermosensitive male sterility
system was developed in China and low temperature hilly areas of Tamil Nadu

Popular hybrids
CORH1 : (IR 62829A x IR 10198- 66–
2R) CORH2 : IR 58025A x C 20R
CORH3 : TNAU CMS 2A X CB 87 R (110-115 days)
ADTRH1 : IR 58025A x IR 66R

Genes involved in EGMS

 One or two pairs of recessive nuclear genes (cytoplasm involved)

Advantages of EGMS system

 Maintainer lines are not involved

 Choice of parents are more.
 No negative effect on sterile cytoplasm

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Genes for fertility restoration in CGMS system : Rf1 and Rf2

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COMMERCIAL SEED PRODUCTION TECHNIQUE

Land requirement : similar to variety

Isolation
Space isolation : Foundation seed stage : 20 Certified seed stage : 100 m
Time isolation : 20 days either earlier or later for other varieties compared with MS
line. Barrier isolation : • 30m of wood lot / tall crops
• plastic sheets of 2m height
Season
Kharif (May- June sowing)
Rabi (December- January sowing)
Rabi is more suitable than kharif.

Favourable climatic conditions during flowering for higher seed set.

 Daily mean temperature 24 - 30oC

 Relative Humidity 70 - 80 %
 The difference between day and night temperature should be 8-10oC.
 Sufficient sunshine and moderate wind velocity of 2-3 m / second.
 Free from continuous rain for above 10 days during peak flowering season.

Seed set and seed yield will be affected if temperature is below 20oC and above 35oC during
the time of flowering. In Tamil Nadu, ideal time for sowing during kharif is 2nd fortnight of
May and during rabi 2nd fortnight of December.

 CORH 1 -. 110-115 days (May-June, Dec - Jan)

 CORH 2 - 120-125 days (Rabi)
 ADTRH 1 - 110-115 days (kharif)

Seeds
Seed selection: Purchase from authenticated source with tag and
Bill For Foundation stage - (A & B lines)
For Certified stage - (A & R lines)

Seed rate

Female : 20 kg /ha
Male : 10 kg /ha

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Nursery Management

 Keep irrigation channels separately for the parental line

 For Dec-Jan sowing take up staggered sowing for male twice or thrice with the interval
of 10-15 days (3,10,15daysfor effective seed setting)
 Keep the nursery area free of weeds.
 Apply DAP @ 2 kg / cent as basal to get vigorous seedlings.
 For April-May sowing sow the male 5 and 10 days after female line
 Even split application of fertilizer N is favourable for production of vigorous seedlings.

Main field Transplanting

Spacing
Between A line - (15 x 15cm) Between A and R line -
(20 x15cm)
Between R line - (30 x 15cm)

Age of transplanting
A line : 25 days
R line : 14,18,20 days

Fertilizer
Hybrids : 150:60:60
N & K applied in 3 splits
(1) during basal (2) active tillering (3) Panicle initiation.

Staggered sowing of parents for synchronization

As the seed set on CMS line depends on cross pollination it is most important to synchronize
the heading date of the male and female parents, especially for the hybrid combinations
having parents with quite different growth duration.
In addition, in order to extend the pollen supply time, the male parent is usually seeded twice
or thrice at an interval of 4-5 days.
The following 3 methods can be used to determine the differences in seedlings date for
synchronization between male and female parents.

 Growth Duration Difference (GDD) method

 Leaf Number Difference (LND ) method
 Effective Accumulated Temperature (EAT) method

Among these 3 methods though the LND method is more reliable one, the GDD method is
mostly followed since it is rather simple and easy to adopt. In GDD method by checking the

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previous data on the difference in duration from seedling to heading between male and
female parents, the proper seeding date of both parents in current season can be determined.
This method is suitable in seasons or regions where the temperature fluctuation is small.

Staggered seeding of R line for synchronization.

o Single seeding of R line

o Two seeding of R line
o 3 seeding of R line.

Row ratio: 8:2 or 10:2

Factors influencing row ratio

o Plant height of the pollinator

o Growth and vigour of the pollinator
o Size of the panicle and amount of residual pollen
o Duration and angle of floret opening in CMS lines

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o Stigma exertion of CMS line.

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Layout for transplanting
To facilitate out crossing, the rows of male and female in the seed production plot should be
perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction expected at flowering time of the parents.
Practically a row ratio of 8:2 (A x R) is currently adopted for hybrid seed production and the
transplanting sequence for 8:2 row ratio is as follows:

Transplanting of the 'R' line

Transplant the seedlings of ' R' line in paired rows of 30 cm apart.
In case of 2 staggered seedlings of R line, the first and second sown R line seedlings may be
planted in two separate rows at 15 cm spacing or the 1st sown seedlings may be planted in
both the rows with 30 cm spacing and 2nd sown seedlings may be planted in the middle of
two seedlings in both rows. Whereas in three staggered seedlings of R line all the seedlings
may be pulled out separately, mixed together thoroughly by spreading one over the other
and planted in the two paired rows @ 2-3 seedlings per hill with 15 cm spacing within the
rows. It is more convenient, easy and labour saving method incase of large scale seed
production. By proper synchronization, higher seed set and yield have been recorded in 3
staggered seedlings of R line. Leave a 145 cm or 110 cm wide block between paired rows of R
line seedlings for transplanting 8 rows blocks of A line seedlings.

Row ratio, row direction, spacing and planting pattern for hybrid rice seed
production.

R R A A A A A A A A R R

o o x x x x x x x x o o

o o x x x x x x x x o o

o o x x x x x x x x o o

o o x x x x x x x x o o

o o x x x x x x x x o o

o o x x x x x x x x o o

o o x x x x x x x x o o

o o x x x x x x x x o o

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R R A A A A A A A A R R
Female: Male ratio = 8:2 wind direction :

Transplanting of the 'A' line

Transplant the ' A' line seedlings in blocks of 8 rows in between the paired rows of ' R' line
seedlings. Transplant with one or two seedlings per hill with inter and intra row spacing of 15
x 15 cm in 145 cm wide block or 10 x 15 cm in 110 cm wide block according to the fertility of
field. Leave a 20 cm spacing between the ' A' line rows and the nearest ' R' line rows.

Prediction of heading date

The method, which is widely used and found to be effective, is by examining the development
of young panicles. Based on the morphological features, the young panicles are classified into
8 development stages. The synchronization in flowering can be predicted by using such
criteria. In practice, about 30 days before heading, the male and female parents in the seed
production field are sampled and their young panicles within the main clumps and tillers are
carefully observed with a magnifying lens every three days. Usually female and male parent
will take 27 and 32 days respectively from panicle initiation to heading in 8 stages.

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Method of observing panicle initiation

o Select the main tiller (the longest one) and cut at the base where stem and root join.
o Make a longitudinal slit from the base upto the top of the tiller
o Open the slit just above the nodal portion
o Observe the developing panicle with the help of a magnifying lens.

Adjustment of flowering date

If it is found during the first 3 stages of panicle differentiation that synchronization of
flowering will not be attained, the earlier developing parent should be applied with quick
releasing nitrogen fertilizer (2% urea spray) or apply 35 kg /ha of urea with knapsack
sprayer at 500 lit /ha and the later developing parent should be sprayed with 2%
solution of DAP. By this measure a difference of 4 to 5 days may be adjusted.
If it is found during the later stages of panicle differentiation that synchronization of
flowering will not be attained a difference of 3-4 days may be adjusted by drainage or
irrigation because the R lines are more sensitive to water than CMS lines. For instance, if R
line is found to be earlier, draining water from the field will delay the panicle
development. On the other hand if R line is found to be late, higher standing water would
facilitate rapid panicle development.
If the difference in flowering period between
the two parents reaches 10 days or more it is
necessary to remove the panicles from early
developing parent and apply nitrogen fertilizer
subsequently, thus making it late emerging tillers or
unproductive tillers bear panicles and subsequently
achieve synchronization of flowering.
Further during the flowering stage if the blooming
time is found not to be synchronized (usually the R
line flowers earlier than CMS line) adjustments can be
made in blooming time by improving the microclimate
in the field through drainage, removing dew drops
from the CMS plants and spraying cold water to the R
lines.

Application of Gibberellin (GA3)

GA3 plays an important role in rice hybrid seed production. It can adjust physiological and
biochemical metabolism of rice plant especially stimulating the elongation of young cells.
About 25-30%. spikelets of a panicle are inside the flag leaf sheath in most of the indica CMS

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lines than that of the Japonica CMS lines. GA3 has a definite role in exertion of panicle. In
general, it is recommended that 50 g /ha with knapsack sprayer in two split doses, i.e. spray
on 15-20% earhead emergence and 2nd spray in the next day for enhanced seed set.
GA3 will not dissolve in water and hence it should be dissolved in 75-90% alcohol (1g in 20-
25 ml of alcohol) and make the required solution. Spraying should be done at 8 to 10 a.m.
and 4-6 p.m.

Advantages of GA3 application

 Enhances panicle and stigma exertion

 Adjust plant height of seed and pollen parents
 Speed up the growth of later tillers and increases the effective tillers
 Sets uniform panicle ear.
 Flag leaf angle is increased
 Increases 1000 grain weight
 Reduces unfilled grains
 Remarkably enhances seed setting and seed yield

Supplementary pollination
Natural outcrossing was recorded less than 10% by Ramlingam et al. (1994). However, this
depends upon the wind direction and its velocity.
Shaking the R line panicles by rope pulling at panicle level or rod driving during anthesis
can make their anthers dehisce and spread the pollen widely and evenly thus the
outcrossing rate could be increased. It is more effective especially on calm or breezy days.
Generally, supplementary pollination is carried out at 30 minutes interval for 5 times daily
both morning and evening during peak anthesis (10-12 am and 2-4 p.m.) until no pollen
remains on the R line. It is not needed when the wind is greater than moderate breeze.

seed

2% DAP increases yield and qualities of

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Foliar spray
Foliar spray of

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 Short duration: Ist Spray on 60 DAS

II nd " 80 "

 Medium duration: Ist Spray on 80 DAS

II nd " 100 "

Roguing
Remove the undesirable plants either in A or R line rows that differ from plants that are true
to type. The pollen shedders and off types are removed.
The undesirable plants come from many sources. They may be volunteer plants from the
previous cropping.
The most important stages for roguing are at maximum tillering, at flowering and just before
harvesting.

Roguing in hybrids
In A line remove pollen shedders. In A line only 40-50% of seed set is possible. If > 60-70%
seed is noticed and the panicle is drooping it would be R line (or) other varieties.

Plants to be removed A line B line R line

Diseased plants All All All
Parental lines R line & B line A line & B line R line & A line
Early flowering plant All All All
Rogues / off types : Based on variation in phenotypic Characters

Harvesting, threshing & drying

 Turning of 90% green seeds to straw yellow colour is the stage of physiological maturity
 Moisture content will be 17-20%.
 Male parent should be harvested first .
 Care should be taken to avoid admixture of male line with female line while harvesting.
 The female parent should be threshed at 16-17% moisture content separately in a well
cleaned threshing floor.
 The threshed seed should be winnowed and dried to reduce the seed moisture content to
12%
 The seed should not be dried under direct sun between 12 to 3.00 p.m. during hot sunny
days.

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Seed treatment
Seeds are treated with thiram / captan @ 4 g/kg. or with 5 gm halogen mixture. The halogen
mixture is prepared by mixing CaOCl2 + CaCO3 for 1 week in air tight container.

Storage

 Fort short term storage use gunny bag or cloth bag.

 For long term storage use polythene bag of > 700 gauge and dry the seeds to
8% moisture content.
 When compared with varieties, the hybrids and parental lines A & B lines are poor
in storability.
 The order of the storage potential is R > F1 > B > A.

Others - As in variety

Seed Yield
Hybrid yield (F1) : 800-1200 kg ha-1

General Tips

 Nursery period, spacing, seed rate, fertilizer dose and days to maturation vary
with short, medium and long duration varieties.
 Grain of paddy could be (visual) graded as long slender, short, medium bold based on
shape but could not be separated on mechanical grading minding.
 Textures variation though not permanent exists in paddy seeds.
 Seeds of paddy have carbohydrate as the main storage reserve in the form of
amylase and amylopectin which differentiates the japonica and indica varieties.
 SPLIT HUSK: Problem of split husk occur in hybrid rice seed production where the
lemma and palia are not closed properly at tip portion. Occurrence is claimed to
nutrient deficiency synchronization defects and genetic factors, as it
 Occurs more in female line than male line. Split husk reduces the germination due
to heavier load of fungal colonies. Seed multiplication ratio 1:152

Seed renewal period: three times

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Lecture 11:
SEED PRODUCTION IN SORGHUM

Sorghum is common millet of India with wider utility. It is used a feed, food and raw material
for agri based industry. Botanically it is known as Sorghum bicolor L. and belongs to the
family poaceae. It is an often cross pollinated crop, insects and wind are the pollinating
agents.

Floral biology
Sorghum is an often cross-pollinated crop. The extent of out crossing is 6-45% and
depends on nature of earhead. In loose panicles the cross-pollination is more and less in
compact panicle. Spikelets occur in pairs on the lateral branches of the panicle. One is sessile
while the other spikelet is pedicelled. Sessile is bisexual and pedicelled spikelet is male or
sterile. Sessile spikelet is comparatively larger than staminate spikelet and each spikelet has
two florets. Flower opening starts after 2 to 4 days of emergence of panicle from the boot
leaf. Flowering starts from the tip of the panicle and proceeds downwards (basipetal).
Flowering completes in 7 days. The pollen is viable for 10 to 20 minutes under field
conditions. Fertile pollen will be lemon yellow in colour. Older pollen grains will normally
turn to orange.
Receptivity of stigma starts two days before opening and remains for several days ( 5 days).
Flower opening and anthesis will be from 2.00 am to 8.00 am.

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VARIETAL SEED PRODUCTION
Open pollination under isolation and selfing by bagging are the common methods of varietal
seed production.

Stages of seed multiplication

In sorghum seed is multiplied adopting three generation system, as breeder seed, foundation
seed and certified seed as the crop is often cross pollinated crop where the chances for
genetic contamination is high.

Popular varieties
In Tamil Nadu , CO 25 CO26, CO 27 ,K5, K7, CO 19, CO 21, K9, BSR 1, CO 26, K4, K8, CO 25,
APK 1, K 10, Paiyur 1 and 2 are the popular varieties for grain purpose ,while CO 20 and CO
28 is a fodder sorghum

Season
The best season for production is November- December and the flowering should not coincide
either with rain or high RH as it will wash out the pollen and the maturation should coincide
with dry weather. The temperature of 37oC is favourable for better seed setting.

Land requirement
The land should be fertile and problem soils will lead to low pollen fertility and will adversely
affect the quality and the seed set will be poor. The previous crop should not be the same
crop to avoid the occurrence of volunteer plants and if to be the same crop it has to be the
same variety and should be certified and has to be accepted for certification. The field should
not have any volunteer plants.

Field Standards for isolation

Sorghum field should be isolated from contaminants as follows

Minimum distance(m)
Contaminants FS CS
Fields of other varieties of grain and dual 200 100
purpose sorghum
Fields of same variety not confirming to varietal purity requirements 200 100
for certification
Johnson grass (Sorghum halapense) 400 400
Forage sorghum with high tillering and grassy panicle 400 400
In sorghum differential blooming dates for modifying the isolation distance is not
permitted

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Seed and sowing

 For production of foundation seed, breeder seed is used as the base material, while
for certified seed, foundation seed should be used as the base material. The seed
used should be from authenticated source with tag and bill.
 The required seed rate will be 12kg /ha or 4-5kg/ acre.
 The seed are sown at a spacing of 45 x15 cm at a depth of 2-4cm as the plant
has adventitious root system.
 In some places seeds are also raised in nursery and transplanted to the main field.
 In the main field seeds are sown either in ridges and furrows or under beds
and channels.
 In some places seeds are also raised in nursery and transplanted to the main field at 27-
30 days intervals.
 Rainfed - Direct sown 15.0 kg., Irrigated - Direct sown 10.0 kg / ha and transplanted
7.5 kg/ha

Presowing seed treatment

The seeds are given with any one of the seed treatment or in combination.

 Seeds are soaked in 2% KH2PO4 for 16h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06 and
are dried back to their original moisture content of 8-9% .This management could be
used both for dry land agriculture as well as garden land.
 As an ecofriendly treatrment seeds are also fortified or hardened with 1% prosopis and
pungam leaf extract for 16h with a seed to solution ratio of 1:0.06 and are dried back to
their original moisture content of 8-9%.
 Seeds are also treated with 5% carbofuran 3G to protect the seed from shoofly
infection. Seed treatment with chlorpyriphos @4 ml /kg is also recommended against
the attack by shoot fly.
 Seeds are dry dressed with bavistin @2g/kg of seed to protect against seed
borne pathogens and soil borne pathogen.
 Seeds are also treated with azospirillum @50g/kg of seed to fix atmospheric N. Any
one of these treatment or combination of treatment is adopted for better productivity.
 On adoption of sequence of treatment physiological should be followed with
physical seed treatment.
 Seed treatment with 10% prosopis leaf extract reduces the black mould attack, which
can even be given as foliar spray at the time of maturation.

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Nutrient application

o At last ploughing apply 12.5 tonnes of compost per hectare.

o The fertilizer requirement of seed crop is 150:50:50 kg of NPK, in which 100:50:50 kg / ha
of NPK is applied as basal, while 25kg of N is applied after first weeding and the
remaining 25 kg of N is applied after boot leaf stage.

o The seed crop is also sprayed with 2% DAP at primordial initiation stage and
twice thereafter at 10 days interval.

o In calcarious soil and in problem soils FeSo4 0.5 % is sprayed thrice at 10 days interval
from primordial initiation stage.

Weeding

 Application of atrazine @ 10ml per litre as pre-emergence herbicide control the growth
of weeds upto 20-25 days.
 One hand weeding at the time of primordial initiation keep the field free of
weeds. Weeding after boot leaf stage is not economical.
 On organic production, 2 hand weeding at seedling stage and other at boot
leaf formation will keep the field weed free
 At 15-20 days after sowing furadon granules are placed at leaf whorls to avoid
shootfly infection.

Irrigation
The crop should be irrigated once in a week for enhanced seed set and formation of bolder
grains. The critical stages of irrigation are primordial initiation stage, vegetative stage, milky
and maturation stage. If the irrigation is withheld in these stages seed set will be poor and
seed size will be reduced.

Pest and disease management

Common pests Management techniques

Shootfly Monocrotophos 0.03%
Stemborer Rogar 0.3%
Gall midge Endosulphan 0.07%
Earhead bugs Endosulphan 0.07%
Black mould and sugary disease Endosulphan 0.07% + Bavistin @10g /lit.
Kernal smut and head smut Endosulphan 0.07% + Bavistin @10g /lit.
Kernal smut and head smut are known as designated diseases of sorghum.

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Rouging
It is specific to seed crop and is done from seedling stage to harvesting stage based on the
phenotypic characters. Off types can be identified through stem colour, plant structure,
number of leaves, auricles, nodal colour, grain colour etc. The field standard for seed crop is as
follows

Specific standard: These are verified at the final inspection

Maximum permitted (%)

Factor FS CS
Off types at any one inspection and after flowering 0.050 0.020
Heads infected by kernel smut or grain smut 0.050 0.020
(Sphacelotheca sorghi(Link) Clinton) and Head
smut
(Sphacelotheca reiliana (kuhn)Clinton) at final
inspection

Seed fields can however be certified if diseased earheads are removed and burnt and the
fields show on reinspection not more than maximum permissible level. Only one such re-
inspection is permitted. Seed fields should be thoroughly roughed to remove plants infected
by sugary disease (Sphacelotheca sorghi (Link) Clinton)/ergot (Claviceps spp.) so that
the prescribed standards are met at seed stage. However, the seed fields shall not be rejected
on account of the apresence of sugary/ ergot infected heads.

Smut Ergot

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Seed Certification
Number of Inspections
A minimum of three inspections shall be made as follows:
1. The first inspection shall be made before flowering on order to verify isolation,
volunteer plants, and other relevant factors,
2. The second inspection shall be made during flowering to check isolation, offtypes and
other relevant factors
3. The third inspection shall be made at maturity and prior to harvesting to verify true nature
of plant and other relevant factors

Preharvest sanitation spray

Spraying of endosulphan @ 0.07% and bavistin@10g /lit 10 days prior to harvest prevent the
seed weevil infestation at storage.

Harvesting

 The crop attains physiological maturity 40-45 days after 50% flowering and the seed
moisture at this stage will be around 25-30%.
 This stage can be easily be identified by the formation of dunken layer at the place of
attachment to the ear head.
 The earheads are harvested commercially when 80 % of the earheads are
physiologically matured, where the moisture content will be around 20
%.
 The crop is harvested as once over harvest as uniformity will be maintained
with earheads on maturity.

Threshing
The earheads are dried under sun and threshed with fliable stick for extraction of seeds. The
moisture content of seed at the time of threshing will be 15-18%.
On large scale production LCT threshers are used, but care should be given to avoid
mechanical damage, which in turn will reduce the seed quality and storability.

Drying
The seeds are dried to 8-10 % moisture content either under sun or adopting mechanical driers
for long term storage as the seeds is orthodox in nature.

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Processing

 Mechanical grading can be done with cleaner cum grader, which will remove
the undersized immature and chaffy seeds

 The middle screen size should be 9/64” round perforated sieves. The size can
vary depending on the type of seed

 For fodder sorghum 8/64”sieve is used

Seed treatment
The seeds are infested with several storage pests, to protect against these pests the seeds are
given protective treatment with bavistin @2g/kg of seed with carbaryl @200mg/kg of seed as
slurry treatment. Bifenthrin @5mg /kg of seed is also recommended for fodder sorghum.

Seed packing
Seeds are packed in gunny bag for short term storage while in HDPE and polylined gunny bag
for long term storage.

Storage

 The treated seed can be stored up to 12 months provided the seeds are not infected with
storage pests.
 Seed can be stored up to 3 years if the seeds are packed in moisture containers and are
stored at low temperature .
 The godown should be kept clean as the possibility of secondary infestation
with Trifolium (red flour weevil ) is much in these crop.

Seed yield: 3000-4000kg/ha

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Seed standard
The processed seed should have the following seed quality characters both for certification and
labeling.

Seed Standard

Standards for each

Factor class
Foundation Certified
Pure seed ( maximum) 98.0% 98.0%
Inertmatter(maximum) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seed (maximum) (by number) 5/kg 10/kg
Total weed seed (maximum) (by number) 5/kg 10/kg
Other distinguishable varieties (maximum) 10/kg 20/kg
Ergot, sclerotia, seed entirely or partially modified as sclerotia, broken or 0.020% 0.040%
ergotted seed (maximum)
Germination ( Minimum) 75% 75%
Moisture (maximum) 12.0% 12.0%
For vapour proof container (maximum) 8.0% 8.0%

Mid storage correction

The seeds loose their quality during storage due to deterioration and pest infestation,
when the germination falls below 5-10 % of the required standard the seeds are imposed with
midstorage correction, where the seeds are soaked in double the volume of 10-4 M solution of
disodium hydrogen phosphate (3.6mg/lit of water) for 6 hours and the seeds are dried back to
original moisture content (8-9%).

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Lecture 12:

HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION IN SORGHUM

Breeding technique for Commercial production

Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (CGMS)

Seeds produced in different stages

Nucleus seed stage : Maintenance of basic source by seed to row

progenies. Breeder Stage : A (AxB), B and R line are multiplied

Foundation Stage : A (AxB) and R line are multiplied

Breeder and foundation seed stage: Multiplication of male sterile line or maintenance of A and
B line

Certified seed stage : A x R – F1 hybrid produced.

Certified seed stage : Production of hybrid seed

Stages of Seed Production

Breeder seed ---> A x B - B - R

Foundation seed ---> A x B - B - R

Certified seed ---> AxR

Popular hybrids of their parents: The first hybrid (CSH 1) was released in 1964. In 1969, the
Coordinated Sorghum Improvement Project was established. Now there are more than 30
hybrids. Some popular are

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CSH1 CK 60 A x IS 84
CSH5 2077A x CS3541
CSH 9 MS 296 A x CS 3541
COH2 2219A x IS3541(Kovilpatti Tall)
COH3 2077A x CO21
COH4 296A x TNS30
CSH 13 R 296 A x RS 29
CSH 14 AKMS 14A x AKR 150
CSH 16 27 A x C 43
CSH 15 (R) 104 A x R 585
CSH 17 AKMS 14A x RS 673

Stages of seed multiplication : Breeder seed – foundation seed – certified seed.

Foundation seed production : A and B line are raised in 4:2 ratio with 4 rows of B

line as border row and allowed for cross pollination.

The seeds from A line will be collected as A line

seeds (multiplied).

Certified seed production : Hybrid seed production

Commercial in Hybrid seed production techniques

Isolation distance
FS CS
Normal 200 100
On presence of Johnson grass 400 400
On presence of forage sorghum 400 200
Hybrids 300 200

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Johnson grass Forage sorghum

Seeds and sowing

Seed rate : A line : 8 kg ha-1

R line : 4 kg ha-1

Spacing : A line : 45 x 30cm

R line : 45 x solid row spacing.

Planting ratio: Foundation seed stage: 4:2 (A: B)

Certified seed stage : 5.2 (A:R)

Border rows : 4 rows of male (either B or R line) to, supply adequate

pollen. Live markers : •Live plants used for identification of male line live markers are

used.
•It should have distinguishable morphological characters.
•Live markers can be sunflower, daincha etc.

Manures and Fertilizers

Compost : 12.5 t / ha
NPK : 100:50:50 kg ha-1
Basal : 50:50:5 kg ha-1
Top dressing : 25kg N after last ploughing 25 kg N after boot leaf stage (45 days)

Synchronization technique

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 Staggered sowing: Sowing of male parent and female parents are adjusted in such
a way that both parents come to flowering at the same time.

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 Principles of Seed
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 CSH-5, MS 2077 A must be sown 10-15 days earlier to the male CS 3541,
 CSH 6, the female parent MS 2219 A can be sown simultaneously with CS
3541
 CSH 9, the female parent MS 296 A must be sown 7-10 days earlier
than male CS 3541 in November- December season.
 Spraying growth retardent MH 500 ppm at 45 DAS, delays
flowering in advancing parent. MH wont dissolve in water and
hence dissolve it in NaOH and then mix with water.
 Urea spraying 1% to the lagging parent.
 Withhold one irrigation to the advancing parent.
 Spraying CCC 300 ppm will delay flowering.

Roguing: Do it in both parents.

Off types

In female line remove : off types, wild types, pollen shedders, rogues,
partials,
volunteer plants, diseased plants, R line, mosaic
plants, late Early flowering plant

In male line remove : Rogues, A line, Diseased plants, Late /early

flowering
plants, Wild types

Types of contamination

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Presence of B line in A line called
as pollen shedders Presence of A
line in Bline called as off type
Presence of R line in B line called
as rogue
Presence of B line in B line called as rogue

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