UNIT-5

Air Pollution – Causes, effects and

control measures
WHO defines air pollution as the contamination of the indoor or outdoor
environment by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the
natural characteristics of the atmosphere.
It is an atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in
concentrations which can cause undesirable effects on man and his
environment. These substances include gases, particulate matter, radioactive
substances etc.
Sources of Air Pollution
The sources of air pollution are natural and man-made (anthropogenic).
Man-made causes includes :
 Burning fossil fuels
Burning of wood, charcoal and other fossil fuels causes air pollution by the
release of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon sulphur dioxide etc.
 Emissions from automobiles
Vehicles are a major source of air pollution. The major pollutants released
from automobiles, locomotives, aircraft etc., include CO, unburnt
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide.
 Industries
Factories pollute the air through fossil fuel emissions. These emissions
include carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. While all of these are
naturally-occurring substances, it is the high levels of emissions which are of
concern.
 Agricultural activities
Spraying of insecticides and weedicides also cause air pollution. These, when
inhaled create severe problems to both animals and man.
 Wars
Various forms of explosives used in war pollute the air by releasing
poisonous gases. This greatly disturbs the ecology of the area. Nuclear
explosions pollute air by radioactive rays.
Natural causes include :
 Volcanic eruption
 Forest fires
 Marsh gas emission
 Deflation of sand and dust
 Micro-organisms such as algae, fungi, bacteria, yeast, moulds, spores are
transported by wind to distant places causing air pollution.
Effects of air pollution :
Air pollution has adverse effects on living organisms and materials.
 Effect on plants
 Oxides of nitrogen and fluorides reduce crop yield.
 Ozone damages cereals, fruits, and cotton crop.
 Smoke and dust cover the leaf surface and reduce photosynthetic
capacity of plants.
 SO2 causes chlorosis and also results in the death of cells and tissues.
  Effect on Human health
 SO3, CO and NO2 diffuse into blood stream and reduce oxygen
transport. CO damages cardiovascular system. Hydrocarbons and
other pollutants act, as carcinogens and lead to different cancers.
 Ozone has been reported to produce chromosomal aberrations.
 Cotton dust leads to respiratory disorders e.g. bronchitis and asthma.
 Effects on Aquatic life
 Air pollutants mixing up with rain can cause high acidity (lower pH) in
fresh water lakes. This affects aquatic life especially fish. Some of the
freshwater lakes have experienced total fish death.
 Change in Climate
 Concentration of various Green House Gases into the atmosphere
leads to increase in temperature.
 Thinning of ozone layer would permit more of the harmful ultraviolet
rays to reach the earth.
 Aesthetic loss
 Dust and smoke spoils the beauty of nature. Especially the mountain
environments, which serve as a great attraction for tourists.
 Foul odours emitted by industries, automobiles, dirty drains and
garbage heaps in cities are a great nuisance.
Control of Air pollution
Air pollution can be minimized by the following methods:
1. Some gases, which are more soluble in a particular liquid than air, for
example, ammonia in water, can be separated by dissolving in it.
2. Particles larger than 50 mm are separated in gravity settling tanks. Using
cyclone collectors or electrostatic precipitators separates fine particles.
3. The height of chimneys should be increased to the highest possible level to
reduce pollution at the ground level.
4. SO2 pollution can be controlled by extracting sulphur from the fuel before
use.
5. Pollution control laws should be enforced strictly.
6. Trees should be planted on the roadside, riverbanks, parks and open places
as they keep the environment fresh.
7. Population growth, which is the main cause of pollution should be checked.
8. Nuclear explosions should be restricted.

Water Pollution – Causes, effects and

Control measures

Water pollution can be defined as alteration in physical, chemical or biological

characteristics of water making it unsuitable for designated use in its natural
state.

Sources of Water Pollution

 Domestic sewage
This includes household’s wastes like food wastes, synthetic detergents used
for washing clothes and cleaning bathrooms and latrines and water based
paints.
  Industrial effluents
Industrial wastes containing toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic salts,
phenols, cyanides, ammonia, radioactive substances, etc. are discharged in
the adjoining rivers and streams through flush lines of factories.
 Agricultural source
Agrochemicals like fertilizers (containing nitrates and phosphates) and
pesticides (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc.) washed by rain-water
and surface run-off pollute water.
 Thermal pollution
Waste heat from industrial discharges increases the temperature of water
bodies and affects distribution and survival of sensitive species.
 Pathogenic organisms
Sewage and domestic waste from houses introduces pathogenic organisms
viz., protozoa, worms-eggs and bacteria into water. This contaminated water
if consumed causes jaundice, typhoid, dysentery, cholera, tuberculosis etc.
 Mineral oils
Oil from oil spills and washing of automobiles finds way into river water
through sewers.
Effect of water pollution
 Pesticides in drinking water ultimately reach humans and are known to
cause various health problems.
 Industrial effluents containing iron, free chlorine, phenol, manganese, oils,
hydrocarbons, ammonia, algae and microorganisms impair the taste and
odour of water.
 The nitrates and phosphates dissolved in water accelerate the growth of
microorganisms, which consume much of the dissolved oxygen depriving fish
and other aquatic life (Eutrophication).
 Nitrate when present in excess in drinking water causes blue baby
syndrome.
 Excess of fluoride in drinking water causes defects in teeth and bones called
fluorosis.
 Some heavy metals like lead, mercury and cadmium cause various types of
diseases like – Minamata, Itai Itai etc.
 Soap, detergents and, alkalis result in foam formation, which in turn affects
aquatic life.
Control of Water Pollution
 Domestic sewage and industrial wastes should be treated before discharging
them into drains.
 In towns where sewage facilities are not available, septic tanks should be
made in the houses.
 Use of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers should be done judiciously.
Rapid biodegradable substitutes for pesticides should be employed.
 Separate ponds and tanks to be used for cattle and animals.
 Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-off to basin for settlement. The
nutrient rich water can be used as fertilizer in the fields.

Soil Pollution – Causes, effects and

control measures
Soil pollution is defined as the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or
contaminants) in soil, in high enough concentrations to pose a risk to human
health and the ecosystem.

Sources of soil pollution

 Pesticides are used to kill pests that damage crops. These pesticides
ultimately reach the soil and persist there for a long time. Residues of these
pesticides in the soils have long term effects especially under the temperate
conditions.
 Industrial wastes also contain some organic and inorganic compounds that
are refractory and non-biodegradable.
 Soil also receives excreta from animals and humans. The sewage sludge
contains many pathogenic organisms, bacteria, viruses and intestinal worms
which cause pollution in the soil.
 Thermal power plants generate a large quantity of ‘Fly ash’. Huge quantities
of these wastes are dumped on soils, thus contaminating them.
 Many radio active substances like Uranium, radium, caesium etc. are
discharged from industries as wastes. These elements reach the soil and
persist there for a long time and keep on emitting radiations.
Effects of Soil Pollution
 Chemicals and pesticides affect the structure and fertility of soil by killing
the soil microorganisms.
 Pesticides are absorbed by the plants and then transferred to other
organism. Hence, they affected food chains and food webs.
 Pathogens present in the wastes and excreta contaminate the soil and
vegetable crops causing diseases in man and domesticated animals.
 Radioisotopes which attach with the clay become a source of radiations in
the environment.
Control of Soil Pollution
 Effluents should be properly treated before discharging them on the soil.
 Solid wastes should be properly collected and disposed off by appropriate
method.
 Metals should be recovered from scrap and disposed materials.
 Materials like paper, glass and plastics can be recycled.
 Use of pesticides can be reduced by adopting biological control of pests.
 Use of cattle dung and agricultural wastes in biogas plants should be
encouraged.
Write a short note on salination of soil.

Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of

increasing the salt content is known as salinization.
It takes place in two ways:
 accumulation of salts dissolved in irrigation water on the soil surface due to
intensive farming and poor drainage, and
 deposition of salts as white crust during summer months drawn by capillary
action from the lower surface to the top surface.
The consequences of salinity are
 detrimental effects on plant growth and yield
 damage to infrastructure (roads, bricks, corrosion of pipes and cables)
 reduction of water quality for users, sedimentation problems
 soil erosion ultimately, when crops are too strongly affected by the amounts
of salts.
Salinity of soil can be checked by adopting these methods :
  Drainage is the primary method of controlling soil salinity. Once good
drainage is assured, thesoil can be irrigated with clean water.
 Run-off should be avoided to prevent erosion.
 Adopting proper irrigation techniques.

Marine Pollution – Causes, effects and

control measures

Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances to the marine

environment directly or indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as
hazards to human health, obstruction of marine activities and lowering the
quality of sea water.

Sources of marine pollution

The main sources of marine pollution are
 Rivers, which bring pollutants from their drainage basins
 Catchment area i.e. coastline where human settlements in the form of
hotels, industry, agricultural practices have been established
 Oil drilling and shipment.

Effects of marine pollution

 The pollutants in sea may become dispersed by turbulence and ocean
currents and finally becomes a part of food chain.
 Hydrocarbons and benzpyrene gets accumulated in food chain and
consumption of such fish by man may cause cancer.
 Bioaccumulation in food chain also result in loss of species diversity.
 Oil pollution causes damage to marine fauna and flora including algae,
fish, birds, and invertebrates.
 Detergents used to clean up the spill are also harmful to marine life.

Control of marine pollution

 Toxic pollutants from industries and sewage treatment plants should
not be discharged in coastal waters.
 Run off from non-point sources should be prevented to reach coastal
areas.
 Sewer overflows should be prevented by having separate sewer and
rain water pipes.
 Dumping of toxic, hazardous wastes and sewage sludge should be
banned.
 Developmental activities on coastal areas should be minimized.
 Oil and grease from service stations should be processed for reuse.
 Oil ballast should not be dumped into sea.
 Ecologically sensitive coastal areas should be protected by not
allowing drilling.

Noise Pollution – Causes, effects and

control measures
Noise pollution or noise disturbance is the disturbing or excessive noise
that may harm the activity or balance of human or animal life. A decibel value
greater than 80 decibels causes noise pollution. Noise becomes troublesome
above 140 decibels.

Sources of noise pollution

The major sources of noise are :
 various modes of transportation (like air, road, rail-transportation)
 industrial operations
 construction activities
 celebrations (social/religious functions, elections etc)
 electric home appliances.
Effects of noise pollution
Noise causes the following effects :
 Interferes with man’s communication: In a noisy area
communication is severely affected.
 Hearing damage: Noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing
loss. It depends on intensity and duration of sound level. Auditory sensitivity
is reduced with noise level of over 90 dB in the mid high frequency for more
than a few minutes.
 Physiological and Psychological changes: Continuous
exposure to noise affects the functioning of various systems of the body. It
may result in hypertension, insomnia (sleeplessness), gastro-intestinal and
digestive disorders, blood pressure changes, behavioural changes, emotional
changes etc.
Control of Noise pollution
Following methods can control noise pollution:
 Limited use of loudspeakers and amplifiers.
 Excursing control over noise producing vehicles.
 Industrial workers should be provided with ear plugs.
 Delocalisation of noisy industries far away from dwelling units
 Plants and trees having broad leaves should be planted all around the
hospitals, libraries and schools and colleges.
 Through Law: Legislation can ensure that sound production is minimized at
various social functions. Unnecessary horn blowing should be restricted
especially in vehicle-congested areas.

Thermal Pollution – Causes, effects

and control measures
Thermal pollution is defined as the degradation of water quality by any process
that changes ambient water temperature.

Causes of Thermal pollution

Man made causes :

Thermal pollution occurs when an industry removes water from a source, uses
the water for cooling purposes and then returns the heated water to its source.
The temperature of the discharged water is generally 15°-16° higher than the
initial temperature.

Natural causes :

Natural causes like volcanoes and geothermal activity under the oceans and
seas can trigger warm lava to raise the temperature of water bodies.
Lightening can also introduce massive amount of heat into the oceans.

Effects of Thermal pollution

 The dissolved oxygen content of water is decreased as the solubility of
oxygen in water is decreased at high temperature.
 Toxicity of pesticides, detergents and chemicals in the effluents increases
with increase in temperature.
 The composition of flora and fauna changes because the species sensitive to
increased temperature due to thermal shock will be replaced by temperature
tolerant species.
 Metabolic activities of aquatic organisms increase at high temperature and
require more oxygen, whereas oxygen level falls under thermal pollution.
 Discharge of heated water near the shores can disturb spawning and can
even kill young fishes.
 Fish migration is affected due to formation of various thermal zones.

Control of Thermal pollution

The following methods can be employed for control of thermal pollution:

 Cooling Ponds: Water from condensers is stored in ponds where

natural evaporation cools the water which can then be recirculated or
discharged in nearby water body

 Spray Ponds: The water from condensers is received in spray

ponds. Here the water is sprayed through nozzles where fine droplets are
formed. Heat from these fine droplets is dissipated to the atmosphere.

Cooling Towers:
 Wet cooling tower: Hot water is sprayed over baffles. Cool air
entering from sides takes away the heat and cools the water. This cool
water can be recycled or discharged.

 Dry cooling tower: The heated water flows in a system of pipes.

Air is passed over these hot pipes with fans. There is no water loss
in this method but installation and operation cost of dry cooling
tower is many times higher than wet cooling tower.

Nuclear Hazards – Causes, effects and

control measures
Nuclear hazard can be defined as the Risk or danger to human health or the
environment posed by radiation emanating from the atomic nuclei of a given
substance, or the possibility of an uncontrolled explosion originating from a
fusion or fission reaction of atomic nuclei.
Sources of Nuclear Hazards :
The sources of radioactivity are both natural and man-made.
The natural sources include:
 Cosmic rays from outer space. The quantity depends on altitude and latitude;
it is more at higher latitudes and high altitudes.
 Emissions from radioactive materials from the Earth’s crust.
Man-made sources include:
 Mining and processing of radioactive ores.
 Use of radioactive material in nuclear power plants.
 Use of radioactive isotopes in medical, industrial and research applications.
 Use of radioactive materials in nuclear weapons.
Effects of Nuclear Hazards
Ionization radiations can affect living organisms by causing harmful changes in
the body cells and also changes at genetic level.
 Genetic damage is caused by radiations, which induce mutations in
the DNA, thereby affecting genes and chromosomes. The damage is often
seen in the offsprings and may be transmitted upto several generations.
 Somatic damage includes burns, miscarriages, eye cataract and
cancer of bone, thyroid, breast, lungs and skin.
Control of Nuclear Hazards
Following measures can help in controlling the radioactive pollution:
 Workers in nuclear plants should be provided with nuclear gadgets and
safety measures against accidents.
 Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, laboratories,
transport, careless handling and use of radioactive fuels should be checked.
 There should be regular monitoring and quantitative analysis through
frequent sampling in the risk areas.
 Preventive measures should be followed so that background radiation levels
do not exceed the permissible limits.
 Waste disposal must be careful, efficient and effective.

Solid waste management - sources, effects and methods of disposal

Solid waste management

Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries has led to people generating
enormous quantities of solid waste and consequent environmental degradation. The waste is
normally disposed in open dumps creating nuisance and environmental degradation. Solid wastes
cause a major risk to public health and the environment. Management of solid wastes is important in
order to minimize the adverse effects posed by their indiscriminate disposal.

Types of solid wastes: Depending on the nature of origin, solid wastes are classified into
1. URBAN OR MUNICIPAL WASTES
2. INDUSTRIAL WASTES and
3. HAZARDOUS WASTES
SOURCES OF URBAN WASTES
Urban wastes include the following wastes:
Domestic wastes containing a variety of materials thrown out from homes
Ex: Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Waste metals, etc.
Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from shops, markets, hotels, offices, institutions,
etc.
Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc.
Construction wastes: It includes wastes of construction materials.
Ex: Wood, Concrete, Debris, etc.
Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic materials
Ex: Anatomical wastes, Infectious wastes, etc.

Classification of urban wastes

Urban wastes are classified into:
Bio-degradable wastes - Those wastes that can be degraded by micro organisms are called bio-
degradable wastes
Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.
Non-biodegradable wastes: Urban solid waste materials that cannot be degraded by micro organisms
are called non-biodegradable wastes.
Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.

SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES

The main source of industrial wastes are chemical industries, metal and mineral processing
industries.
Ex:
Nuclear plants: It generated radioactive wastes
Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities
Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.
Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish, organic wastes, acid, alkali,
scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.

EFFECT OF IMPROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and immediate surroundings,
biodegradable materials undergo decomposition producing foul smell and become a breeding ground
for disease vectors.
2. Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes that affect soil
characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumped on the soil
3. Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the groundwater.
4. Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics, radioactive materials and
batteries) produce furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls that are harmful to human beings.
Solid waste management involves waste generation, mode of collection, transportation, segregation
of wastes and disposal techniques.

STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:

Two important steps involved in solid waste management are:
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of Raw Materials
Discarding wastes

Reduce - If usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced
Reuse - Refillable containers that are discarded after use can be reused
Rubber rings can be made from discarded cucle tubes and this reduces waste generation
during manufacture of rubber bands.
Recycle- Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products
Ex: Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles
Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper
Preparation of automobile body and construction material from steel cans
This method (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle), i.e, 3R's help save money, energy, raw materials and
reduces pollution.

DISCARDING WASTES:
The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:
1. Landfill
2. Incineration and
3. Composting
LANDFILL: Solid wastes are placed in a sanitary landfill in which alternate layers of 80 cm thick
refuse is covered with selected earth-fill of 20 cm thickness. After 2-3 years solid waste volume
shrinks by 25-30% and land is used for parks, roads and small buildings. This is the most common
and cheapest cheapest method of waste disposal and is mostly employed in Indian cities.
Advantages:
It is simple and economical
Segregation of wastes is not required
Landfilled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes
Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.
Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.
Disadvantages:
Large area is required
Land availability is away from the town, tansportation costs are high
Leads to bad odour if landfill is not properly managed.
Land filled areas will be sources of mosquitoes and flies requiring application of insecticides and
pesticides at regular intervals.
Causes fire hazard due to formation of methane in wet weather.

INCINERATION:
It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if waste contains more hazardous material
and organic content. It is a thermal process and very effective for detoxification of all combustible
pathogens. It is expensive when compared to composting or land-filling.
In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator. Combustibe
substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and non-combustibe matter such as glass,
porcelain and metals are separated before feeding to incinerators. The non-combustible materials can
be left out for recycling and reuse. The leftover ashes and clinkers may account for about 10 to 20%
which need further disposal by sanitary landfill or some other means.

The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of steam power for
generation of electricity through turbines. Municipal solid waste is generally wet and has a high
calorific value. Therefore, it has to be dried first before burning. Waste is dried in a preheater from
where it is taken to a large incinerating furnace called "destructor" which can incinerate about 100 to
150 tonnes per hour. Temperature normally maintained in a combustion chamber is about 700 C
which may be increased to 1000 C when electricity is to be generated.

ADVANTAGES
Residue is only 20-25% of the original and can be used as clinker after treatment
Requires very little space
Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located within city limits
Safest from hygenic point of view
An incinerator plant of 3000 tonnes per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.

DISADVANTAGES
Its capital and operating cost is high
Operation needs skilled personnel
Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air pollution.

COMPOSTING
It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country. In this method, bulk organic
waste is converted into fertilizer by biological action.
Separated compostible waste is dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and finally
covered with earth of 20cm and left for decomposition. Sometimes, actinomycetes are introduced for
active decomposition. Within 2 to 3 days biological action starts. Organic matter is destroyed by
actinomycetes and lot of heat is liberated increasing the temperature of compost by 75C and the
refuse is finally converted into powdery brown coloured odourless mass called humus that has a
fertilizing value and can be used in agriculture. Humus contains lot of Nitrogen essential for plant
growth apart from phosphates and other minerals.
ADVANTAGES
Manure added to soil increases water retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.
This method can be used to treat several industrial solid wastes.
Manure can be sold thereby reducing cost of disposing wastes
Recycling can be done
DISADVANTAGES
Non-consumables have to be disposed separately
The technology has not caught-up with the farmers and hence does not have an assured market

Role of individual in prevention of pollution

 Individuals should minimize wastage of resources such as electricity.

Every unit of electricity saved is equivalent unit of electricity produced as
it not only saves the fuel that would be used to produce that electricity,
but also help to prevent pollution that is accompanied by burning of that
fuel. Therefore, person should always switch off appliances when not in
use.
 Individuals should prefer walking or use cycles instead of using motor
vehicles, especially when distances to be travelled are small.
 Individuals can make considerable contribution by using mass transport
(buses, trains, etc) instead of using personal vehicles.
 When going to workplace, colleagues from nearby localities should pool
vehicles instead of going in individual personal vehicles.
 Taking personal vehicles for periodic pollution checks at centres
approved by authorities.
 Individuals should reuse items whenever possible.
 Products that are made of recycled material should be given preference.
 Use gunny bags made of jute instead of plastic bags.
  Take part in environment conservation drives such as tree planting
drives.
 Use water resources efficiently.
 Use renewable resources by installing equipment such as solar heaters
and using solar cookers.
 Dispose potentially harmful products such as cells, batteries, pesticide
containers, etc properly.
 Use of refrigerators should be minimised wherever possible as they are
main source of CFC, which is responsible for Ozone layer depletion.
 Follow and promote family planning, as more population means more
resources utilized and more resources utilized imply more pollution.
 Avoid making noise producing activities such as listening to loud music.
 Use handkerchiefs instead of paper tissues.
 Organize drives to clean streets and clean drains with help of other
people of locality.
 Spread awareness and inspire other people to prevent pollution.
Individuals should be encouraged to acquire information and innovations
from world over and implement them locally.

UNIT-6
FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:-

Sustainable development is defined as “meeting the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own

needs”. Our natural resources are just dividing due to over exploitation. if

growth continuous in the same way, very soon we will be facing a doom’s day

These are the key aspects for sustainable development.

(a) Inter-generational equity:- This emphasized that we should minimize

adverse impacts on resources and environment for future generation i.e ,we

should hand over a safe , healthy & resourceful environment to our future

generation. This can be possible only if we stop over exploitation of resources ,

reduce waste discharge and emission & maintain ecological balance.

(b) Intra-generational equity:- This emphasized that the development process

should seek to minimize the wealth apps with in and between nation. The

technology should address to the problems of the developing countries,

producing drought tolerant varieties for uncertain climates, vaccines for

infectious diseases, clean fuels domestic and industrial use. This type of

technological development will support economic growth of the poor and help

in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.

MEASURES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:-

A. USING APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY:- It is one which is locally adaptable,

eco-friendly resource efficient and culturally suitable indigenous technologies

are more useful, cost effective and sustainable. Nature is often taken as a

model, using the natural conditions of that region as its components. This

concept is knows as design with nature. The technology should use less of

resources and should produce minimum waste.

B. REDUSE, REUSE, RECYCLE APPROACH:- The 3-R approach advocating of

resource using them again and again instead of passing it on to the waste

stream and recycling the materials goes a long way in achieving the goal of

sustainability. It reduces pressure on or resources as well as reduces waste

generation and population.

URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY

1. Cities are the major centres of economic growth, trade, education

innovations & employments.

2. A big majority of human population lived in rural areas & their economic

activities centred around agriculture, cattle rearing fishing, hunting or some

cottage industry.

3. 50% of the world population in urban area & there is movement of rural folk

to cities in search for employment.

4. So, urban growth is so fast than it is becoming difficult to accommodate all

the industrial commercial and residential facilities with in a limited municipal

boundary spreading of the cities into the sub-urban or rural areas

5. In developing countries urban(growth) population is very fast and in most of

the cases it is un-contractible and un planned growth.

6. In contrast, to the rural set up urban set up Is densely populated, consumers

a lot of energy and material and generators a lot of waste.

Energy requirement of urban population are much higher than that of rural

ones b/c urban people have a higher standard life and there life style demand

more energy inputs in every sphere of life. These includes:

a. Residential and commercial lighting.

b. Transportation means including auto mobiles and public transport

for moving from residency to work place.

c. Modern lifestyle using large number of electrical gadgets in

everyday life.

d. Industrial plans using a big proportion of energy.

e. A large amount of waste generation which has to be disposed

properly using energy based techniques.

f. Control and prevention air and water pollution which need energy

dependent technologies. Due to high population density and high

energy demanding activities the urban problem and related to

energy or much more magnified as compared to rural population

Water conservation
Now a days water is a very major factor for the society. So for that water

conservation is necessary for the future use. So it is the responsibility of each

and every human being to store the water. The following are control measure

for water conservation which is very necessary:-

Turn Off the Water tap after each activity.

Minimize Use of Kitchen Sink Garbage Disposal Units

When Washing Dishes by Hand, Don’t Leave the Water Running for Rinsing

Don’t Let the Faucet Run While You Clean Vegetables

Check Faucets and Pipes for Leaks

Use Your Water Meter to Check for Hidden Water Leaks

Reuse Wastewater Where Possible

Use Clothes Washer for Only Full Loads

Consider a High Efficiency Washing Machine
Check Your Toilets for Leaks

Don’t Run the Hose pipe While Washing Car

Rainwater harvesting

It is the process of collecting rainwater and putting it to good use. There are different ways
in which this task can be accomplished.

Rainwater harvesting refers to the trapping and storing of rainwater so that it can be used at
a later time when the need arises. As the rain falls, water is directed to a suitable collection
point.

It can also mean collecting rainwater before it infiltrates into the ground and becomes
underground water. Harvesting mainly entails gathering something from its natural source.

Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

There are many ways in which rainwater can be harvested. Some of these methods are.
These are the common methods of rainwater harvesting:

1. Surface Water Collection Systems: Surface water is simply water that accumulates on
the ground’s surface. When rainwater falls on the surface of the earth, it usually flows down
slopes as it moves towards a point of depression where the moving water can collect.
Surface water collection systems enable the collection of ground surface rainwater before it
flows to other locations. Examples of such systems include rivers, ponds, and wells.

2. Rooftop system: These can also be used to harvest rainwater. They can be used to
direct rainwater that falls on the roof of a building into containers or tanks. These tanks are
usually elevated so that when the tap is opened, water flows at a high pressure. This
method of rainwater harvesting is good because the accumulated water is mostly clean and
usually requires no further treatment to make it fit for human use.

3. Dams: These are barriers that are designed to trap water. Rainwater can accumulate
directly in them or drainage systems can be created to direct water into them. Water
collected in dams is mostly used for irrigation purposes or treated and then distributed for
domestic use.
4. Underground Tanks: These are also ideal for collecting rainwater. They are constructed
by digging into the ground and creating a space which is then cemented to reduce water
infiltration. The top is also sealed and water is obtained through pipes directed into the tank.
To get water out, pumps are used.

5. Water Collection Reservoirs: Water collected through this method is not really clean
and may be contaminated. However, it can still be used for crop irrigation.

6. Barrage: A barrage is a dam that has several openings which can be closed or opened
to control the quantity of water that passes through it. It is usually large and can be used to
collect a lot of water.

7. Trenches: This is another great way to harvest rainwater for irrigation. When it rains, the
water is directed to the farm using trenches. It is one of the traditional methods of rainwater
harvesting that is still very much in use today.

8. Rain Barrels: These are also used for rainwater harvesting. They are specifically
designed for this purpose and can be purchased from retail stores. Rain barrels are used
for harvesting rainwater that falls on rooftops.

Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting

1. Water For Domestic Use: Rainwater harvesting is beneficial because it provides a

source of water for domestic use. The collected water can be used for house cleaning
purposes, washing laundry and for cooking. When treated, rainwater is good for drinking. It
is an easy way of obtaining water for use in the home.

2. Water For Industrial Use: Industries can also harvest rainwater for use in some of their
processes. Rainwater meant for industrial use is normally harvested in large scale. Such
companies can construct their own dams or have underground tanks to store rainwater.

3. Cost Effective: We basically harvest rainwater for free because it is naturally occurring.
If you store enough water during the rainy season, you may never have to pay for water
services again because you’ll have enough supply to last you through the summer. This
saves you money by cutting down your monthly expenditure on water bills.

4. Mitigates/Reduces The Impacts of Floods: Harvesting rainwater plays a key role in

mitigating or reducing the impacts of floods. When rainwater is directed to farms through
trenches or collected in dams, its movement is controlled.

5. Building and Construction: Collected rainwater can be used for building and
construction. The process of building a house requires a lot of water. Harvesting rainwater
would thus avail water for this activity.

6. Helps In Preventing Water Pollution: Rainwater flowing on the ground surface can
carry with it a lot of impurities and toxic substances. When it drains into water bodies, it
pollutes them because of these impurities. Harvesting rainwater, therefore, prevents
pollution of water bodies.
7. Irrigation: Rainwater is good for farming because once harvested, it can be used for
irrigation especially during the summer. One can, therefore, have a thriving farm and realize
a bumper harvest.

8. Saves Potable Water: Instead of using clean and treated water for other purposes such
as washing and in the toilet, rainwater can be used. This saves potable water which would

Disadvantages of Harvesting Rainwater

1. Additional Expenditure: Treating rainwater to make it fit for human consumption will
see you incurring additional expenses. This would not happen when you use water supplied
to you by the local council because it’s already treated.

2. Huge Efforts and Resources Required: Constructing a dam or an underground tank is

no mean fete. Before you begin harvesting rainwater, you’ll have spent a considerable
amount of resources. There are other cheap means but then you’ll not collect a reasonable
amount of water.

3. Dependent On Rainfall: You can’t harvest rainwater when it does not rain. This process
is therefore solely dependent on the availability of rain which can sometimes be very
unreliable. What then happens when the dry spell is prolonged and you don’t have an
alternative source of water?

4. Limited Storage: Even if it rains for three months straight, you cannot harvest all that
water even if you wanted to. This is because there is limited storage to keep the rainwater.

5. Risk of Contamination: If not preserved with care, rainwater can be contaminated. This
can cause several health problems especially when the water is used without first being
treated. Waterborne diseases are so many and treating them is very costly.

6. Cleaning and Maintenance: The storage facilities have to be occasionally cleaned and
maintained. Cleaning an underground water tank is not easy and maintaining a dam is very
expensive. This makes the thought of harvesting rainwater unattractive.

7. Roof Tops That Contain Chemicals: Some rooftops contain chemicals and impurities
that mix with the rainwater. When consumed, this water can affect human health by causing
illnesses and other health conditions.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Watershed is defined as a geohydrological unit draining to a common point by

a system of drains. All lands on earth are part of one watershed or other.
Watershed is thus the land and water area, which contributes runoff to a
common point.

A watershed is an area of land and water bounded by a drainage divide within

which the surface runoff collects and flows out of the watershed through a

single outlet into a lager river ( or ) lake. Watershed technology is used in Rain

fed areas.
Watershed management implies an effective conservation of soil and water

resources for sustainable production with minimum non point resources (NFS)

pollutant losses. It involves management of land surface and vegetation so as

to conserve the soil and water for immediate and long term benefits to the

farmers, community and society as a whole.

Catchment area is the water collecting area. “All the areas from which water

flows out into a river or water pool”.

TYPES OF WATERSHED

Watersheds is classified depending upon the size, drainage, shape and land use
pattern.

 Macro watershed (> 50,000 Hect)

 Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Hect)
 Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 Hect)
 Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Hect)
 Mini watershed (1-100 Hect)

Objectives of watershed management

The different objectives of watershed management programmes are:

1. To control damaging runoff and degradation and thereby

conservation of soil and water.
2. To manage and utilize the runoff water for useful purpose.
3. To protect, conserve and improve the land of watershed for more
efficient and
sustained production.
4. To protect and enhance the water resource originating in the
watershed.
5. To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of sediment yield
on the watershed.
6. To rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
7. To moderate the floods peaks at down stream areas.
8. To increase infiltration of rainwater.
9. To improve and increase the production of timbers, fodder and
wild life resource.
10. To enhance the ground water recharge, wherever applicable.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People: Problems and

Concerns!
It is a well-known fact that both natural and human made disasters force peo-

ple to move out of their land. For example. Tsunami in South Asia in December

2004, Latur and Gujarat earthquake, the Orissa super-cyclone and scores of
floods and droughts in other parts of our country have rendered thousands of

people homeless and jobless. Disasters, like the Bhopal gas tragedy in Union

carbide factory, derailment of trains, are examples of human made disaster.

Control Measure

Firstly, strategies should be made for rehabilitation of thus displaced

people are in the first place by way of preventive action. For instance, care is

taken to build earthquake proof houses, gather advance information about

cyclones and arrange for timely evacuation, build appropriate bunds in flood

prone areas, maintain bridges that take regular up and down passing of trains/

road transport vehicles on them in order to avert likely disasters.

Secondly, advance preparation on the part of administration and local

communities are made to face the consequences of sudden calamities. For both

these remedial steps, the primary necessity is that of building awareness

among the people in general and among administrative personnel in particular.

Thirdly, advance planning should be made in the cases of natural and

human made calamities is however quite limited and in comparison the Govt.

we can certainly plan better in the cases of development projects which are

planned in advance.

Fourthly the Govt. has developed many development projects to take

care of people those who are affected by natural calamities. But the problem is

that the in-charge should pay little attention to the processes of resettlement

and rehabilitation of displaced people.

Fifthly, there are some institutional measure have been taken by the

government by way of constituting committees at various levels. They exist on

paper and their immediate response to the actual events is yet to come in any

significant manner.
 Finally, It is the responsibility of each human being and Govt. that

they Should take some initiative relief measure for the disaster victim through

resettlement and rehabilitation.

Environmental ethics: issue and possible solutions

 Resource consumption patterns and the need for equitable

utilization: It deals with how we utilize and distribute resources. There
is a difference between the individuals, communities and countries in
usage of resources. The educated urban people consumes much larger
quantities of resources and energy than the traditional rural individual.
This unequal distribution of wealth and access to land and its resources
is a serious environmental concern. An equitable sharing of resources
forms the basis of sustainable development for urban, rural
communities.

 Equity-disparity in the northern and southern countries: It is

concerned with who owns resources and how they are distributed. People
living in the economically-advanced nations use greater amounts of
resources and energy per individual and also waste more resources. This
is at the cost poor people who are resource-dependent and live in
developing nations.

 Urban-rural equity issues: The common property of rural communities

has increasingly been used to supply the needs of the urban and
industrial sectors. As the rural sector supplies food and a part of the
energy needs (mainly fuel wood) to most towns and cities in India, the
common lands of the rural sector are being depleted of their resources.

 The need for gender equity: All over India, especially in the rural
sector, women work longer hours than men. They are involved in
collection and sale of fuel wood, collection of fodder, fruits, medicinal
products, trekking several kilometres to fetch potable water, cooking
meals in smoky unhealthy atmosphere etc. On an average they spend 10-
12 hrs a day of very hard work, every day of the year. Unfortunately, it is
the men who play a decisive role in managing the village common and
their resources while women have not been given an equal opportunity to
develop and improve their status which is due to a lower access to
 education and health care than that of men. This has deep implications
for the rate of utilization of natural resources and their conservation.

 Preserving resources for future generations: This ethical issue must

be considered when we use resources unsustainably. If we overuse and
misuse resources and energy from fossil fuels, our future generations will
find survival very difficult.

The rights of animals: The plants and animals that share the Earth with
us too have a right to live and share the Earth’s resources and living
space. We have no right to push a species that has taken millions of years
to evolve towards extinction. Cruelty to animals is a crime that must be
regarded seriously and action must be taken against offenders.

 The ethical basis of environment education and awareness: . The

Supreme Court of our country has ordered that every young individual at
school and college level be exposed to a course on environment.

 The conservation ethic and traditional value systems of

India: During olden days, people have always valued mountains, rivers,
forests, trees and several animals. Thus, much of nature was venerated
and protected. Certain species of trees have been protected as they are
valued for their fruit or flowers. Traditions held the animals/species as an
important aspect of nature were the basis of local life-support systems
and were integral to bring about a harmonious life.

CLIMATE CHANGE

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

defines it as a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to
human activity, altering the composition of the global atmosphere.

Human activity includes the pollution that arises from industrial activity and
other sources that produce greenhouse gases. These gases, such as carbon
dioxide, have the ability to absorb the spectrum of infrared light and contribute
to the warming of our atmosphere. Once produced, these gases can remain
trapped in the atmosphere for tens or hundreds of years.
 Global warming
Global warming is defined as the increase in the temperature on earth's surface due to
various reasons. The reasons include both by human and natural but the major
contribution towards the global warming is from human and his activities. The natural
causes include volcanic eruptions and other natural hazards. Due to volcanic eruption
there is a production large amount of heat and this heat will transmitted to the
atmosphere and there will be a increase in the atmospheric temperature. The other
reasons are the activities of human that lead to the global warming. They are listed
below:

Exhaust from vehicles

The exhaust from vehicles are mainly compounds of carbon including carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide etc. The incomplete or partial combustion of fossil fuel will release
more harmful gases to the atmosphere and these gases increase heat in the
atmosphere this also results in the global warming.

Exhaust from jet plane and other commercial planes

The exhaust from the jet planes directly enter to the atmosphere because they are
flying in the high altitudes which is near to the ozone layer. These exhausts are by-
product of burned fossil fuel.

Exhaust from industries

Many industries exhaust their exhaust gas directly to the atmosphere these gasses are
very harmful and capable of producing holes in the ozone layer. These gasses include
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide etc.

Exhaust from various power plants mainly non conventional

Non conventional power plants are power plants use non conventional power source
such as fossil fuel, coal etc for their energy source. These power plants emits a lot of
gasses to the atmosphere which is very harmful to the ozone layer.

Green house gasses

Carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour, nitrous oxide, etc are collectively called green
house gas.Water vapour are released when the surface water bodies become hot and
the water evaporates to the atmosphere. The methane is formed from the dead and
decay of organic materials.

Gasses released from mines

Gasses released from mines also a make good contribution to the ozone depletion
many greenhouse gasses are release from the mines which released to atmosphere
and make serious damage on the Ozone layer.

Effects of global warning

1.Rise in sea level world wide

Scientists predict an increase in sea levels worldwide due to the melting of two
massive ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland, especially on the East coast of the
U.S. However, many nations around the world will experience the effects of rising sea
levels, which could displace millions of people.
2.Severe storms
The severity of storms such as hurricanes and cyclones is increasing and it may
destroy the population and the habitat of the animals.
3. Massive crop failures due to climate change.
“Climate change is expected to have the most severe impact on water supplies.
“Shortages in future are likely to threaten food production, reduce sanitation, hinder
economic development and damage ecosystems.
4. Widespread extinction of species
“Climate change now represents at least as great a threat to the number of species
surviving on Earth as habitat-destruction and modification
5. Disappearance of coral reefs
Due to prolonged rise in sea temperature causes severe danger for ocean
ecosystems, and many other species in the oceans rely on coral reefs for their survival.

Remedial measures

1. Plant maximum number of trees as they releases oxygen and absorbs CO2 present in
atmosphere. In this way a tree balance the temperature of air and reduces the amount
of CO2 present in air.

2. Vehicles release many harmful gases in the air. Hence try to drive those cars which
run on gas or electricity. If possible minimize the use of personal vehicle and travel by
public transport. This way we can also control the problem of pollution.

3. Use fans more than air conditioners to use less energy. Hot air releases from air
conditioner is one of the major factor behind global warming.

4. Avoid to use water heater or use that on temperature lesser than 120 F.

5. Instead of dryers take an advantage of sun light to dry wet cloths.

6. Unplug all the electrical appliances if they are not in use.

7. For less amount of carbon emission we can also use renewable energy like wind
power which generate negligible amount of harmful gases.
8. Use recyclable materials instead of disposable materials. This is good to control on
waste.

ACID RAIN

Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in rain water. Thermal power
plants, industries and vehicles release nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide into
the atmosphere by burning of coal and oil. When these gases react with water
vapour in the atmosphere, they form acids and descend on Earth as "acid rain"
through rain water.

Causes of Acid Rain

Both natural and man-made sources are known to play a role in the
formation of acid rain. But, it is mainly caused by combustion of fossil
fuels which results in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx).

1. Natural Sources

The major natural causal agent for acid rain is volcanic emissions.
Volcanoes emit acid producing gases to create higher than normal
amounts of acid rain or any other form of precipitation such as fog and
snow to an extent of affecting vegetation cover and health of residents
within the surrounding.

Man-made sources

Human activities leading to chemical gas emissions such as sulphur and

nitrogen are the primary contributors to acid rain. The activities
include air pollution sources emitting sulphur and nitrogen gases like
factories, power generations facilities, and automobiles. In particular, use
of coal for electrical power generation is the biggest contributor to
gaseous emissions leading to acid rain. Automobiles and factories also
release high scores of gaseous emissions on daily basis into the air,
especially in highly industrialized areas and urban regions with large
numbers of car traffic.

Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain has significant effects on the world environment and public
health.

 Effect on Aquatic Environment: Acid rain puts affect on aquatic

environment. The aquatic plants and animals need a particular pH
level of about 4.8 to survive. If the pH level falls below that the
conditions become hostile for the survival of aquatic life.

 Effect on Forests: It makes trees vulnerable to disease, extreme

weather, and insects by destroying their leaves, damaging the
bark and arresting their growth.

 Effect on Soil: Acid rain highly impacts on soil chemistry and

biology. It means, soil microbes and biological activity as well as
soil chemical compositions such as soil pH are damaged or
reversed due to the effects of acid rain.

 Vegetation Cover and Plantations: The damaging effects of acid

rain on soil and high levels of dry depositions have endlessly
damaged high altitude forests and vegetation cover since they are
mostly encircled by acidic fogs and clouds.
 Effect on Architecture and Buildings: Acid rain on buildings,
especially those constructed with limestone are affected severely.
Modern buildings, cars, airplanes, steel bridges and pipes are all
affected by acid rain. Irreplaceable damage can be caused to the
old heritage buildings.

 Effect on Public Health: When in atmosphere, sulphur dioxide and

nitrogen oxide gases and their particulate matter derivatives like
sulphates and nitrates, degrades visibility and can cause
accidents, leading to injuries, deaths and other health problems.
Solutions to Acid Rain

1 Alternative Energy Sources

Besides fossil fuels, there is a wide range of alternative energy

sources that can generate electrical power. These include wind energy,
geothermal energy, solar energy, hydropower, and nuclear power.

2 Individual, National/State, and International Actions

Millions of people directly and indirectly contribute to SO2 and NOx

emissions. Mitigation of this challenge requires individuals to be more
informed about energy conservation and ways of reducing emissions such
as: turning off lights or electrical appliances when not using them; use
public transport; use energy efficient electrical appliances; and use of
hybrid vehicles.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

There are different layers of the atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere is

composed of many layers, each playing a significant role. The first layer
stretching approximately 10 kilometers upwards from the earth’s surface
is known as the troposphere. A lot of human activities such as gas
balloons, mountain climbing, and small aircraft flights take place within
this region.

The stratosphere is the next layer above the troposphere stretching

approximately 15 to 60 kilometers. The ozone layer sits in the lower
region of the stratosphere from about 20-30 kilometers above the surface
of the earth. The thickness of the ozone layer is about 3 to 5 mm, but it
pretty much fluctuates depending on the season and geography.

Ozone layer is a deep layer in earth’s atmosphere that contain ozone

which is a naturally occurring molecule containing three oxygen atoms.
These ozone molecules form a gaseous layer in the Earth’s upper
atmosphere called stratosphere. This lower region of stratosphere
containing relatively higher concentration of ozone is called Ozonosphere.
The Ozonosphere is found 15-35 km (9 to 22 miles) above the surface of
the earth.

CAUSES OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Natural causes of depletion of ozone layer: Ozone layer has been found
to be affected by certain natural phenomena such as Sun-spots and
stratospheric winds. But this has been found to cause not more than 1-2%
depletion of the ozone layer and the effects are also thought to be only
temporary. It is also believed that the major volcanic eruptions has also
contributed towards ozone depletion.

Man-made causes of depletion of ozone layer: The main cause for the
depletion of ozone is determined as excessive release of chlorine and
bromine from man-made compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halons, CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform),
CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride), HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons),
hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl bromide are found to have direct
impact on the depletion of the ozone layer.

Serious Effects of Ozone Depletion

1. Damage to human health

If the ozone layer is depleted, it means humans will be overly exposed to

strong UV light. Overexposure to strong UV light causes skin cancer,
cataracts, sunburns, weakening of immune system and quick aging.

2. Devastation to environment

Many crops species are vulnerable to strong UV light and overexposure

may well lead to minimal growth, photosynthesis and flowering. Some of
the crop species vulnerable to UV light include barley, wheat, corn, oats,
rice, broccoli, tomatoes, cauliflower just to name a few. Forests equally
also effected by ozone depletion.

3. Threat to marine life

Certain marine life, especially planktons, is greatly impacted by exposure

to strong ultraviolet rays. In the aquatic food chain, planktons appear high
up. If planktons decrease in number due to ozone layer destruction, the
marine food chain would be disrupted in many ways. Also, overexposure
of sun rays could reduce the fortunes of fishers.

4. Effect on animals
In domesticated animals, too much Ultraviolet radiation could also lead to
skin and eye cancer.

5. Impacts certain materials

Materials like plastics, wood, fabrics, rubber are massively degraded by
too much ultraviolet radiation.

Solutions to Ozone Depletion

1. Desist from using pesticides

Pesticides are the concentration of many chemicals materials and causes

for ozone layer depletion. So it is advised to use alternative eco-
friendly chemicals instead of pesticides.

2. Discourage driving of private vehicles

The easiest technique to minimize ozone depletion is to limit the number

of vehicles on the road. These vehicles emit a lot of greenhouse
gases that eventually form smog, which is the main cause of the depletion
of ozone layer.

3. Utilize environmentally friendly cleaning products

Most household cleaning products are loaded with harsh chemicals that
find way to the atmosphere, eventually contributing to degradation of the
ozone layer. Use natural and environmentally friendly cleaning products
to arrest this situation.

4. Nitrous oxide, which is a known harmful chemical that can destroy the
ozone layer. Nitrous oxide is still in use today. Governments must take
action now and outlaw nitrous oxide use to reduce the rate of ozone
depletion.

NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST

A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic agency

as an “event that has led to significant consequences to people, the

environment or the facility”. Examples include lethal effects to individuals,

large radioactivity release to the environment, or “reactor core melt.”

The prime example of a “major nuclear accident” is one in which a reactor core

is damaged and significant amounts of radiation are released, such as in the

Chernobyl Disaster in 1986. The impact of nuclear accidents has been a topic

of debate practically since the first nuclear reactors were constructed. It has

also been a key factor in public concern about nuclear facilities.

Two of the major nuclear accidents are as follows:

(i) Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster:

26th of April 1986 witnessed one of the world’s worst Nuclear Disaster ever in

Chernobyl. Chernobyl is approximately 80 miles (which is 120 kilometers)

north of the capital city of the Ukraine, Kiev. The accident took lives of 30

people immediately and vast evacuation of 135000 people within 20 mile radius

of the power plant was carried out after the accident.

Causes of the Accident:

There was not one cause of this accident, there were several which all

contributed to it. This accident happened while testing an RMBK reactor. A

chain reaction occurred in the reactor and got out of control, causing
explosions and a huge fireball which blew off the heavy concrete and steel lid

on the reactor.

These are the causes:

1. Design fault in RBMK reactor

2. A violation, of procedures

3. Breakdown of communication

4. Lack of a ‘Safety Culture’ in the power plant

Consequences of the Accident:

1. Environmental consequences:

The radioactive fallout caused radioactive material to deposit itself over large

areas of ground. It has had an effect over most of the northern hemisphere in

one way or another. In some local ecosystems within a 6 mile (10 km) radius of

the power plant the radiation is lethally high especially in small mammals such

as mice and coniferous trees. Luckily within 4 years of the accident nature

began to restore itself, but genetically these plants may be scarred for life.

2. Health effects:

Firstly, there was a huge increase in Thyroid Cancer in Ukrainian children

(from birth to 15 years old). From 1981-1985 there was an average of 4-6

patients per million but between 1986 and 1997 this increased to an average of

45 patients per million.

It was also established that 64% of Thyroid Cancer patients lived in the most

contaminated areas of the Ukraine (Kiev province, Kiev city, provinces of

Rovno, Zhitomir, Cherkassy and Chernigov).

3. Psychological consequences:

There has been an increase in psychological disorders such as anxiety,

depression, helplessness and other disorders which lead to mental stress.

These disorders are not a consequence of radiation, but a consequence from

the stress of evacuation, the lack of information given after the accident and

the stress of knowing that their health and their children’s health could be

affected.

4. Economic, political and social consequences:

The worst contaminated areas were economically, socially and politically

declining as the birth rate had decreased and emigration numbers had

substantially risen which had caused a shortage in labour force. These areas

could not evolve industrially or agriculturally because of strict rules that were

introduced because the area was too contaminated.

(ii) Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster:

The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster was a series of equipment failures,

nuclear meltdowns, and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I

Nuclear Power Plant, following the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami on 11

March, 2011. It is the largest nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster of

1986.

The plant comprises six separate boiling water reactors originally designed by

General Electric (GE), and maintained by the Tokyo Electric Power Company

(TEPCO). At the time of the quake, Reactor 4 had been de-fuelled while 5 and 6

were in cold shutdown for planned maintenance.

The remaining reactors shut down automatically after the earthquake, and

emergency generators came online to control electronics and coolant systems.

The tsunami resulted in flooding of the rooms containing the emergency

generators.

Consequently those generators ceased working, causing eventual power loss to

the pumps that circulate coolant water in the reactor. The pumps then stopped

working, causing the reactors to overheat due to the high decay heat that

normally continues for a short time, even after a nuclear reactor shut down.

Wildlife Protection Act (1972) of India!

The Wildlife Act was passed in 1972 to protect the wildlife and their habitats.

The habitat destruction due to agriculture, industries, urbanisation and other

human activities had led to the erosion of the country’s wildlife.

The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up as

follows:

1. It defines the wildlife related terminology.

2. Enactment of an All India Wildlife Protection Act (1972).

3. It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory Board, Wildlife warden,

their powers, duties etc.

4. Becoming a party to the Convention of International Trade in Endangered

Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1976).

5. Launching a “national component of UNESCO’s ‘Man and Biosphere

Programme’ (1971).

6. Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife species was

done for the first time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species

was mentioned.

7. Protection to some endangered plants.

8. The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.

9. The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.

10. There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with

license for sale, possession, transfer etc.

11. The act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.

12. It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.

It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species. Several

Conservation Projects for individual endangered species like Lion (1972), Tiger

(1973), Crocodile (1974) and Brown antlered Deer (1981) were stated under

this Act. The Act is adopted by all states in India except J & K, which has its

own Act.

Some of the major drawbacks of the Act include mild penalty to offenders,

illegal wildlife trade in J & K, personal ownership certificate for animal articles

like tiger and leopard skins, no coverage of foreign endangered wildlife,

pitiable condition of wildlife in mobile zoos and little emphasis on protection of

plant genetic resources.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION ACT--1986

This Act has been brought into force from November, 1986. Its salient features
are:

(a) Conferring powers on the Central Government to:

(i) Take all necessary measures for protecting quality of environment,

(ii) Co-ordinate actions of States, officers and other authorities under this Act,

(iii) Plan and execute a nationwide programme for prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution,

(iv) Lay down standards for discharge of environmental pollutants,

(v) Empower any person to enter, inspect, take samples and test,

(vi) Establish or recognise environmental laboratories,

(vii) Appoint or recognise government analysts, (viii) lay down standards for
quality of environment,

(ix) Restrict areas in which any industries, operations or processes may not be
carried out subject to certain safeguards,

(x) Lay down safeguards for prevention of accidents and take remedial
measures in case of such accidents,

(xi) Lay down procedures and safeguards for handling hazardous substances,

(xii) Constitute an authority for exercising powers,

(xiii) Issue directions to any person, officer or authority including the power to
direct closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process,

(xiv) Require any person, officer or authority to furnish any prescribed

information and

(xv) Delegate powers to any officer of a state or authority;

(b) It confers powers on persons to complain to courts regarding any violation

of the provisions of the Act, after a notice of 60 days to the prescribed
authorities;

(c) The Act makes it obligatory for the person in charge of a place to inform the
prescribed authorities regarding any accidental discharge of any pollutant in
excess of prescribed standards.

The concerned authorities, on receipt of such information, shall take remedial

measures to prevent or mitigate pollution caused by such accidents and
expenses incurred by the authorities in respect of remedial measures are
recoverable with interest from the polluter;

(d) It prescribes stringent penalties for violation of the provisions of the Act;
and

(e) Jurisdiction of civil courts is barred under the Act.

A comprehensive Environment (Protection) Act came into being in 1986 to

remedy the lacunae noticed in the earlier laws and to serve as a single
legislation on the subject.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 were amended to bring their
provisions at par with those of The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and to
give more powers to the implementing agencies.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act (1981) of

India!
It makes provisions, interlaid, for Central and State Boards, power to declare

pollution control areas, restrictions on certain industrial units, authority of the

Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of entry, inspection, taking

samples and analysis, penalties, offences by companies and Government and

cognizance of offences etc..

The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution

areas and to prescribe the type of fuel to be used in these designated areas.

According to this Act, no person can operate certain types of industries

including the asbestos, cement, fertilizer and petroleum industries without

consent of the State Board.

The Government passed this Act in 1981 to clean up our air by controlling

pollution. It states that sources of air pollution such as industry, vehicles,

power plants, etc., are not permitted to release particulate matter, lead, carbon

monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or

other toxic substances beyond a prescribed level.

To ensure this, Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) have been set up by

Government to measure pollution levels in the atmosphere and at certain

sources by testing the air. The particulate matter and gases that are released

by industry and by cars, buses and two wheelers is measured by using air-

sampling equipment. However, the most important aspect is for people

themselves to appreciate the dangers of air pollution and reduce their own

potential as polluters by seeing that their own vehicles or the industry they

work in reduces levels of emissions.

This Act is created to take appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural

resources of the Earth which among other things includes the preservation of

high quality air and ensures controlling the level of air pollution.

The main objectives of the Act are as follows:

(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.

(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to

implement the Act.

(c) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act

and assign to the Boards functions relating to pollution.

Powers and Functions of the Boards:

Central Pollution Board:

The main function of the Central Board is to implement legislation created to

improve the quality of air and to prevent and control air pollution in the

country.

The-Board advises the Central Government on matters concerning the

improvement of air quality and also coordinates activities, provides technical

assistance and guidance to State Boards and lays down standards for the

quality of air. It collects and disseminates information in respect of matters

relating to air pollution and performs functions as prescribed in the Act.

State Pollution Control Boards:

The State Boards have the power to advise the State Government on any

matter concerning the prevention and control of air pollution. They have the

right to inspect at all reasonable times any control equipment, industrial plant,

or manufacturing process and give orders to take the necessary steps to

control pollution.

They are expected to inspect air pollution control areas at intervals or

whenever necessary. They are empowered to provide standards for emissions

to be laid down for different industrial plants with regard to quantity and

composition of emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere.

A State Board may establish or recognize a laboratory to perform this function.

The State Governments have been given powers to declare air pollution control

areas after consulting with the State Board and also give instructions to ensure

standards of emission from automobiles and restriction on use of certain

industrial plants.

Penalties:

The persons managing industry are to be penalized if they produce emissions

of air pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board. The

Board also makes applications to the court for restraining persons causing air

pollution.
WATER PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION ACT,1974

This act aims to prevent and control water pollution and to maintain/restore of
water by establishing central and state pollution control board to monitor and
enforce the regulations

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The Central Pollution Control Board, and State Pollution Control Boards
composition, terms and conditions of service of members are defined in
Sections 3-12 of water (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974.
The Board advises the government on any matter concerning the prevention
and control of water pollution. It coordinates the activities and provides
technical assistance and guidance. This policy sets the standards and penalties
for non-compliance for polluting bodies.
The Government has power to restrict any unit, and to take samples of
effluents and get them analysed in Central or State laboratories. Whoever fails
to comply with any provision of this Act is punishable with imprisonment, fine
or with both.
The Central Board may perform all or any of the following functions, namely,-

 advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention

and control of water pollution;
 co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among
them;
 provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out
and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of water
pollution and prevention, control or abatement of water pollution;
 plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in
programmes for the prevention, control or abatement of water pollution
on such terms and conditions as the Central Board may specify;
 organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the
prevention and control of water pollution;
 collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to
water pollution and the measures devised for its effective prevention and
control and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to treatment and
disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate information
connected therewith;
 lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Government
concerned, the standards for a stream or well;
 plan and execute a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution;
 perform such other functions as may be prescribed.

WASTE LAND RECLAMATION

Waste land reclamation refers to the process of making land useful by restoring
it from wetlands, seas, lakes, deserts or mines, through drainage or irrigation.
It also refers to the restoration of land that is damaged by natural phenomena,
such as erosion, or impaired by industrial and urban processes. In other words
Reclamation of waste land means re-claiming it or to use it for productive
purposes.

1. Afforestation:

It means growing the forest over cultivable wasteland.

2. Reforestation:

Growing the forest again over the lands where they were existing and was

destroyed due to fires, overgrazing, and excessive cutting. Reforestation

checks water logging, floods, soil erosion and increase productivity of land.

3. Providing surface cover:

The easiest way to protect the land surface from soil erosion is of leave crop

residue on the land after harvesting.

4. Mulching:

Here also protective cover of organic matter and plants like stalks, cotton

stalks, tobacco stalks etc. are used which reduce evaporation, help in retaining

soil moisture and reduce soil erosion.

5. Changing Ground Topography on Downhill’s:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Running water erodes the hill soil and carries the soil along with it. This can be

minimized by following alternation in ground topography:

(a) Strip farming:

Different kinds of crops are planted in alternate strip along the contour.

(b) Terracing:

In this arrangement, the earth is shaped in the form of levelled terraces to hold

soil and water. The terrace edges are planted with such plant species which

anchor the soil.

(c) Contour ploughing:

In this arrangement, the ploughing of land is done across the hill and not in up

and down style.

6. Leaching:

In salt affected land, the salinity can be minimized by leaching them with more

water.

7. Changing agricultural practices:

Like mixed cropping, crop rotation and cropping of plants are adopted to

improve soil fertility.

8. Ecological Succession:

This refers to the natural development or redevelopment of an ecosystem

which help in reclaiming the minerally deficient soil of wasteland.

Public Awareness
1. Government should organize Environmental Education campaign

programmes for children, youth, men and women. The state government should

establish appropriate funding mechanisms for raising public awareness of

environmental education.

2. Government officials can make significant contributions to improve public

awareness of environmental education.

3. NGOs (at national and community levels) should initiate and help by

awareness campaigns to save environment.

4. Ban the littering of polythene cannot be successful until the public

understands the environmental implications of the same.

5. Proper methods of disposal and its treatment should be applied otherwise

they can be the causes of chronic diseases. When sewage is applied

continuously on a part of land, the pores or voids of the soil are clogged and

free circulation of air is prevented.

6. Humans are responsible for depletion of the natural resources; degradation

of the vital life-supporting systems (like air, water, soil, etc.); ecological
imbalance; deteriorated environment, etc. By exercising following actions,

humans can protect global environment for sustainable development:

i. Preserve forest cover: Humans should minimize cutting of trees and using

timber for aesthetic pleasure such as decoration of drawing rooms.

ii. Preserve natural resources: Human should not extract unnecessarily and

exhaustively the natural resources such as mineral resources, water resources,

etc.

iii. Conserve energy: Human should not harness too much energy from burning

of fossil fuels.

iv. Maintain ecological balance: Human should exploit synergy between green

revolution and industrial evolution by compulsory growing green belts around

industrial areas, maintaining wild life sanctuaries and national parks.

v. Practice green technology: Everyone from a farmer in the village to a policy

planner in the government should use green technology that incorporates:

treatment of air emissions, treatment of waste waters, waste reduction, waste

or emission management, use of non-conventional, renewable energy resources

like solar energy on priority, etc.