Methodology
I. Theoretical Part: Literature Review
• Definition: A literature review is a critical evaluation of previous research, summarizing and
analyzing sources to contextualize the research problem, identify gaps, and provide a rationale
for the study.
• Purpose:
1. Supports and validates the research area.
2. Frames the research problem.
3. Generates theories and refines research questions.
4. Identifies methodological approaches.
5. Justifies the study and highlights gaps in the literature.
II. Practical Part: Methodology
Importance of Methodology:
• Explains how data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
• Ensures reliability, validity, and consistency in research.
Research Approaches and Designs
1. Quantitative Methods: Focus on analyzing variables through statistical analysis.
• Designs:
• Correlational: Explores relationships between variables.
• Causal Comparative: Compares groups to determine differences.
• Experimental: Tests treatments with control and test groups.
• Quasi-Experimental: Uses existing groups instead of random assignment.
2. Qualitative Methods: Examine and describe phenomena.
• Designs:
• Case Study: Studies a single situation in-depth.
• Narrative: Explores individuals’ lives for meaning.
• Grounded Theory: Develops theories based on phenomena.
• Phenomenology: Studies human experiences.
• Mixed Research: Combines quantitative and qualitative methods for comprehensive insights.
III. Collecting Data
Quantitative Data
1. Participants and Sampling:
• Define population, sample, and unit of analysis.
• Use probabilistic or non-probabilistic sampling.
2. Permission: Obtain formal consent.
3. Information to Collect: Operationalize variables - Choose types of data (behavioral,
attitudinal, etc.).
4. Instruments: Use valid and reliable tools - Ensure standardization to reduce bias.
5. Ethical Considerations: Protect participants’ anonymity and dignity.
Qualitative Data
1. Participants and Sites: Use purposeful sampling for detailed exploration.
2. Permission: Obtain approval from authorities and gatekeepers.
3. Data Collection Methods: Observations, interviews, documents, and audiovisual materials.
4. Data Recording: Use formal protocols (e.g., observation and interview templates).
5. Ethical Issues: Ensure confidentiality, cultural sensitivity, and informed consent.
Additional information:
1. Research Paradigms:
• Positivism: Focuses on facts, numbers, and objective reality. Often uses experiments or
surveys.
• Interpretivism: Focuses on understanding people’s experiences and perspectives. Often uses
interviews or observations.
• Constructivism: Believes knowledge is constructed through social interactions. Focuses on how
people create meaning in their lives.
2. Data Collection Methods:
• Surveys: Questionnaires to collect data from a large group.
• Interviews: Asking people questions directly for detailed answers.
• Focus Groups: Small group discussions to gather diverse opinions.
• Observations: Watching and recording behaviors or events.
3. Research Designs:
• Case Study: In-depth study of a single situation or individual.
• Experimental: Tests the effect of one variable on another using controlled conditions.
• Correlational: Looks at relationships between two variables without proving cause and effect.
• Ethnographic: Studies cultures or groups by immersing in their environment.
4. Sampling Techniques:
• Random Sampling: Everyone has an equal chance of being selected.
• Stratified Sampling: Dividing a population into groups and sampling from each group.
• Purposive Sampling: Choosing participants who fit specific criteria.
• Convenience Sampling: Using participants who are easily available.
5. Validity and Reliability:
• Validity: Does the tool measure what it’s supposed to? (e.g., A language test should measure
language skills, not math skills.)
• Reliability: Does the tool give the same results every time? (e.g., A thermometer should show
the same temperature for the same condition.)
6. Data Analysis:
• Quantitative:
• Descriptive Statistics: Summarizes data (e.g., averages, percentages).
• Inferential Statistics: Makes predictions or tests hypotheses using data.
• Qualitative:
• Thematic Analysis: Identifies patterns or themes in text data.
• Content Analysis: Analyzes the frequency of certain words or ideas in text.
7. Ethical Considerations:
• Consent: Participants must agree to take part after understanding the study.
• Anonymity: Protect participants’ identities.
• Avoiding Bias: Stay neutral and fair in your study.
• Transparency: Be clear about your methods and purpose
Quotes and paraphrases:
On Research and Methodology:
1. John W. Creswell: “Mixed methods research provides a stronger understanding of a problem
than either qualitative or quantitative methods alone.”
• Paraphrase: Combining qualitative and quantitative methods can offer deeper insights into
educational research.
3. Bassey (1999): “Educational research should aim to improve practice and enhance
understanding.”
• Paraphrase: The ultimate goal of research is to bridge the gap between theory and practical
application.
On Validity and Reliability
4. Lincoln and Guba (1985): “Trustworthiness in qualitative research depends on credibility,
transferability, dependability, and confirmability.”
• Paraphrase: Ensuring trust in qualitative research requires focusing on aspects like credibility
and dependability.
5. Golafshani (2003): “Reliability and validity are tools of an essentially positivist
epistemology.”
• Paraphrase: The concepts of reliability and validity stem from a positivist approach to research.
Teaching and Research Integration
Stephen Krashen: “Research should inform teaching, but it must be accessible and practical to
be truly effective.”
• Paraphrase: For research to benefit educators, it needs to be clear and actionable.
David Nunan: “Learner-centered classrooms require constant feedback and adaptation, which
can be supported by reflective research.”
• Paraphrase: Reflective research helps teachers create adaptable, learner-focused environments.
