Earthquake Volcanic Earthquakes

Earthquake - are broad-banded vibratory ground  Earthquakes occurring in conjunction

motions, resulting from a number of causes which with Volcanic Activity
includes:  Induced by the movement (injection or
withdrawal) of magma
 Tectonic ground motions
 Volcanism Collapse Earthquakes
 Landslide  Small EQs occurring in regions of
 Man-made explosions underground caverns and mines
Of these, naturally occurring tectonic-related  Sometimes produced by massive land
earthquakes are the largest and most important. sliding

These are caused by the fracture and sliding of rock Man-made Earthquakes
along faults within the Earth's crust and which might  Produced by the explosion of chemical
be hundreds of kilometers long and depth of one to or nuclear devices
over a hundred kilometers.
Earthquake engineering -is the branch of civil
Earthquake Initiate a number of phenomena or engineering that provides the principles and
agents, called seismic hazards, which can cause procedures for the planning, analysis, and
significant damage to the built environment. design of structures and facilities that are
These hazards includes fault rupture, vibratory capable of resisting, to a preselected extend,
ground motion, tsunami, liquefaction, fire, etc. the effects of earthquakes.

What causes an Earthquake? EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

Today, after the numerous scientific developments of Earthquake Engineering provides the
the twentieth century and the many years of principles and procedures for
geological and seismological studies, there seems to a) The selection of the proper location of
be a clear understanding of what causes earthquakes, structures to minimize their exposure
and where and how often they may occur. to earthquake hazards
 Modern theories explaining the mechanisms b) The estimation of the earthquake
that give birth to earthquake forces that may affect structures and
 Phenomena that are deemed responsible for their surrounding environment in a
these mechanisms given time interval
c) The analysis of structures and the
 Correlation between earthquake-generating
surrounding environment under the
mechanisms and features of the earth's
effect of such forces to determine the
surface
maximum stresses and deformations
Types of Earthquakes (According to the that may be imposed upon them
Mode of Generation) d) The configuration, proportioning, and
detailing of structures to make them
Tectonic Earthquakes resist such stresses and deformations
 The most common earthquake without collapse or failure of any of
 Produced when rocks break suddenly their components
in response to the various phological e) The improvement of soils and the
forces stabilization of natural slopes to
guarantee the stability of structures
supported on weak sails or slopes.
 He showed that the rupture was not only
superficial but also happened in depth. This led
During the 19 century systematic field studies
to the generally accepted faulting origin of
after earthquakes were started and the first
earthquakes.
attempts to relate them to tectonic processes
were also made by Kato (Neodan, Japan, 1897) Harry Fielding Reid - Elastic Rebound
among others Theory
Professor Bunjiro Koto, Reid gave the five statements of his elastic
 Professor of Geology, Paleontology & rebound theory in 1911:
Mineralogy, Seismologist 1. The fracture of the rock, which causes
 In 1891, a Japanese Seismologist Prof. a tectonic earthquake, is the result of
B. Koto, after careful study of the elastic strains, greater than the
Mino-Owan Earthquake noted, strength of the rock can withstand
produced by the relative
Fault
displacements of neighbouring
A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two portions of the earth's crust.
blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move 2. These relative displacements are not
relative to each other. This movement may occur produced suddenly at the time of the
rapidly, in the form of an fracture, but attain their maximum
amounts gradually during a more or
Faults may range in length from a few millimeters to
less long period of time
thousands of kilometers
3. The only mass movements that occur
Most faults produce repeated displacements over at the time of the earthquake are the
geologic time. sudden elastic rebounds off the sides
of the fracture towards position of no
During an earthquake, the rock on one side of the elastic strain; and these movements
fault suddenly slips with respect to the other. extend to distances of only a few miles
The fault surface can be horizontal or vertical or some from the fracture
arbitrary angle in between. 4. The earthquake vibrations originate in
the surface of fracture the surface
from which they start has at first a very
Professor Bunjiro Koto, Professor of Geology, small area, which may quickly become
Paleontology & Mineralogy, Seismologist very large but at a rate of greater than
the velocity of compressional elastic
In 1891, a Japanese Seismologist, Prof. B. Koto, after waves in the rock
careful study of the Mino-Chan Earthquake noted, it 5. The energy Liberated at the time of an
can be confidently asserted that the sudden faulting earthquake was immediately before
was the actual cause (and not the effect) of the the rupture, in the form of energy of
earthquake The controversy at that time was to know elastic strain of the rock
if faults were the origin or a consequence of
earthquake. In a global sense, tectonic earthquakes
result from motion between a number of
Harry Fielding Reid- 1906 San Francisco EQ large plates comprising the earth's crust or
lithosphere.
The final proof came from geodetic observations
after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake by Harry

Fielding Reid (1859-1944)

 Earth Inner Layers fr

Ground Subsidence is a phenomenon in

which the ground surface of a site settles
or depresses as a result of the compaction
induced by the vibratory effect of
earthquakes.

Sites with loose or compressible soils are

the most likely to experience ground
subsidence

Landslides are often triggered by strong

earthquakes, these landslides represent
Tectonic plates are gigantic pieces of the Earth's crust
the failure of slopes that are marginally
and uppermost mantle. They are made up of oceanic
stable before the earthquake and become
crust and continental crust. Earthquakes occur
unstable as a result of the violent shaking
around mid-ocean ridges and the large faults which
generated by the earthquake.
mark the edges of the plates.

Damaging Effects of Earthquake

By Ground Motion

Surface Faulting - is a geological feature (ground

fissure) associated with the generation of earthquake

During an earthquake, the two sides of a fault may

slip relative to one another. If a structure lies across
a surface fault, then the structure may be damaged
Soil Liquefaction is a phenomenon by
when the fault slips during an earthquake.
which fine saturated granular soils
Ground Cracking- is possible when the soil at the temporarily change from a solid to a
surface loses its support and sinks, or when it is liquid state and as a result, lose their
transported to a different location. ability to carry loads or remain stable.
It occurs because when displaced, a soil layer breaks, It occurs when a deposit of loose soil is
causing fissures, horsts, and grabens on the ground vigorously shaken or vibrated, and thus
surface. it is commonly observed during
earthquakes.
It is caused by a water pressure build-up that is Earthquake Forces
generated when a saturated soil is compacted by
For structural engineers and from a conceptual
the effect of the earthquake vibrations. point of view, Earthquakes represent just
another force for which structures need to be
designed.
Damaging Effects of Earthquake
Earthquake forces, however, possess several
Other Effects characteristics be that make them unique in
comparison with any forces, such as gravity,
Tsunamis large sea waves generated by a sudden wind, or thermal forces.
depression of the ocean floor. The dislocation of
the ocean floor produced by the slippage of Earthquake forces, the result of a back and
undersea earthquake faults is a common source forth and up and down, motion of the ground
that supports a structure, can be exceptionally
of pools tsunamis
large in magnitude, can change rapidly and
When a tsunami reaches a coastal area its height erratically during the duration of the
may increase to catastrophic levels and strike the earthquake, and may radically different from
area with a tremendous force earthquake to earthquake, from one other site
to another, from one type of foundation soil to
Seiche are long-period oscillating waves another, and from one structure to another.
generated by distant earthquakes in enclosed
Furthermore, earthquake forces depend on
bodies of water such as bays, lakes, reservoirs,
the properties of the structure. This means
and even swimming pools. that if one modifies such properties, one also
Seiches occur when the natural, frequency of a modifies the earthquake forces that will affect
water body matches the frequency of the the structure. It also means that they can and
usually do-change if the earthquake damages
incoming earthquake waves, that is, when the
the structure. Most importantly earthquake
water body resonates with the earthquake
forces are unpredictable.
waves.
Earthquake forces are also distinct from other
forces in the sense that they affect the strength
and behavior of structural materials. That is,
the properties of structural materials under
earthquake loads are different from the
properties that are considered when
designing, for example, for gravity loads. This is
owed to the fact that earthquake forces are
applied suddenly, are relatively short, and
change in direction many times during the
earthquake. Thus, the magnitude of the
earthquake forces is only part of the
information a structural engineer needs to
know to properly design a structure against
these forces.
Design for Earthquake Forces h) Analysis of foundation soil to assess its
susceptibility to earthquake effects
Because of the unpredictability of earthquake i) Verification of analytical results using
forces, the uncertainty of their occurrence, and laboratory tests of scaled models using
the devastating effects they may produce, the shaking tables, or field tests of full-
design of an earthquake-resistant structure is scale models using artificial means to
an elaborate process that requires the generate ground vibrations
participation of architects, seismologists, j) Configuration, proportioning, and
geologists, soil engineers, foundation detailing of the members and
engineers, and structural engineers. In general, connections of the structure by the
it involves many of the following steps: estimated maximum internal forces
a) identification of the sources where and deformations
future earthquakes are likely to occur k) Improvement of foundation soil
with the aid of historical information, properties to reduce soil’s
seismological data, and geological susceptibility to earthquake effects
studies
b) Determination of the probable size of
future earthquakes based on the History of study
attributes of the identified seismic
Since ancient times, human beings have sought
sources
to understand the formation and composition
c) Definition of the distance and
of the Earth.
orientation of each seismic source
concerning the structure’s location The earliest known case were unscientific is
d) Establishment of semi-empirical nature taking the form of creation myths or
equations that correlate ground religious fables involving the gods.
motion characteristics with
earthquake size, seismic source Most of the ancient theories about Earth
orientation and distance, and site soil tended towards the "Flat- Earth" view of our
conditions with the help of planet's physical forms. This was the view in
instrumental and observational Mesopotamian culture, where the world was
records from previous earthquakes portrayed as a flat disk afloat in an ocean.
e) Dynamic analysis of the soil deposits at To the Mayans, the world was flat, and at it
the structure’s site to quantify the corners, four jaguar (known as bacabs) held up
ground motion amplification that may the sky.
be induced as a result of their flexibility
f) Selection or modification of structural The ancient Persians speculated that the Earth
configuration, structural system, and was a seven-layered ziggurat (or cosmic
structural materials to minimize mountain), while the Chinese viewed it as a
undesirable structural responses and four- side cube.
best resist the expected earthquake a) By the 6th century BCE, Greek
forces philosophers began to speculate that
g) Dynamic analysis of the structure and the Earth was in fact round,
its components to estimate the b) 3rd century BCE, the idea of a spherical
maximum values of the internal forces Earth began to become articulated as
and deformations that may be a scientific matter. During the same
generated by a ground motion with period, the development of a
the established characteristics geological view of the Earth also began
 to emerge, with philosophers j) 1770 - chemistry was starting to play a
understanding that it consisted of pivotal role in the theoretical
minerals, metals, and that it was foundation of geology, and theories
subject to a very slow process of began to emerge about how the
change. Earth's layers were formed
c) However, it was not until the 16th and One popular idea had it that liquid
17th centuries that a scientific inundation, like the Biblical Deluge,
understanding of planet Earth and its was responsible for creating all the
structure truly began to advance. geological strata. Those who accepted
d) in 1692, Edmond Halley (discoverer of this theory became known popularly
Halley's Comet) proposed what is now as the Diluvianists or Neptunists.
known as the "Hollow-Earth" theory. k) 1774- German geologist Abraham
e) Halley's construct was a method of Gottlob Werner presented a detailed
accounting for the values of the system for identifying specific minerals
relative density of Earth and the Moon based on external charactheristics
that had been given by Sir Isaac l) 1780s forward, which stated that
Newton, in his Philosophiæ Naturalis instead of water, strata had been
Principia Mathematica (1687) – which formed through heat (or fire).
were later shown to be inaccurate. Those who followed this theory during
However, his work was instrumental to the early 19th century referred to this
the development of geography and view as Plutonism, which held that the
theories about the interior of the Earth Earth formed gradually through the
during the 17th and 18th centuries. solidification of molten masses at a
f) 17th and 18th centuries about the slow rate. These theories together led
authenticity of the Bible and the to the conclusion that the Earth was
Deluge myth. This propelled scientists immeasurably older than suggested by
and theologians to debate the true age the Bible.
of the Earth, and compelled the search m) Early 19th century, the mining
for evidence that the Great Flood had industry and Industrial Revolution
in fact happened. stimulated the rapid development of
Combined with fossil evidence, which the concept of the stratigraphic
was found within the layers of the column – that rock formations were
Earth, a systematic basis for identifying arranged according to their order of
and dating the Earth's strata began to formation in time. Concurrently,
emerge. geologists and natural scientists
g) Modern mining techniques and began to understand that the age of
growing attention to the importance fossils could be determined
of minerals and their natural geologically (i.e. that the deeper the
distribution also helped to spur the layer they were found in was from the
development of modern geology. surface, the older they were).
h) 1741, the National Museum of Natural n) During the imperial period of the 19th
History in France created the first century, European scientists also had
teaching position designated the opportunity to conduct research in
specifically for geology. distant lands. One such individual was
i) 1751- Encyclopédie by Denis Diderot, Charles Darwin, who had been
the term "geology" was accepted recruited by Captain FitzRoy of the
HMS Beagle to study the coastal land
 of South America and give geological s) early 20th century- Then there was the
advice. development of seismology, the study
o) Darwin's discovery of giant fossils of earthquakes and the propagation of
during the voyage helped to establish elastic waves through the Earth
his reputation as a geologist, and his t) 1910 - Harry Fielding Ried put forward
theorizing about the causes of their the "elastic rebound theory", based on
extinction led to his theory of his studies of the 1906 San Fransisco
evolution by natural selection, earthquake. This theory, which stated
published in On the Origin of Species in that earthquakes occur when
1859. accumulated energy is released along
p) During the 19th century, the a fault line, was the first scientific
governments of several countries explanation for why earthquakes
including Canada, Australia, Great happen, and remains the foundation
Britain and the United States funded for modern tectonic studies.
geological surveying that would u) 1926,- English scientist Harold Jeffreys
produce geological maps of vast areas claimed that below the crust, the core
of the countries. By this time, the of the Earth is liquid, based on his
scientific consensus established the study of earthquake waves.
age of the Earth in terms of millions of v) 1937- Danish seismologist Inge
years, and the increase in funding and Lehmann went a step further and
the development of improved determined that within the earth's
methods and technology helped liquid outer core, there is a solid inner
geology to move farther away from core.
dogmatic notions of the Earth's age  In 1929 a large earthquake
and structure. occurred near New Zealand.
q) By the early 20th century, the Danish seismologist Inge
development of radiometric dating Lehmann “the only Danish
(which is used to determine the age of seismologist,” as she once
minerals and rocks), provided the referred to herself—studied
necessary the data to begin getting a the shock waves and was
sense of the Earth's true age. By the puzzled by what she saw.
turn of the century, geologists now  A few P-waves, which should
believed the Earth to be 2 billion years have been deflected by the
old, which opened doors for theories core, were in fact recorded at
of continental movement during this seismic stations.
vast amount of time.  Lehmann theorized that these
Research into the ocean floor also led waves had traveled some
directly to the theory of Plate distance into the core and
Tectonics, which provided the then bounced off some kind of
mechanism for Continental Drift. boundary.
r) Geophysical evidence suggested  Her interpretation of this data
lateral motion of continents and that was the foundation of a 1936
oceanic crust is younger than paper in which she theorized
continental crust. This geophysical that Earth’s center consisted
evidence also spurred the hypothesis of two parts:
of paleomagnetism, the record of the  a solid inner core surrounded
orientation of the Earth's magnetic by a liquid outer core,
field recorded in magnetic minerals. separated by what has come
 to be called the Lehmann  Asthenosphere
Discontinuity.  Mesosphere
 Lehmann’s hypothesis was  Core
confirmed in 1970 when more
sensitive seismographs Chemically (Chemical composition)
detected waves deflecting off
 Crust
this solid core.
w) Latter half of the 20th century,  Mantel
scientists developed a comprehensive  Core
theory of the Earth's structure and Chemical Layers
dynamics had formed. As the century
played out, perspectives shifted to a Crust
more integrative approach, where
 The outermost later
geology and Earth sciences began to
 Consists nearly entirely at rocky
include the study of the Earth's
silicate material, with se aluminium
internal structure, atmosphere,
and trace amounts of all the naturally
biosphere and hydrosphere into one.
occurring elements.
 As the century played out,
 It can be up to 50km thick, but in
perspectives shifted to a more
places is on thin as 5km. Considering
integrative approach, where
the Earth has a radius of some
geology and Earth sciences
6400km, the crust is like a very thin
began to include the study if
eggshell.
the Earth's internal structure,
 There are two types of crust,
atmosphere, bloophere and
continental crust and oceanic crust.
hydrosphere into one
 The denser oceanic crust surrounds
 This was assisted by the
the whole Earth, with 'islands of less
development of space flight,
dense continental crust floating in it.
which allowed for Earth's
 The continents are made of
atmosphere to be studied in
continental crust, while the ocean
detail, as well as photographs
floors and below the continental crust
take of Earth from space.
are oceanic crust.
 In 1972, the Landsat Program,
a series of satellite missions
jointly managed by NASA and
the U.S. Geological Survey,
began supplying satellite
images that provided
geologically detailed saps, and
have be used to predict
natural disasters and plate
shifts. Mantle

Layer can be divided in two ways  The mantle extends from the crust
2900km down and is composed of
Mechnically-Rheologicall (Physical silicates with large amounts of iron and
Properties) magnesium.

 Lithosphere
Core Asthenosphere

 the core, extends a further 3400km to  is hotter and in a semi-liquid state.

the centre of the Earth  Starting at around 80 to 100 km deep,
 the core is primarily made of iron and the rock in the asthenosphere slowly
nickel metals and is very hot - from flows in a plastic state moving in a
3200°C to 4000°C. It is the magnetic circular motion creating convection
iron and nickel in the core that is currents of hot rock
thought to be responsible for the
 This moves heat from deep within the
Earth's magnetic field.
mantle towards the surface.
 It is this movement which helps move
the continents and creates volcanoes
and lava flows

Mesosphere
 Comprising the inner part of the
mantle, the mesosphere is a region of
very hot solid rock.
 Here, although hotter than the
asthenosphere, the pressure is too
high for liquid rock to form.

Core
 The core is divided into two parts, the
liquid outer core, where temperature
wins over pressure and the solid inner
core where again the pressure is too
Physical layers
high for a liquid to form.
As already mentioned, the temperature within
Moving in from the surface to the centre of the
the Earth increases the deeper you go,
Earth you could expect to getter hotter and be
reaching 4000°C at the centre. Pressure also
subjected to ever increasing pressure, but you
increases dramatically with depth. The
would go from solid, through flowing semi-
combination of these two factors creates five
liquid plastic rock to solid, liquid and finally
distinct layers or regions within the Earth
solid again at the centre.
alternating between solid, liquid and semi-
liquid or "plastic" phases.

Lithosphere
 Thin, cool and solid, the lithosphere
contains the crust and some of the
mantle. Composed mainly of silicates,
it "floats" on the underlying
asthenosphere.
 4) In the United States, interest in
earthquakes and earthquake
Historical Background engineering began after the 1906
1) Robert Mallet, an Irish civil engineer, is earthquake in San Francisco, California
often cited as the first earthquake (1000 deaths), which caused great
engineer, and his report on the 1857 damage and loss of lives.
Naples earthquake is considered to be At that time, however, California was
the first scientific investigation that still sparsely populated and, therefore,
included observations of the the interest generated by this
seismological, geological, and earthquake was not enough to
engineering aspects of an earthquake. motivate public officials to develop
2) Modern research on earthquake- earthquake design regulations.
resistant structures, however, began It was only after the 1933 earthquake
in Japan in 1891, the year of the Nobi in Long Beach, California, that
earthquake (7000 deaths; also known American engineers became fully
as the Mino-Owari earthquake), with aware of the dangers of earthquakes,
the formation of an earthquake and a great impetus was given to the
investigation committee set up by the study of seismology and earthquake-
Japanese government. It was this resistant designs.
committee that first proposed the use As they became fully interested, the
of a lateral force equal to a fraction of first inquiry was to find out the nature
the total weight of a building to of the motion of the ground during an
account for the forces exerted on earthquake.
buildings by earthquakes. Special instruments were designed
3) Similar developments in Italy after the and deployed at various areas of high
devastating Messina earthquake in seismicity to record such a motion
1908 (58,000 deaths) led to the permanently.
appointment of a committee Congress charged the U.S. Coast and
composed of practicing and academic Geodetic Survey with the
engineers to study the earthquake and responsibility to study and report
the formulation of practical strong earthquake motions.
recommendations for the seismic At about the same time, new building
design of buildings. codes were drawn up and enforced.
In its report, this committee The California Legislature passed the
recommended that the first story of a Field Act, which made it mandatory for
building is designed for a horizontal all school buildings to be designed and
force equal to 1/12 of the building built to resist earthquakes.
weight above and that its second and 5) Shortly after, the State of California
third stories be designed for a adopted the Riley Act, which made it
horizontal force equal to 1/8 of the mandatory to design most buildings in
building weight above. the state for a lateral load equal to 2%
of the sum of their dead and live loads.
These Japanese and Italian disasters thus gave The Pacific Coast Building Officials (to
birth to practical considerations for the become later the International
earthquake design of structures and Conference of Building Officials)
earthquake engineering as a new branch of published the nation’s first seismic
engineering. design provisions in 1927 in its
Uniform Building Code.
 Ever since earthquake engineering has V. Felt by nearly everyone, many
unfolded at a steady pace and its principles awakened. Some dishes, windows,
spread all over the world. It has rapidly etc., broken; a few instances of
evolved into a science-based discipline, cracked plaster; unstable objects
with a large body of knowledge and overturned. Disturbances of trees,
institutionalized research and educational poles, and other tall objects are
programs. sometimes noticed. Pendulum clocks
may stop.
Although learning takes place at a very
VI. Felt by all, many frightened and run
slow pace due to the infrequency of large
outdoors. Some heavy furniture
earthquakes, advances in methods of
moved; a few instances of fallen
dynamic analysis and experimental
plaster or damaged chimneys. Damage
research have provided engineers with
slight.
valuable data to gain, year after year, a
VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage
further understanding of earthquakes and
negligible in buildings of good design
the effects of earthquakes in civil
and construction; slight to moderate in
engineering structures and facilities, and
well-built ordinary structures;
to develop new devices and techniques to
considerable in poorly built or badly
protect these structures and facilities from
designed structures; some chimneys
such effects. As a result, cities around the
broken. Noticed by persons driving
world and the people living in them are
motor cars.
little by little becoming less vulnerable to
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed
the devastating effect of earthquakes.
structures; considerable in ordinary
substantial buildings, with partial
collapse; great in poorly built
structures. Panel walls are thrown out
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MM) of frame structures. Fall of chimneys,
Scale factory stacks, columns, monuments,
walls. Heavy furniture overturned.
I. Not felt except by a very few under Sand and mud ejected in small
especially favorable circumstances amounts. Changes in well water.
II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, Persons driving motor cars disturbed.
especially on upper floors of buildings. IX. Damage considerable in specially
Delicately suspended objects may designed structures; well-designed
swing. frame structures thrown out of plumb;
III. Felt quite noticeably indoors, great in substantial buildings, with
especially on upper floors of buildings, partial collapse. Buildings shifted off
but many people do not recognize it as foundations. The ground cracked
an earthquake. Standing motor cars conspicuously. Underground pipes are
may rock slightly. Vibration like the broken.
passing of a truck. Duration estimated. X. Some well-built wooden structures
IV. During the day felt indoors by many, destroyed; most masonry and frame
outdoors by few. At night some structures destroyed with
awakened. Dishes, windows, doors foundations; ground badly cracked.
disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Rails bent. Landslides considerable
Sensation like heavy truck striking from river banks and steep slopes.
building. Standing motor cars rocked Shifted sand and mud. Water splashed
noticeably over banks.
 XI. Few, if any, (masonry) structures seismogram because seismographs are so
remain standing. Bridges destroyed. sensitive that they can detect the ever-present
Broad fissures in the ground. background noise of the earth. They are called
Underground pipelines completely out microseisms and arise from local disturbances
of service. Earth slumps and landslips such as traffic on the streets, the effect of
in soft ground. Rails bent greatly. winds on trees, breaking of the surf on the
XII. Damage total. Waves are seen on the beach, and other natural and human-made
ground surface. Lines of sight and level disturbances.
are distorted. Objects are thrown into
the air.
RICHTER OR LOCAL MAGNITUDE
Besides providing information for the location
of earthquakes, seismograms also provide the
information that is needed to estimate the size
SEISMOGRAMS or strength of an earthquake in terms of what
is called earthquake magnitude. This
 The records obtained from a
instrumentally quantified measure of
seismograph are called seismograms.
earthquake strength is widely used nowadays
 A seismogram is thus a record of the
by seismologists, engineers, and even the
variation with time of the
general public. Although in some cases it fails
displacement of the ground, magnified
to give an accurate representation of the true
by the magnification factor of the
strength of an earthquake, it is still routinely
seismograph, at the location where
used to characterize the intensity of
the seismograph is installed.
earthquakes and remains a key parameter in
 A typical seismogram is shown below. earthquake hazard analysis. The concept of
The numbers in the middle of the earthquake magnitude was introduced by
record indicate the hours referred to Charles Richter in 1935 to overcome the
the GMT. limitations of the intensity scales, the only
 The small deflections at regular method used back then to describe and
intervals along the trace are time compare earthquakes. Following a
marks at 1 min intervals. There are 60 fundamental idea first used by K.
such marks in each line, so each line
represents the motion recorded Wadati in Japan, Richter based his magnitude
during 1 h. scale on a measurement of the wave motion
recorded by a seismograph. He borrowed the
term magnitude from astronomy as the
relative brightness of stars (stellar magnitude)
is referred to as magnitude. However, the
analogy stops there because in astronomy a
smaller magnitude means an increased
brightness.

Richter defined his scale in terms of the peak

amplitude of the trace recorded by the then-
standard Wood–Anderson seismograph,
It should be noted that the traces in a
which, as observed earlier, has a magnification
seismogram are never without some little
factor of 2800, a natural period of 0.8 s, and a
ripples. These little ripples show up in a
damping ratio of 80%. However, because such
an amplitude can vary significantly from
earthquake to earthquake, he used the
logarithm of it, as opposed to the amplitude
itself, to compress the range of the scale.
Similarly, as the amplitude of seismic waves
decreases with distance from the earthquake
epicenter, he set the measurement of this
amplitude at a standard distance of 100 km.
Furthermore, he described such a peak trace
amplitude about the peak trace amplitude that
would be generated by a zero magnitude
earthquake; that is, a barely perceptible
earthquake. For this purpose, he defined a
zero-magnitude earthquake as that which
theoretically would produce a seismogram
with a peak trace of 1 µm (10−6 m) at a
distance of 100 km. As introduced by Richter,
earthquake magnitude is thus defined as the
logarithm to base ten of the peak wave
amplitude measured in micrometers recorded
by a Wood–Anderson seismograph at a
distance of 100 km from the earthquake
epicenter. That is,