Introduction to Quantum

Mechanics
Dr. Ricardo Pablo Pedro
The experimental origins of quantum mechanics
Although the fist hint of QM came in 1900 with Planck’s solution to the problem of blackbody radiation,
the full theory did not emerge until 1925-1926, with Heisenberg’s matrix model, Schrodinger’s wave model, and
Born’s statistical interpretation of the wave model.

Is Light a Wave or a Particle?

Newton Vs Huygens

1.-Black Body radiation in 1900

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DHG61XPuWyk
2.- The Photoelectric effect in 1905
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUxub7PnunI
3.- The Double-Slit Experiment, revisited
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NvzSLByrw4Q
4.- Schrodinger (1926) and Heisenberg (1932)
A First Approach to Quantum mechanics
The are two key ingredients to quantum theory, both of which arose from experiments.

1.- The first ingredients is wave-particle duality, in which objects are observed to have both wavelike and particle
like behavior.
2.- The second ingredient of quantum theory is its probabilistic behavior.

Position and the Position Operator

The probability of the position of the particle belongs to some set

∫ ψ
2
(x) dx → E ⊂ R 1

For this prescription to make sense, psi should be normalized so that

∫ ψ
2 2
(x) dx = 1 L (R)
R
Now, if the function |psi(x)|^2 is the probabity density for the position of a particle, then according to the standard
definition of probability theory, the expectation value of the position will be

E(x) = ∫ x ψ (x) dx
2

provided that the integral is absolutely convergent. More, generally, we can compute any moment of the position

E(x ) = ∫ x ψ (x) dx
n n 2

assuming, again, the convergence of the integral.

A key idea in Quantum theory is to express expectation values of varios quantities (position, momentum, energy, etc.)
2
In term of operators and the inner product on the relevant Hilbert space. L (R)
In the case of position, we may introduce the position operator X defined by

( Xψ ) ( x ) = xψ (x)
The point of introducing this operator is that expectation value of the position may now be expressed as

E(x) = ψ , Xψ
φ ,ψ = ∫ φ (x)ψ (x)dx
We use the following notation for the expectation value of the operator X in the state psi

X ψ
:= ψ , Xψ

ψ ∈L ( R )
2
Momentum and the Momentum operator
Define the momentum operator P by

d
P = −i!
dx
P ψ = ψ ,P ψ
m m

For a particle moving in R, let the quantum Hilbert space be L^2® and define the
position and momentum operators X and P by

Xψ (x) = xψ (x)
dψ (x)
Pψ (x) = −i!
dx
 The position and momentum operators X and P do not commute, but satisfy there relation

XP − PX = i!I
This relation is known as the canonical commutation relation

Proof. Using the product rule we calculate that

d
PXψ = −i! ( xψ (x)) = −i! ( xψ (x)) + XPψ (x)
dx

There rre many important consequences of the above relation, which we will examine at length later.
 The emergence of the waves and the mechanical
laws of liquids and solids
waves and wave equations in many-particles systems are determined by how the particles are organized in the ground state

Mathematically the motion of the compression wave is governed by the Euler equation

∂ ρ (x,t)
2
2 ∂ ρ (x,t)
2
Liquids −ν =0
∂t 2
∂x 2

The propagation of the compression wave and the two transverse waves in solids are described by the Navier equation

∂ u (x,t)
2 i
ikl ∂ u (x,t)
2 j
Solids − Tj =0
∂t 2
∂x ∂x
k l
Waves=particles
 Cuando el potential (V(x) ) es independiente del tiempo, usaremos variables separables.

∂ψ ! ∂ψ
2 2
i! =− + V (x)ψ
∂t 2m ∂x 2
ψ (x,t) = ϕ (x)φ (t)
∂ϕ (x)φ (t) ! ∂ ϕ (x)φ (t)
2 2
i! =− + V (x)ϕ (x)φ (t)
∂t 2m ∂x 2

∂φ (t) ! 2
∂ ϕ (x)
2
i!ϕ (x) =− φ (t) + V (x) ϕ (x)φ (t)
∂t 2m ∂x 2

1 ∂φ (t) ! 2
1 ∂ ϕ (x)
2
i! =− + V (x) = E
φ (t) ∂t 2m ϕ (x) ∂x 2

1 ∂φ (t)
i! =E
φ (t) ∂t
! 2
1 ∂ ϕ (x)
2
! ∂ ϕ (x) 2 2
− + V (x) = E ⇒ − + V (x)ϕ (x) = Eϕ (x)
2m ϕ (x) ∂x 2
2m ∂x 2
 1 ∂φ (t) ∂φ (t) −i
i! =E⇒ = Eφ (t)
φ (t) ∂t ∂t !
φ (t )
dφ (t) −i dφ (t) −i
t

= Edt ⇒ ∫ =∫ E dt
φ (t) ! φ (t )=0
φ (t) t=0
!
φ (t ) −i t −i
ln φ (t) φ (t )=0 = E t 0 ⇒ ln φ (t) = Et ⇒ φ (t) = e −iEt /!

! !
y iy iy
ix = y ⇒ x = = x = = = −iy ψ (x,t) = ϕ (x)φ (t) = e ϕ (x)
−iEt /!
i i *i −1
i = −1
 Propiedades de la función de onda

ψ (x,t) = ψ (x,t)ψ (x,t) = e ϕ (x)e

+iEt /!
ϕ (x) = ϕ (x)ϕ (x) = ϕ (x)
−iEt /!
2 * * * 2

Normalizacion

∫ ψ
2
dx (x,t) = 1
−∞
Valor esperado

H = ∫ dxψ (x,t)Hψ (x,t)

*
 ! ∂ 2 2
H =− + V (x)
2m ∂x 2

Hψ = Eψ

H = ∫ dxψ (Hψ ) = ∫ dxψ Eψ = E ∫ dxψ ψ = E ∫ dx ψ = E

* * * 2

H 2
=E 2

Otra propiedad de la función de onda es que se puede escribir como una combinación lineal

∞
ψ (x,t) = ∑ cnϕ n (x)e −iEnt /!

n=1
 The infinite Square Well
V(x)
! ∂ 2 2
H =− + V (x) ⎧⎪ 0,if 0 ≤ x ≤ a
2m ∂x 2
V (x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ ∞,otherwise V (x) = 0 V (x) = ∞

e
Solution de la caja x
0 a
⎛ ! ∂ 2 2
⎞ ⎛ ! ∂ ⎞
2 2
Hψ = ⎜ − + V (x)⎟ ψ = ⎜ − 2⎟
ψ = Eψ
⎝ 2m ∂x 2
⎠ ⎝ 2m ∂x ⎠
∂ψ2
⇒ 2 = −y ψ
2

∂x La solución es similar al oscilador Harmonico

Solution
2mE ψ (x) = Asin(kx) + B cos(kx)
y= ψ (x) = Asin(kx)
!
Condiciones de la función de onda
ψ (0) = ψ (a) = 0 Para que valores la función se hace cero
ka = 0, ±π , ±2π ,!, ±nπ
ψ (0) = Asin(k * 0) + B cos(k * 0) = B
nπ
kn =
a
 Calcular la energia del sistema
⎛ ! ∂ 2
⎞ ⎛ ! ∂ ⎞
2 2 2 ψ (x) = Asin(kn x)
Hψ = ⎜ − + V (x)⎟ ψ = ⎜ − 2⎟
ψ = Eψ
⎝ 2m ∂x 2
⎠ ⎝ 2m ∂x ⎠

⎛ ! ∂ ⎞
2 2
! ∂ 2
! 2
⎛ ! 2
2⎞
−
⎜⎝ 2m ∂x ⎟⎠ ψ = − Ak cos(k x) = + Ak 2
sin(k x) = k
⎜⎝ 2m ⎟⎠ ψ = EAsin(k x) = Eψ
2m ∂x
2 n n n n n n
2m
! k !π n
2 2 2 2 2
⇒E= = 2
n
2m 2ma

a a a
a 2
∫0 ψ ∫0 ∫0
2
dx = 1 ⇒ dxA sin (k n x) = 1 = A2 2
dx sin (k n
2
x) = A = 12
⇒ A = 2

2 a
 The role of the Harmonic Oscillator
The HO is an important model for varios reasons. In solid-state physics , for example, a crystal is modeled
as a large number of coupled harmonic oscillators. Using the notion of “normal modes”, this model
is then transformed into independent one-dimensional harmonic oscillators with different frequencies. In the quantum
mechanical setting, the excitations fo the different normal modes are called phonons.

! ∂ 2 2
H =− + V (x)
2m ∂x 2

1 2
Ley de Hooke V (x) = κ x
2
∂ x 2 κ 1
F = −κ x = m 2 ω= V (x) = mω x2 2

∂t m 2

dV
F=− x(t) = Asin(ω t) + B cos(ω t)
dx
 The Harmonic oscillator
Ley de Hooke
1 2
κ V (x) = κ x
∂ x 2
x(t) = Asin(ω t) + B cos(ω t) ω= 2
F = −κ x = m 2
∂t m 1
V (x) = mω x2 2

2
! ∂ ψ (x)
2 2
− + V (x)ψ (x) = Eψ (x)
! ∂2 2
2m ∂x 2
H =− + V (x)
2m ∂x 2
−
! ∂ ψ (x) 1 2
2 2
+ κ x ψ (x) = Eψ (x)
2m ∂x 2
2
! 2 ∂ 2ψ (x) 1
− + mω x ψ (x) = Eψ (x)
2 2

2m ∂x 2
2
⎡ 2 ∂ ψ (x) ⎤
2
1
⎢ −! + m ω x ψ (x) ⎥ = Eψ (x)
2 2 2

Vamos a usar un método algebraico 2m ⎣ ∂x 2

⎦
1 ⎡⎛ ! d ⎞ ⎤
2
u + v = (u + iv)(u − iv) = u − iuv + ivu + v
2 2 2 2
⎟⎠ + (mω x) ⎥ψ (x) = Eψ (x)
2
⎢⎜⎝
1 ⎛! d 2m ⎣ i dx ⎦
⎞
a± ≡ ⎜⎝ ± imω x ⎟
2m i dx ⎠
 ⎡
1 ⎛! d ⎞
2
⎤
u + v = (u + iv)(u − iv) = u − iuv + ivu + v
2 2 2 2
⎢⎜⎝
2m ⎣ i dx
⎟⎠ + (mω x) ⎥ψ (x) = Eψ (x)
2

⎦
⎛ 1 ⎞
1 ⎛! d ⎞ ⎜⎝ a− a+ − !ω ⎟⎠ ψ (x) = Eψ (x)
a± ≡ ⎜⎝ ± imω x ⎟ 2
2m i dx ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ a+ a− + !ω ⎟⎠ ψ (x) = Eψ (x)
1 ⎛! d ⎞ 1 ⎛! d ⎞ 2
a− a+ψ (x) = ⎜⎝ − imω x ⎟ ⎜ + imω x ⎟ ψ (x)
2m i dx ⎠ 2m ⎝ i dx ⎠ n = a− a+
1 ⎡⎛ ! d ⎞ ⎤ a− a+ − a+ a− = !ω
2
d d
= ⎟⎠ ψ (x) + !mω ( xψ (x)) − !mω x ψ (x) + (mω x) ψ (x) ⎥
2
⎢⎜⎝
2m ⎣ i dx dx dx ⎦
1 ⎡⎛ ! d ⎞ ⎤
2

= ⎟⎠ ψ (x) + !mωψ (x) + (mω x) ψ (x) ⎥

2
⎢⎜⎝
2m ⎣ i dx ⎦
1 ⎛! d ⎞ 1 ⎛! d ⎞
a+ a−ψ (x) = ⎜⎝ + imω x ⎟ ⎜ − imω x ⎟ ψ (x) ⎛ 1⎞
2m i dx ⎠ 2m ⎝ i dx ⎠ E = ⎜ n + ⎟ !ω
⎝ 2⎠
1 ⎡⎛ ! d ⎞ ⎤
2
d d
= ⎟⎠ ψ (x) − !mω ( xψ (x)) + !mω x ψ (x) + (mω x) ψ (x) ⎥
2
⎢⎜⎝
2m ⎣ i dx dx dx ⎦
1 ⎡⎛ ! d ⎞ ⎤
2

= ⎟⎠ ψ (x) − !mωψ (x) + (mω x) ψ (x) ⎥

2
⎢⎜⎝
2m ⎣ i dx ⎦
a−ψ 0 = 0
⎛ 1 ⎛! d ⎞⎞
⎜⎝ ⎜ − imω x ⎟ ⎟ ψ = 0
⎝
2m i dx ⎠ ⎠ 0

⎛! d ⎞
⇒⎜ − imω x ⎟ ψ 0 = 0 * 2m = 0
⎝ i dx ⎠
⎛ ! dψ 0 ⎞ ! dψ 0
⎜⎝ − imω xψ 0 ⎟ = 0 ⇒ = imω xψ 0
i dx ⎠ i dx
dψ 0 m
= − ω xdx
ψ0 !
dψ 0 m
∫ ψ 0 = − ! ω ∫ x dx
m m
m m − ω x2 − ω x2
lnψ 0 = − ω x + C ⇒ ψ 0 = Exp[− ω x + C] = e e
2 2 C 2!
= Ae 2!
2! 2!
m
ψ n = An ( a+ ) e
n − ω x2
2!