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Revolutionizing Retail Logistics: Fine-Tuning 5G-Cyberphysical Vehicular

Networks with AGSA-Driven Path Loss Models

Conference Paper · November 2023

DOI: 10.1109/ICMEAS58693.2023.10379312

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 The 2nd International Conference on Multidisciplinary Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)
Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)
Revolutionizing Retail Logistics: Fine-Tuning 5G-Cyberphysical
Vehicular Networks with AGSA-Driven Path Loss Models
Kennedy Chinedu Okafor1*, Bamidele Adebisi2, A. O. Akande3, Kelvin Anoh4
1&2School of Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, M1 5GD Manchester, U.K.
1&3School of Electrical Systems Engineering Technology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria
4
School of Engineering, Computing and Design, University of Chichester, Bognor Regis, PO21 1HR, UK
E-mail:{k.okafor, [email protected]}, [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—Non-autonomous vehicles, like the MasterMover electric models [4]. For indoor DSRC environments, both Line-of-
Tugs, find extensive application in specialised short-range Sight (LOS) and Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) scenarios hold
communication settings such as UK's Tesco warehouses. paramount significance, as evident in settings like Tesco’s
Employing a resilient MasterMover setup, electromagnetic Warehouse shown in Appendix I. Principal challenges within
attenuation within the Cyberphysical vehicular infrastructure can be
fine-tuned, thereby enhancing supply chain logistics for retail
HetVNETs manifest at both network and Medium Access
outlets. This study enhances an earlier conventional Agile Control (MAC) levels [2].
Gravitational Search Algorithm (AGSA) with outdated path loss Significantly, the impact of PL effects, especially in the
models. Through AGSA-driven path loss optimisation, subsequent context of Level 3-6 autonomous models, requires further
regression analysis is employed to generate supervised labels for investigation for potential integration into Tesco warehouses.
both observed and anticipated path loss behaviors. The findings are In Appendix I, a non-autonomous MasterMover Tesco
useful for new level 3-5 driverless cars operating at 5G/6G warehouse use case is presented, which can be enhanced into
spectrum. a 5G HetVNET logistics supply chain model.
Keywords — Cyberphysical vehicular infrastructure, Agile This paper focuses on the empirical analysis of the AGSA as
Gravitational Search Algorithm, Heterogeneous 5G-Cyberphysical a potential solution to address PL and signal interference
Vehicular Networks, Path Loss, 5G/6G spectrum. challenges within the 5G HetVNET contexts. Detailed
elaboration of this algorithm has been detailed [5].
I. INTRODUCTION
Heterogeneous 5G-Cyberphysical Vehicular Networks have The subsequent sections of this paper are organised as
been attracting increasing attention recently, primarily due to follows: Section II investigated legacy empirical models,
the rapid proliferation of Intelligent Connected Autonomous Section III outlines the conducted experimental study,
Vehicles (ICAVs). It is projected that by 2025, fully Section IV discussed system evaluation. Finally, Section V
autonomous vehicles could be operational on roadways in the concludes the paper while outlining future research
UK [1]. In the absence of extensive roadside communication directions.
infrastructure, Dedicated Short Range Communication II. LEGACY EMPRICAL MODELS
(DSRC) emerges as a viable solution for real-time In this section, we contextualize the empirical propagation
information exchange among vehicles operating at the models essential for effective service provisioning. These
5.8GHz frequency in the physical layer [2]. DSRC models are meticulously studied for the analysis of CAV
technology enables direct wireless data transmission among mobile radio signals across diverse terrains. We meticulously
vehicles, pedestrians, cyclists, and roadside infrastructure explore the subsequent signal propagation models to be
elements such as traffic signals and electronic message signs considered during the initial model deployment phase.
[2]. Functioning within the authorized 5.9 GHz spectrum, In [6], the authors explored Okumura- Hata PL model as an
DSRC supports one- and two-way data transmissions. empirical model for propagation in urban environments. The
With the advent of 5/6G technology, the coverage for ICAVs frequency range falls between 150 − 1500 . At
can be significantly expanded, thereby enhancing the the Base Station (BS), the height of the antenna (ℎ ) is about
capabilities of existing MasterMover technology. However, 200 m. This also depends on the terrain. Equ (1) defines the
this advancement does not always meet the stringent PL model ( ):
PL (dB) = 69.61 + 26.21 log f − 13.81 log h$% −
requirements of services demanding precise real-time safety,
y(h'%( ) + P()(
as exemplified by level 3-5 autonomous vehicles [3]. DSRC
(1)
where, P()( = [44.92 − 6.62 log h'% ] log d,
finds application in various scenarios, such as intersection
collision avoidance, cruise control, and emergency alerts.
In DSRC, the power density of electromagnetic waves -. = transmission frequency (MHz), ℎ = BS height (m) of
diminishes (attenuates) as it propagates through space. In the antenna, h'% = antenna MS height (m), y(h'%( ) = mobile
context of 5G-enabled driverless car infrastructure, the link correction factor of antenna, and / = distance between BS
budget's Path Loss (PL) assumes pivotal importance. and MS (km). Antenna correction factor 0(ℎ1 2 ) for the
Optimizing PL is imperative within DSRC. Recently, large city is given as:
Heterogeneous Vehicular Networks (HetVNETs) have Y(h'%( ) = 8.3 [log(1.54h'%( )]4 − 1.1 dB
emerged as a potential solution by integrating 5G cellular -. ≤ 300 MHz (2)
networks with DSRC [2]. Advancements in PL models y(h'%( ) = 3.2 [log(11.75h'%( )] − 4.97 dB
4
empower engineers and researchers to effectively budget for -. > 300 MHz (3)
Antenna correction factor a(h'%( ) for medium-size cities
5G ICAV deployments with heightened link quality.
Noteworthy among the widely employed models at select
expressed as:
y(h'%( ) = 1.1[log(f ) − 0.7]h'% − [1.56 log(f ) −
frequencies are the Close-In (CI) free space reference model,
Floating Intercept (FI), and Alpha-Beta-Gamma (ABG)
0.8] dB (4)

979-8-3503-5883-4/23/$31.00 ©2023 IEEE

The 2nd International Conference on Multidisciplinary Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)
Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)

(5) gives the PL computation for Okumura-Hata (suburban). III. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
AB 4
PL (dB) = PL (urban)dB − 2 @log D − 5.5 (5) In this section, a highly provisioned drive Test (HPDT)
4C
The authors [7] As an extended the cost 231-Hata model to scheme was utilized to gather data regarding the 5G network
Okumura-Hata. The operational frequency ranges in the study area of Pontypridd Taf, Wales, UK. It's worth
between 1500 − 2000 and the BS antenna height noting that a similar test had been conducted previously
of 30 E − 200 E . The BS and MS antenna distance is
[5],[12]. For this HPDT, the Ascom IoT Android device was
between 1 FE − 20 FE while (6) shows the model.
employed. The data collection method, especially when
PL (dB) = PG − 13.81 log h$% − y(h'%( ) + PH + CJKL (6)
deploying the HetVNET-AGSA for an interactive
where PG = 46.3 + 33.9 log f .
, resulted in the generation of intricate datasets. To record
these datasets, the signal strength and HetVNET PL (Path
PH = [44.92 − 6.62 log h'% ] log d. Loss) were logged using Ascom TEM 15.0 software, which
CJKL is the environmental correction factor, the value is was installed on a Core i3 laptop running at 2.4GHz with
0 /M and 3 /M for the suburban and urban areas, 8GB of RAM. Additionally, three Sony-Ericsson Xperia Z3
respectively. The correction factor of the antenna y(ℎ1 2 ) for D6603 IoT devices were utilized to initiate various network
a highly populated city and a small-sized city are given in (2) calls through software integration. In conjunction with the
and (3), respectively. devices, the laptop was also interfaced with a GPS unit and a
Erission model [8] predicts the PL using dynamic varying power source to support continuous data collection during the
network parameters. It also depends on the propagation driving test. The specific 5G network parameters employed
terrain with a maximum frequency carrier of 1900 MHz. The are detailed in Table 2.
PL model is given in (7).
PL (dB) = a G + aH log(d) + a 4 log h$% + K G − Table 2. Drive Test Transmission Parameters
3.2 [log(11.8 h'% )4 ] + G(f ) (7) Transmission Parameters
where G(f ) = 44.5 log(f ) − 4.8[log(f )4 ] Carrier Frequency 3.5 GHz

PG = [a Q log(h$% ) log(d)] Transmission Power 43 dBm

R(-. ) = frequency correction factor. Transmitter height 45 m

Transmitter Gain 2.0 dBi
Table 1 gives the standard terrain correction parameters [12]. Receiver Gain 1.8 dBi
Table 1: Terrain Parameters for Ericsson model Mobile station height 1.6 m
Environment ST SU SV SW
Urban 37.21 30.19 12.10 0.11 Utilizing the Actix software [11], the gathered data from the
Suburban 43.21 67.92 12.10 0.12 log files are processed for analysis. Subsequently, the AGSA
Rural 46.96 100.5 12.10 0.13
optimization algorithm was employed to refine the existing
Okumura-Hata model [12], thereby improving performance
The ECC-Model in [9], expresses the PL model as: in the experiments. Detailed drive test routes along with
L (dB) = ALYJ + AZ [ − G%\ − G]\ (8) corresponding measured data for L1, L2, and L3 are shown
where, ALYJ is the free space PL, AZ [ is the median PL, in Tables 3.
^ _ the BS antenna gain, and G]\ is the MS antenna gain. The Table 3: Extended drive Test locations
parameters are defined as: (Locations) Area in Pontypridd
ALYJ = 92.35 + 20 log(d) + 20 log(f ) (9) L1 Tesco- Pontypridd Park
AZ [ = 20.4 + 9.8 log(d) + 7.9 log(f ) +
9.6 [log(f )]4 (10)
L2 Wood Road

abc
G%\ = log ` d [13.9 + 5.8(log d) ]
L3 Graig Street
4
(11)
4GG
MS gain factor for suburban and rural) IV. SYSTEM EVALUATION
G]\ = [42.6 + 13.7 log (f ) ] [ log (h'% ) − 0.59] (12) In this section, regression analysis was introduced to analyze
MS gain factor for dense urban area the obtained datasets. The PL data obtained on the 5G
G]\ = 0.76 (h'% ) − 1.86 (13) network from three different locations were analyzed. A
Egli model [10] predicts PL in different terrain. It is good regression statistical approach was used. The data at 100 m
when there is no obstruction in the channel. The frequency was captured as a baseline PL value ( lm /G ) measured.
of operation ranges between 45 MHz – 900 MHz at the The PL exponent (n) was subsequently obtained through the
distance coverage of 50 km [10]. The model is given as;
efgh (dB) = 20 log f + 2i2 + 76.5 −
quadratic solution technique. Table 4 shows the regression
analysis against distance for L1.
10 log h'% , for h'% ≤ 15 m (14) Table 4: Regression Analysis for L1 with Measured Data
efgh (dB) = 20 log f + 2i2 + 86.9 − Dist. Measured PL Predicted PL m (/G ) − o (/h )
10 log h'% , for h'% > 15 m (15) (m) m (/G ) /M o (/h ) /M
100 95.1 95.1 0
where,
95.1+3.01 p 008 - 3.01 p
2i2 = 40 log d − 20 log h$% , 2i2 is the system factor.
200 103.1
300 149.0 95.1+4.77 p 053.9 - 4.77 p
(1) to (15) are used to derive PL comparisons.
400 112.2 95.1+6.02 p 017.1 - 6.02 p
500 140.0 95.1+6.99 p 044.9 - 6.99 p
600 116.0 95.1+7.78 p 020.9 - 7.78 p
 The 2nd International Conference on Multidisciplinary Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)
Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)

700 150.1 95.1+8.45 p 0055 - 8.45 p Substituting for m (/G )o€A the PL exponents (p) and
800 111.3 95.1+9.03 p 016.2 - 9.03 p xyzA , the modified PL for L2 and L3 now gives (34) and (35)
900 180.2 95.1+9.54 p 085.2- 9.54 p as:
1000 138.1 95.1+10.00 p 042.9 - 10.0 p ( 2) = 87.2 + [26.1 log f − 13.8 log h$% ] +
95.1+10.41 p 020.9 - 10.41 p q
1100 116.0
10(3.5) log ` r d − a(h'%( ) + 15.4 /M (34)
95.1+10.79 p 006.9 - 10.79 p qu
( 3) = 100.1 + [26.1 log f − 13.8 log h$% ] +
1200 102.0
1300 145.0 95.1+11.14 p 049.9 - 11.14 p
q
95.1+11.46 p 034.9 - 11.46 p 10(2.9) log ` r d − a(h'%( ) + 19.1 /M (35)
qu
1400 130.0
1500 104.0 95.1+11.76 p 08.9 - 11.76 p Therefore, substituting system parameter factor, the overall
best performed modified PL (generalized modified) model
For typical terrestrial radio HetVNET applications, the signal for the use case Lagos terrain is obtained from (33), (34), and
strength drops alongside the distance. This is as result of (35) and presented in (36) as;
impairments on the channel. The PL model (PL(qr ) ) for (^•n) = 94.1 + [26.1 log f − 13.8 log h$% ] +
qr
terrestrial free space PL model is expressed as: 10(3.2) log ` d − a(h'%( ) + 19.4 /M (36)
qr qu
PL(qr ) = m (/G ) + 10(p)stR ` d
qu
(29) In this article, (36) now represents the modified Okumura-
where p is the PL exponent, /h the distance and Hata model (OHM) suitable for deployment in complex
/G is the reference distance. The predicted PL HetVNET (i.e., terrestrial mobile networks). Also, Table 7
[ (/h )] was obtained by substituting Model presents results analysis for the existing PL measured, and
Modified Factor ( v2i2 ) and mobile antenna modified and enhanced HetVNET-AGSA models for L1.
correction factor an (h'%( ) into (29) as;
(/h ) /M = m (/G ) + v2i2 +
Table 7: Measured, Predicted, Modified, and Enhanced AGSA PL
values for L1
q
10(p)stR ` r d − an (h'%( ) (30) Dist. OHM COST Erics Egli ECC- Measured Modified Enhanced
qu (km) (dB) 231 (dB) (dB) 33 PL (dB) (L1) (dB) (AGSA)
where, (dB) (dB) dB
v2i2 = [26.1 log f w − 13.8 log h$% ] 0.1 100.3 102.8 135.5 190.1 300.5 95.1 109.3 109.0
a(h'%( ) = 3.2 [log(1.53h'% )]4 − 4.96 dB 0.2 110.8 116.2 144.6 202.1 309.5 103.1 113.9 113.6
For distances from 0.1km to 1.5km, the 0.3 116.9 122.4 149.9 209.2 314.7 149.0 117.5 117.2
expression [ m (/G ) − o (/h )] is the sum
4 0.4 121.2 126.7 153.7 214.2 318.4 112.2 120.4 120.2
0.5 124.6 130.1 156.7 218.1 321.3 140.0 123.5 123.2
of square error obtained as:
1139.919p 4 − 7242.69p + 19989.57 (31)
0.6 127.4 132.8 159.1 221.2 323.7 116.0 126.0 125.1
0.7 129.7 135.2 161.1 223.9 325.7 150.1 128.2 127.8
The loss exponent (p) is obtained using the quadratic 0.8 131.7 137.2 162.9 226.2 327.4 111.3 130.0 129.7
solution method:
1139.919p 4 − 7242.69p + 19989.57 = 0
0.9 133.5 138.9 164.4 228.3 328.9 180.3 131.6 131.3

p = 3.18
1.0 135.1 140.5 165.8 230.1 330.3 138.1 133.1 132.8
1.1 136.5 142.0 167.1 231.8 331.5 116.0 134.4 134.1
The shadowing error due to channel obstruction 1.2 137.8 143.3 168.2 233.3 332.7 102.0 135.6 135.3
resulted in signal deviation. This deviation
(xyzA ) is evaluated using the sum of square errors.
1.3 139.0 144.5 169.3 234.7 333.7 105.0 136.7 136.4
1.4 140.2 145.6 170.2 236.0 334.7 130.0 137.7 137.4
}
H
xyzA = `∑([ m (/G ) − o (/h )] )~ d (32)
4 1.5 141.2 146.7 171.2 237.9 335.6 104.0 138.7 138.4
{
Therefore, the shadowing error correction
factor, xyzA (/M), with respect to a mean value is then V. SYSTEM VALIDATION
determined as (33).
H In this section, the root mean square (RMSE) and Mean
xyzA = ([(1139.919)(3.2)4 − 7242.69(3.2) +
H• Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) are introduced to analyse
}
19989.57] )~
the behavior of the error in the predictions. Equ (37) gives the
xyzA = 23.7 /M
RMSE.
}

m (/G )o€A , v2i2 , p and adding H 4 ~

Using ‚ ƒ„ = [ ∑…hˆH† mh − oh‡ ] (37)
…
xyzA (/M) to compensate for terrain error in (30). …
1 mh − oh
The modified cyber-physical PL model for L1 is ‰ „= Š‹ ‹ p 100%
n mh
given as: ŒˆH
( 1) = 95.1 + [26.1 log f − 13.8 log h$% ] + where, m h (/M)= measured data, o h (/M)= predicted
q
10(3.2) stR ` r d − a(h'%( ) + 23.7 /M (33) data, n= Number of data points. Tables 5 and Table 6 show
qu
the RMSE and MAPE values of both existing, modified, and
optimised AGSA.
 The 2nd International Conference on Multidisciplinary Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)
Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)

Table 5: RMSE Analysis of Existing, Modified and Enhanced Models.

Error OHM COST Ericss (dB) Egli ECC Modified Enhanced
Location
Metric (dB) (dB) (dB) (dB) Model (dB) AGSA(dB)
L1 RMSE 4.903 10.17 36.49 98.99 201.1 4.290 3.998
L2 RMSE 10.77 16.04 42.36 104.9 206.9 9.875 8.859
L3 MASE 3.497 8.765 35.08 97.58 199.7 2.231 1.870
Average
RMSE 6.39 11.66 37.98 100.5 203.6 5.465 4.909
Value

Table 6: MAPE Analysis of Existing, Modified, and Enhanced AGSA models

Error OHM COST Ericsson Egli ECC Modified Enhanced
Location
Metric (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Model (%) AGSA
L1 MAPE 0.265 0.549 1.970 5.344 10.86 0.231 0.216
L2 MAPE 0.611 0.909 2.401 5.943 11.73 0.559 0.502
L3 MAPE 0.187 0.468 1.872 5.209 10.66 0.119 0.110
Average
MAPE 0.354 0.642 2.081 5.498 11.08 0.303 0.276
Value

VI. RESULTS
This section presents the outcomes of the PL models applied
to the provisioning of HetVNET using 5G network. The
deployment integration considered the end-to-end
MasterMover logistics retail vehicle within Tesco
warehouses in Wales. Specifically, the focus lies on the
evaluation of the measured, adapted, and enhanced AGSA.
With respect to network layers with L1-L3 depicted in Figure
2, the outcomes indicate that the enhanced AGSA model
exhibits superior Path Loss (PL) performance, particularly
evident at 0.60 km from the base station. In contrast, the
ECC-33 model's PL performance is deemed unsatisfactory,
attributable to the combined effects of interference and signal
blockage prevalent in densely populated user areas.

Fig. 3: Effect of AGSA on PL models with empirical and measured

data for modified OHM and enhanced GSA (L1).

Fig. 4 shows the performance of OHM, COST, Erics, Egli,

ECC, Modified, and Enhanced GSA, respectively. The
Enhanced AGSA model was observed as the best compared
to existing models in the case study.

Fig. 2. Effect of AGSA on PL models for empirical and measured data (L1)

From Fig. 3, It was observed that the Enhanced GSA model

outperformed other models. Therefore, it is a good model that
can solve the problem of inter-symbol interference and signal
loss in the 5G NR network offering connectivity to CAVs.

Fig. 4: Plot of PL against distance with measured data for L2.

 The 2nd International Conference on Multidisciplinary Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)
Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)

Fig. 5 shows the PL values against distance at L3. The attenuation in the study area. Therefore, the model is good for
enhanced AGSA model performs better than all other 5G NR network estimation and deployment in the study
models. It was observed that there was no network terrain. The implication is that PL can equally be provisioned
interference leading to efficient service delivery. Therefore, for service efficiency with modified OHM in context. The
the model seems satisfactory for 5G services in high-density use of advanced computing schemes such as HDL [13], Fog
terrains. network orchestration [14], and edge reliability provisioning
[15] could be explored further in HetVNETs.

Fig. 7: Path Loss Values against distance for L3.

Fig. 5: Plot of PL values against distance with measured Data for L3.
VII. CONCLUSION
This paper presents PL validation with AGSA for 5G-
Fig. 6 illustrates the Path Loss (PL) values at various Cyberphysical Vehicular Networks that relies on DSRC. An
distances at L1, L2, and L3. At 0.6 kilometers from the BS, optimal estimation and deployment strategy in high-density
the PL values are as follows: Existing ECC - 324.7 dB, areas such as urban terrains are investigated. The paper
Existing Erics - 159.1 dB, Existing Egli - 221.2 dB, Modified addressed the issue of path attenuation in ICAV. In the paper,
OHM (L3) - 128.0 dB, Modified OHM (L2) - 122.8 dB, and a decrease in power density of electromagnetic waves as
Modified OHM (L1) - 126.0 dB. Notably, the mean value for CAVs propagate through space is mitigated. It was shown
the Modified OHM model surpasses other models within this that minimizing PL is significant for enhancing the safety,
specific measurement environment. Furthermore, it is security, and sustainability of DSRC-based HetVNETs.
noteworthy that there was no observed network interference. Furthermore, the work highlights how an improved PL
This model displays significant potential in addressing inter- algorithm, together with emerging 5G/6G technologies, can
symbol interference and signal attenuation within the study significantly impact ICAV supply chain logistics by reducing
area. environmental impact in terms of PL. Given the inherent non-
deterministic nature of ICAVs, the challenges associated to
oscillatory traffic patterns (i.e., unpredictable) in busy
environments, can be effectively mitigated. Future research
will focus on the implementation of spike neural networks for
PL prediction within HetVNETs. This innovative approach
promises to contribute to the advancement of Vehicle-to-
Everything (V2X) communication systems and their
integration into smart transportation networks.

Appendix I: Master Mover Scenario Use case -Tesco PLC

Fig. 6: Path Loss values against distance for L1, L2, and L3.

Fig. 7 depicts the plot of PL values against distance with the

Generalized OHM (GOHM) and existing model at L1, L2,
and L3. At 0.60 km from BS, the PL values obtained were
324.7 dB, 221.2 dB, 159.1 dB, 132.8 dB, 127.4 dB, and 125.6
dB, for Existing ECC, Egli, Erics, COST, OHM, and
Generalized OHM, respectively. It was observed that the
modified model performed better than the existing one
without symbol interference. The GOHM has the potential to
cushion the effect of inter-symbol interference and signal (a) End-to-End Warehouse Retail Shop
The 2nd International Conference on Multidisciplinary Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)
Engineering and Applied Sciences (ICMEAS-2023)

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(d) Garbage Trash mapped for MasterMover Logistics Evacuation

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