Renaissance University BBA-3rd Semester Computer and IT Application

UNIT-I: KNOWING COMPUTER

What is computer?

A computer is a programmable electronic device that processes data to perform a variety

of tasks. It is a complex system that can receive, store, retrieve, and process information.

Basic Applications of Computer

Computers are versatile tools with a wide range of applications across various fields. Here
are some basic applications of computers:

1. Word Processing: Creating, editing, and formatting documents using word

processing software such as Microsoft Word or Google Docs.
2. Spreadsheets: Analyzing and managing data through spreadsheet applications like
Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets.
3. Internet Browsing: Accessing information, communicating, and conducting
research on the internet using web browsers such as Chrome, Firefox, or Safari.
4. Email Communication: Sending and receiving electronic messages through email
clients like Microsoft Outlook, Gmail, or Apple Mail.
5. Graphics and Design: Creating and editing visual content using graphic design
software like Adobe Photoshop or Illustrator.
6. Programming and Coding: Writing, compiling, and debugging code for software
development and programming tasks.
7. Database Management: Storing, organizing, and retrieving data using database
management systems like MySQL, Oracle, or Microsoft SQL Server.
8. Multimedia Production: Creating and editing audio and video content using
software such as Adobe Premiere, Audacity, or Final Cut Pro.
9. Presentations: Designing and delivering presentations using software like
Microsoft PowerPoint or Google Slides.
10. Simulation and Modeling: Using computer programs to simulate real-world
processes and model complex systems in fields such as science, engineering, and
finance.
11. Research and Data Analysis: Conducting data analysis, statistical calculations,
and research using tools like R, Python, or statistical software packages.
12. E-commerce: Facilitating online transactions, managing inventory, and running
online businesses through e-commerce platforms.
13. Computer-Aided Design (CAD): Creating detailed designs and schematics for
engineering, architecture, and product development using CAD software.

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14. Education and E-learning: Supporting teaching and learning through educational
software, online courses, and virtual classrooms.
15. Communication and Social Media: Engaging in social networking, sharing
content, and communicating with others through platforms like Facebook, Twitter,
and Instagram.
16. Financial Management: Managing financial transactions, budgeting, and
accounting using financial software and applications.
17. Healthcare Applications: Storing patient records, managing medical imaging, and
supporting medical research through healthcare information systems.
18. Gaming: Playing and developing video games for entertainment and educational
purposes.

These are just a few examples, and the applications of computers continue to evolve as
technology advances and new possibilities emerge. Computers have become integral to
our daily lives, influencing and enhancing various aspects of work, communication, and
entertainment.

Components of Computer:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): Often referred to as the brain of the computer,
the CPU executes instructions of a computer program. It performs arithmetic and
logical operations and controls the overall operation of the computer.
2. Memory (RAM): Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile memory that
temporarily stores data and machine code currently being used and processed by
the CPU. It allows for quick access to data, but it is wiped clean when the computer
is powered off.
3. Storage: Computers have various types of non-volatile storage devices, such as
hard disk drives (HDDs) or solid-state drives (SSDs), where data can be stored
persistently even when the power is turned off. These devices are used for long-
term storage of operating systems, applications, and user data.
4. Input Devices: These devices allow users to interact with the computer. Common
input devices include keyboards, mice, touchpads, and more recently, touchscreens,
voice recognition systems, and motion-sensing devices.
5. Output Devices: These devices display the results of processed data to the user.
Examples include monitors, printers, speakers, and more.
6. Motherboard: The motherboard is the main circuit board that houses the CPU,
memory, and other essential components. It provides the necessary connections for
these components to communicate with each other.
7. Peripheral Devices: These include additional devices connected to the computer,
such as printers, scanners, external drives, and other hardware that extends the
functionality of the system.

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8. Operating System (OS): The operating system is software that manages

computer hardware and provides services for computer programs. Common
operating systems include Windows, macOS, Linux, and various versions of Unix.
9. Software: Computer programs, or software, are sets of instructions that tell the
computer how to perform specific tasks. This includes applications, utilities, and the
operating system itself.
10. Network Interface: Many modern computers have network interfaces that allow
them to connect to networks, such as the internet or local area networks (LANs),
enabling communication and data exchange with other devices.

Computers come in various forms, including personal computers, laptops, servers,

mainframes, and embedded systems. They play a crucial role in various fields, from
business and education to entertainment and scientific research. The evolution of
computers has led to advancements in technology, making them indispensable in today's
interconnected and digital world.

Measurement of Computer Memory

Computer memory is measured in units of digital information storage, and the size of
memory is typically expressed in bytes. Here are some common units used to measure
computer memory:

1. Bit (b): The smallest unit of digital information. It can represent a binary value of
either 0 or 1.
2. Byte (B): A byte is composed of 8 bits. It is the basic unit of storage in most
computer systems and is often used to represent a character, such as a letter or
number.
3. Kilobyte (KB): 1 kilobyte is equal to 1,024 bytes. It's commonly used to describe
the size of small files or the capacity of early computer systems.
4. Megabyte (MB): 1 megabyte is equal to 1,024 kilobytes or approximately 1 million
bytes. It is often used to measure the size of files, applications, and small data sets.
5. Gigabyte (GB): 1 gigabyte is equal to 1,024 megabytes or approximately 1 billion
bytes. It is commonly used to express the capacity of computer storage devices,
such as hard drives and solid-state drives.
6. Terabyte (TB): 1 terabyte is equal to 1,024 gigabytes or approximately 1 trillion
bytes. Terabytes are used to describe the capacity of large storage devices and data
sets.
7. Petabyte (PB): 1 petabyte is equal to 1,024 terabytes or approximately 1
quadrillion bytes. Petabytes are used in the context of very large-scale data storage
and processing, such as in data centers.

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8. Exabyte (EB): 1 exabyte is equal to 1,024 petabytes or approximately 1 quintillion

bytes. Exabytes are used to describe extremely large volumes of data, often
encountered in scientific research or big data analytics.
9. Zettabyte (ZB): 1 zettabyte is equal to 1,024 exabytes or approximately 1
sextillion bytes. Zettabytes are used in discussions of global data storage and
internet traffic.
10. Yottabyte (YB): 1 yottabyte is equal to 1,024 zettabytes or approximately 1
septillion bytes. Yottabytes are theoretical measurements and are not commonly
encountered in current technology discussions.

These units follow the binary system, where each higher unit is 1,024 times larger than
the unit before it. While these units are commonly used, it's essential to be aware of the
specific context in which they are employed, as there may be variations in usage in
different fields or industries.

Concept of Computing

The concept of computing refers to the systematic processing of information through

algorithms and the use of computational devices, typically computers, to perform various
tasks. Computing involves the manipulation and analysis of data using predefined
instructions to produce desired outcomes. The fundamental elements of computing
include:

1. Data: Data are raw facts or observations that are collected and stored for further
processing. It can take various forms, such as numbers, text, images, or any other
type of information.
2. Algorithm: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or set of rules designed to
solve a specific problem or perform a particular task. Algorithms are fundamental to
computing and provide the logic for processing data.
3. Computation: Computation is the execution of algorithms by a computational
device, such as a computer. It involves the manipulation of data according to the
rules defined by the algorithm to produce meaningful results.
4. Computational Devices: These are physical or virtual machines capable of
performing computations. Computers, ranging from personal computers to
supercomputers, are the most common computational devices. However, other
devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and embedded systems, also have
computational capabilities.
5. Software: Software refers to the programs and applications that provide
instructions for a computer to execute. It includes operating systems, application
software, and various utilities that enable users to interact with the hardware and
perform specific tasks.

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6. Hardware: Hardware comprises the physical components of a computer system,

including the central processing unit (CPU), memory, storage devices, input devices
(e.g., keyboard, mouse), output devices (e.g., monitor, printer), and other
peripherals.
7. Information Processing: The core function of computing is information
processing, which involves inputting data, processing it using algorithms, and
producing output. This process may include tasks such as calculations, data analysis,
graphics rendering, and more.
8. Problem Solving: Computing is often applied to solve complex problems in various
domains, including science, engineering, business, healthcare, and many others.
Algorithms and computational methods help in finding solutions to problems that
may be impractical or time-consuming to solve manually.
9. Abstraction: Abstraction is a key concept in computing, allowing complex systems
to be represented and understood at different levels of detail. This involves hiding
unnecessary details while highlighting essential features, making it easier for
humans to design, program, and interact with computational systems.
10. Networking: Computing often involves communication and collaboration between
multiple computational devices. Networking technologies enable the exchange of
data and the sharing of computational resources over local and global networks.

The concept of computing has evolved over time, driven by advances in hardware,
software, and algorithms. It plays a crucial role in nearly every aspect of modern life,
influencing how we work, communicate, conduct research, and solve problems.

Types of Software

Software is used to control a computer. There are different types of software that can run
on a computer: system software, utility software, and application software.

There are major 2 types of Computer Software:

1. System Software 2. Application Software

1. System software

If you think of software as being in layers, the system software is the bottom layer: it sits
between the hardware and the application software.

Types of System Software

System software is essential for a computer to function properly. And the most common
types of system software are

(1) Operating Systems,

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(2) Device Drivers,

(3) middleware,
(4) Utilities and
(5) Programming language interpreters & compilers

Operating System

Operating systems are the most important type of system software. An operating system is
a software that controls how your hardware works, which means it manages the
computer's memory, processes, and all of its software and hardware.

Application software also uses the operating system to talk to the hardware on the
computer and to other software. When a web browser wants to load a web page, it is the
operating system that controls access to the internet and fetches the information from the
web.

Similarly, the operating system also provides the application software information about
what key is being pressed, and about the mouse: where it is, what it clicked, and where
it’s moving on screen.

Device Drivers

Device drivers are tiny programs that enable a computer to communicate with its hardware
devices, such as printers, scanners, and keyboards. Without device drivers, the hardware
you connect to your computer will not be working properly. For example, without device
drivers, your printer will not work properly. Device manufacturers provide most device
drivers, but Microsoft also provides some generic ones.

Firmware

Firmware is a type of software that is embedded in a hardware device. It controls the

device and performs its essential functions. Firmware is usually stored in read-only
memory (ROM), which means it cannot be modified or deleted. However, some devices
have firmware that can be updated. Firmware updates can be downloaded from the
manufacturer's website or installed from a CD or USB drive.

BIOS

BIOS (basic input/output system) is a firmware code that is executed when a computer is
powered on. It performs a power-on self-test (POST) and initializes the computer before
loading the operating system. The BIOS is stored in a ROM (read-only memory) chip on
the motherboard.

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Programming Language Translator

Programming languages are like human languages in that they are used to communicate
instructions to a computer. However, unlike human languages, programming languages are
designed to be read and understood by computers, not humans. That is where
programming language translators come in.

Programming language translators are programs that convert code written in one
programming language into another programming language. This translator can be helpful
when you want to take code written in one language and run it on a machine that only
understands another language. It converts code from an older language into a newer one,
making it easier to keep your code up-to-date.

Utilities

Utilities are programs that help maintain and optimize a computer's performance.

Examples of utility programs include file managers, virus scanners, and disk
defragmenters.

Utility programs are usually bundled with the operating system or can be downloaded from
the internet.

Security programs include anti-virus software that scans and removes viruses. Most
computers will include some sort of anti-virus software, but you can add your own.

Optimisation programs can include tools for system clean-up, disk

defragmentation, and file compression. These tools are typically installed as part of
the operating system. They have access to the hard drive to keep it tidy.

2. Application software

All software / programs which are not operating system or a utility is an application or app.
So a word processor, spread sheet, web browser, and graphics software are all examples of
application software, and they can do many specific tasks.

You can remove and add applications on your computer using the operating system.

Application software like a word processor regularly directs the operating system to load
and save files from and to the hard drive. When you are working on a file, it is saved
temporarily in the RAM. It is only when you choose to save it that it is written to the hard
drive.

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This is why, if the computer crashes while you’re working on a file, you may lose any
changes you didn’t save. Data stored in the RAM is volatile. The data is lost when the RAM
loses power.

Types of Application Software

There are many application software, each designed for a specific purpose. Some common
examples include word processors, spreadsheet programs, and presentation softwares.
Each application software type has unique features and functions, making it better suited
for specific tasks than others.

For example, Word processors are designed to create and edit text-based documents,
while spreadsheet programs are better suited to work with numerical data.

Presentation software is typically used for slide shows or presentations, but it can also be
used for other purposes, such as for creating diagrams or charts.

Features of Application Software

Application software is a type of software that is designed to perform a specific task or

task. Examples of application software include word processors, spreadsheet programs,
and database programs.

The main features of application software include the ability to:

 Open, save, and edit files.

 Perform calculations.
 Create and format documents.
 Other features may include the ability to:
 Send and receive an email.
 Browse the World Wide Web.
 Create and edit digital images.

Programming Languages:

There are numerous programming languages, each designed for specific purposes and
with different features. Here is a list of some commonly used programming languages:

1. Python: Known for its readability and versatility, Python is widely used for web
development, data analysis, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and automation.
2. JavaScript: A scripting language primarily used for web development to create
dynamic content, interactive interfaces, and asynchronous communication.
3. Java: A versatile, object-oriented language used for building enterprise-level
applications, Android apps, and large-scale systems.

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4. C: A foundational language often used for system programming, embedded

systems, and building other programming languages.
5. C++: An extension of C that includes object-oriented programming features,
commonly used in game development, system/software development, and
performance-critical applications.
6. C#: Developed by Microsoft, C# is used for building Windows applications, web
applications with ASP.NET, and game development with Unity.
7. Ruby: Known for its elegant syntax, Ruby is used for web development (Ruby on
Rails framework), automation, and scripting.
8. PHP: A server-side scripting language mainly used for web development to create
dynamic web pages and manage databases.
9. SQL (Structured Query Language): Used for managing and querying relational
databases.
10. HTML/CSS: While not programming languages per se, HTML (Hypertext Markup
Language) and CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) are essential for web development,
defining the structure and style of web pages, respectively.
11. Perl: Known for its text manipulation and processing capabilities, Perl is used in
system administration and web development.

The choice of programming language often depends on the specific requirements of a

project, the target platform, and the developer's preferences and expertise. Additionally,
new programming languages and updates to existing ones continue to emerge, reflecting
the evolving needs of the software development community.

Compiler:

A compiler is a specialized program that translates high-level source code written in a

programming language into a lower-level form, typically machine code or an intermediate
code. The primary purpose of a compiler is to facilitate the execution of a program on a
computer by converting the human-readable source code into a format that the
computer's hardware can understand and execute.

Here's a basic overview of the compilation process:

Source Code: The programmer writes human-readable source code in a high-level

programming language like C, C++, Java, or Python. This source code is a set of
instructions that define the desired behavior of the program.

Compilation: The source code is processed by the compiler, which analyzes the code and
translates it into an equivalent lower-level representation. This representation can be
machine code (binary code specific to the target computer's architecture) or an
intermediate code.

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Object Code: The output of the compilation process is often referred to as "object code"
or "executable code." This is a file containing the translated instructions that the
computer's CPU can execute.

Linking (optional): In some cases, especially for larger programs or those composed of
multiple source code files, a linker may be used to combine the compiled code with other
necessary libraries and resources. This produces the final executable file.

Execution: The compiled or linked program is then ready for execution. The computer's
operating system or runtime environment loads the executable code into memory, and the
CPU executes the instructions, carrying out the intended functionality of the program.

Interpreter:

An interpreter is a program that directly executes source code written in a high-level

programming language without the need for a separate compilation step. Instead of
translating the entire source code into machine code or an intermediate code before
execution (as a compiler does), an interpreter processes the source code line by line,
executing each line immediately.

Here's a basic overview of how an interpreter works:

Source Code: The programmer writes human-readable source code in a high-level

programming language like Python, JavaScript, or Ruby.

Interpretation: The interpreter reads the source code line by line and executes the
instructions on-the-fly. It doesn't produce a separate executable file; rather, it interprets
and executes the source code directly.

Execution: As each line of code is interpreted, the corresponding actions are performed
by the computer's CPU. The program's behavior is observed as the interpreter proceeds
through the code.

Key characteristics of interpreters include:

No Separate Compilation: Unlike compilers, interpreters do not generate a standalone

executable file. They execute the source code directly, which can simplify the development
and testing process.

Portability: Since interpreters work with the source code directly, the same program can
be run on any system with the appropriate interpreter installed. This makes programs
highly portable.

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Interactive Development: Interpreters are often used in interactive development

environments, where programmers can execute code snippets or make changes on-the-fly
and see immediate results.

Slower Execution: Interpreted code tends to execute more slowly than compiled code
because the interpretation process occurs in real-time. However, this speed difference may
not be critical for all types of applications.

Examples of languages that are typically interpreted include Python, JavaScript, Ruby, PHP,
and Shell scripting languages (e.g., Bash). It's worth noting that some languages, like Java
and C#, use a combination of compilation and interpretation. These languages are first
compiled into an intermediate bytecode, which is then interpreted by a virtual machine
(e.g., Java Virtual Machine for Java programs).

In summary, interpreters provide a flexible and interactive approach to running code,

making them well-suited for certain types of development tasks and environments.

Assembler:

An assembler is a type of programming language translator that converts assembly

language code into machine code or an intermediate code. Assembly language is a low-
level programming language that is specific to a particular computer architecture. It uses
symbolic representations (mnemonics and symbols) for the instructions and registers of a
computer's CPU, making it easier for programmers to write code close to the machine
level.Here's a basic overview of how an assembler works:

Assembly Language Code:Programmers write code in assembly language, using

mnemonic instructions and symbolic representations for operations and memory
addresses.

Assembling: The assembler reads the assembly language code and translates it into
machine code or an intermediate code that the computer's CPU can execute.

Output: The output of the assembler is typically a binary file or an executable file
containing the translated machine code.

Execution:The machine code can be executed directly by the computer's CPU, performing
the operations specified in the original assembly language code.

Key points about assemblers:

Low-Level Language: Assembly language is considered a low-level language because it

closely corresponds to the architecture of the computer's central processing unit (CPU).

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Each assembly language instruction typically corresponds to a machine language

instruction.

Architecture-Specific: Assembly language is specific to a particular computer

architecture. Programs written in assembly language for one type of CPU architecture may
not run on a different architecture without modification.

Direct Control: Programmers using assembly language have more direct control over the
hardware compared to high-level languages. This allows for fine-tuning of performance
and resource usage.

Notation: Assembly language uses symbolic notation to represent machine instructions,

making it more human-readable than machine code but still closer to the hardware than
high-level languages.

Examples: Common assemblers include NASM (Netwide Assembler) for x86 architecture,
MASM (Microsoft Macro Assembler) for Microsoft platforms, and GAS (GNU Assembler)
used in the GNU Compiler Collection.

While assembly language programming is less common in modern software development

due to the availability of higher-level languages and compilers, it is still used in certain
situations where fine control over hardware is necessary, such as in embedded systems,
device drivers, and performance-critical applications.

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UNIT-II: OPERATING COMPUTER USING GUI BASED OPERATING SYSTEM

What is an Operating System?

An operating system (OS) is a software component that serves as an interface between

computer hardware and the computer user. It provides a platform for the execution of
application software and acts as an intermediary, managing and coordinating the various
hardware components of a computer system.

Basics of Popular Operating Systems

Here are the basics of some popular operating systems:

1. Microsoft Windows:
a. User Interface: Microsoft Windows is known for its graphical user interface
(GUI). Users interact with the system using a desktop environment with icons,
windows, and a Start menu.
b. File Management: Windows Explorer is the default file manager, allowing
users to navigate through files and folders.
c. Software Installation: Programs can be installed using executable files or
through the Microsoft Store. The Control Panel is used for system settings.
d. Common Versions: Windows 10, Windows 11 (as of my knowledge cutoff in
January 2022).
2. Mac OS:
a. User Interface: macOS, developed by Apple, features a sleek and intuitive
GUI. It includes the Dock for app shortcuts and a menu bar at the top of the
screen.
b. File Management: Finder is the file manager, providing a graphical way to
navigate and manage files and folders.
c. Software Installation: Apps can be installed from the App Store or third-
party sources. System Preferences is used for system settings.
d. Common Versions: macOS Big Sur, macOS Monterey (as of my knowledge
cutoff in January 2022).
3. Linux:
a. User Interface: Linux distributions vary widely. Some, like Ubuntu, use a
GUI similar to Windows or macOS, while others, like CentOS, are primarily
command-line based.
b. File Management: Linux uses file managers like Nautilus or Dolphin in GUI
environments. The command line (Terminal) is also commonly used.

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c. Software Installation: Package managers (e.g., APT for Debian/Ubuntu,

YUM for Red Hat/CentOS) are used to install software. Different desktop
environments have their own settings tools.
d. Common Versions: Ubuntu, Fedora, CentOS, Debian.
4. Unix:
a. User Interface: Unix is primarily used in server environments and does not
typically have a graphical desktop interface. It relies heavily on the command
line.
b. File Management: Command-line tools like ls, cd, and cp are used for file
management.
c. Software Installation: Unix systems often use package managers like APT,
YUM, or homebrew for software installation.
d. Common Versions: Various Unix variants, including AIX, HP-UX, and Solaris.

5. Android:
a. User Interface: Android, developed by Google, has a touchscreen-based
interface. It features a home screen with app icons and a notification bar at
the top.
b. File Management: Android includes a file manager for basic file operations.
c. Software Installation: Apps can be installed from the Google Play Store or
third-party sources.

The user interface (UI)

The user interface (UI) of an operating system is the means through which a user
interacts with and controls the computer. UI design can vary significantly between
operating systems, but there are common elements and concepts.

Using Mouse:

Mouse operations refer to the actions and movements performed using a computer
mouse. The mouse is a pointing device that typically has two buttons (left and right) and a
scroll wheel. Here are some common mouse operations:

1. Pointing: Move the mouse on a flat surface to control the on-screen cursor. This
allows you to point to and select items on the screen.
2. Click:
a. Left Click: Press the left mouse button once to select an item or activate a
function. This is the most common action and is used for tasks like opening
files, selecting icons, or clicking on links.

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b. Right Click: Press the right mouse button to open a context menu. The
options in the menu depend on the context in which you right-click. For
example, right-clicking on a file might give you options to copy, cut, or delete
it.
3. Double-Click: Quickly press the left mouse button twice in succession. Double-
clicking is often used to open files, folders, or applications.
4. Drag and Drop: Click on an item, hold down the left mouse button, drag the item
to a new location, and release the button to drop it. This is commonly used for
moving or copying files, organizing desktop icons, or rearranging elements in a
graphical interface.
5. Scrolling: Use the scroll wheel (usually located between the two main buttons) to
scroll vertically through documents, web pages, or other content. Some mice also
support horizontal scrolling.
6. Context Menu: Access a context menu by right-clicking on an item. The menu
provides additional options relevant to the selected item. For example, right-clicking
on the desktop might allow you to change the wallpaper or create a new folder.
7. Selecting Text: Click and hold the left mouse button at the beginning of the text
you want to select. Drag the cursor to the end of the text, and release the button.
The selected text can then be copied, cut, or formatted.

Use of Common Icons:

Common icons are graphical symbols used in user interfaces to represent various
functions, actions, or types of content. These icons contribute to the user experience by
providing visual cues and making it easier for users to understand and interact with the
software. Here are some examples of common icons and their typical uses:

1. Folder Icon: Represents a folder or directory.

Function: Clicking on the folder icon typically opens a file explorer or file manager,
allowing users to navigate through their files and folders.

2. Trash or Recycle Bin Icon: Represents the location where deleted files are
temporarily stored.

Function: Clicking on the trash or recycle bin icon opens a window showing deleted
files. Users can restore or permanently delete files from this location.

3. Document/File Icon: Represents a generic document or file.

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Function: Clicking on a document or file icon opens the associated application or viewer
for that file type.

4. Gear or Settings Icon: Represents settings or options.

Function: Clicking on the gear or settings icon opens a menu or window where users
can customize and configure various system or application settings.

5. Magnifying Glass or Search Icon: Represents search functionality.

Function: Clicking on the magnifying glass or search icon opens a search bar or dialog,
allowing users to search for files, applications, or content.

Status Bar:

A status bar is a horizontal bar located at the bottom or top of a graphical user
interface (GUI), typically within an application or a window. Its primary purpose is to
provide feedback to the user about the current status of the system or the application.
The information displayed on the status bar can vary depending on the context and the
software being used. Here are common elements found in status bars:

(1) System Status (2) Application-specific Information (3) Progress Indicators (4)
Notifications and Alerts (5) Interactive Elements (6) Zoom or View Settings (7) Caps
Lock, Num Lock, and Scroll Lock Indicators (8) Language or Input Method.

Menus:

In the context of Microsoft Windows, menus refer to the graphical user interface
elements that present a list of options for users to choose from. These menus are an
essential part of the Windows operating system, providing a way to access various
functions and features. Here are some common types of menus in Windows: (1) Start
Menu (2) Right Click Context Menu (3) Taskbar Context Menu (4) System area /
Notification Menu (5) Window Menu (6) Control Panel Menu (7) Application Menus.

Running an Application:

Running an application on a Windows operating system is a straightforward process.

Here are the basic steps:

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Method 1: Using the Start Menu

Click on the Start Menu: In the bottom-left corner of your screen, click on the Start
button (Windows icon).

Navigate to the Application: Locate the application you want to run. You can often
find it in the "All Apps" list or in a folder specific to its category.

Click on the Application: Click on the application's icon to launch it.

Method 2: Using the Desktop Shortcut

Locate the Desktop Shortcut: If you have a shortcut to the application on your
desktop, find the icon representing the application.

Double-Click on the Shortcut: Double-click on the application's shortcut icon to

launch it.

Method 3: Using File Explorer

Open File Explorer: Press Windows key + E to open File Explorer.

Navigate to the Application: Navigate to the location where the application is

installed (usually in the "Program Files" or "Program Files (x86)" folder).

Find the Application Executable: Look for the application's executable file (usually
ending with ".exe").

Double-Click on the Executable: Double-click on the executable file to run the

application.

Method 4: Using Search

Open the Search Bar: Click on the magnifying glass or search icon next to the Start
button, or press Windows key + S to open the search bar.

Type the Application Name: Start typing the name of the application you want to
run.

Select the Application from Search Results: Once the application appears in the
search results, click on it to launch.

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Method 5: Using Run Dialog

Open the Run Dialog: Press Windows key + R to open the Run dialog.

Type the Application's Executable Name: Type the name of the application's
executable file (e.g., "notepad.exe").

Press Enter: Press Enter or click "OK" to run the application.

View Files and Folders / Directories:

n Windows, you can view files and folders using the File Explorer. File Explorer is the
default file management tool that allows you to navigate, organize, and interact with
files and folders on your computer. Here's how you can view files and folders:

Method 1: Using File Explorer

Open File Explorer: Press Windows key + E on your keyboard, or click on the File
Explorer icon in the taskbar (it looks like a folder).

Navigate to the Desired Location: Use the left-hand navigation pane to go to the
drive or folder where your files are located.

View Files and Folders: In the main File Explorer window, you will see a list of files
and folders. You can click on folders to navigate into them.

Change View Options: File Explorer provides different view options. In the upper-
right corner, you'll see icons for different view modes such as "Details," "List," "Tiles,"
and "Large Icons." Click on these icons to change the way files and folders are
displayed.

Sort and Arrange: You can sort files and folders by various criteria such as name,
date modified, and file type. Click on the column headers to sort them accordingly.

Search for Files: Use the search box in the top-right corner to quickly find files or
folders. Just start typing the name of the file you're looking for.

Folder Options: On the toolbar, click on the "View" tab to access additional options.
Here, you can choose to show or hide file extensions, hidden items, and change other
display settings.

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Method 2: Using Desktop

View Desktop Icons: If you have files or shortcuts on your desktop, you can view
them directly on your desktop.

You can also right-click on the desktop and select "Refresh" to make sure the desktop
icons are up to date.

Method 3: Using Search

Use Windows Search: Click on the magnifying glass or search icon next to the Start
button, or press Windows key + S to open the search bar.

Type the name of the file or folder you're looking for.

Creating and Renaming of files and folders:

Creating and renaming files and folders in Windows is a fundamental aspect of

organizing and managing your digital content. Here's how you can create and rename
files and folders:

Creating a New Folder Using File Explorer:

 Open File Explorer by pressing Windows key + E.

 Navigate to the location where you want to create a new folder (e.g., a specific
drive or an existing folder).
 Right-click on an empty space.
 From the context menu, select "New," and then choose "Folder."
 Type a name for the new folder and press Enter.

Creating a New File Using File Explorer:

 Open File Explorer.

 Navigate to the location where you want to create a new file.
 Right-click on an empty space.
 From the context menu, hover over "New," and then choose the type of file you
want to create (e.g., Text Document, Word Document).
 A new file with a default name will be created. Type a new name and press
Enter.

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Renaming a Folder or File:

1. Using File Explorer:

 Open File Explorer.

 Navigate to the folder or file you want to rename.
 Right-click on the folder or file.
 Select "Rename" from the context menu.
 Type the new name and press Enter.

2. Using Keyboard Shortcut:

 Select the folder or file by clicking on it.

 Press the F2 key on your keyboard.
 Type the new name and press Enter.

Opening and closing of different Windows:

Opening and closing windows on a Windows operating system is a fundamental aspect of

interacting with your computer. Here's how you can open and close different types of
windows:

Opening Windows:

1. File Explorer Window:

 Press Windows key + E to open File Explorer.

 Alternatively, click on the File Explorer icon in the taskbar.

2. Application Window:

 Click on the application's shortcut on the desktop or in the Start menu to open an
application window.
 For example, to open Microsoft Word, click on the Word icon.

3. Control Panel Window:

 Press Windows key + X and select "Control Panel" to open the Control Panel
window.

4. Settings Window:

 Press Windows key + I to open the Settings window.

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5. Task Manager:

 Press Ctrl + Shift + Esc to open Task Manager.

6. Taskbar Icons:

 Click on the taskbar icon of the open window you want to switch to.

7. Task View:

 Press Windows key + Tab to open Task View, where you can see and switch
between open windows.

Creating Shortcuts:

Creating shortcuts on a Windows operating system is a convenient way to quickly access

files, folders, applications, or specific actions. Here's how you can create shortcuts:

Method 1: Create Shortcut on Desktop

 Locate the Target File or Folder:

 Navigate to the file or folder for which you want to create a shortcut.
 Right-click on the file or folder.
 Select "Create Shortcut":
 From the context menu, hover over or click on "Send to," and then choose "Desktop
(create shortcut)."

Method 2: Create Shortcut from Start Menu

 Open Start Menu:

o Click on the Start button in the bottom-left corner of the screen.
 Find the Program or App:
o Locate the program or application for which you want to create a shortcut.
 Right-Click on the Program:
o Right-click on the program or app.
 Select "More":
o In some cases, you may need to select "More" before finding the "Open file
location" option.
 Right-Click on the Program Shortcut:
o Right-click on the program's shortcut in the File Explorer window.
 Select "Create Shortcut":
o From the context menu, select "Create shortcut."

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 Place the Shortcut on Desktop:

o You can then drag the newly created shortcut to your desktop or any other
location for easy access.

Basics of Setting up Operation System (OS):

Setting up an operating system (OS) involves the process of installing and configuring the
software that manages a computer's hardware and provides a platform for running
applications. Here are the basics of setting up an operating system:

1. Obtain the Installation Media:

 Obtain the installation media for the operating system. This could be a DVD, USB
drive, or a downloadable ISO file.

2. Backup Data:

 Before starting the installation, it's advisable to back up important data to prevent
loss during the setup process.

3. Boot from Installation Media:

 Insert the installation media into the computer.

 Restart the computer and set it to boot from the installation media. This is usually
done by accessing the BIOS/UEFI settings during the boot process.

4. Follow Installation Wizard:

 The operating system installation typically involves an installation wizard that guides
you through the process.
 Choose the language, time zone, keyboard layout, and other basic settings.

5. Partition and Format:

 If needed, the installation process may prompt you to partition the hard drive and
format the partitions. This is where you decide how to allocate space for the
operating system.

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6. Install the Operating System:

 Proceed with the installation, and the operating system files will be copied to the
hard drive.

7. User Account Setup:

 Create a user account with a username and password. This account will be used to
log in to the operating system.

8. Configure System Settings:

 Set up additional system settings, such as privacy options, automatic updates, and
user preferences.

9. Install Device Drivers:

 After the basic installation, it's essential to install device drivers for components like
graphics cards, network adapters, and peripherals. Some operating systems include
these drivers automatically, while others may require manual installation.

10. Install Software and Applications:

 Install any additional software and applications needed for your specific use case.
This might include web browsers, office suites, antivirus software, etc.

11. Security Setup:

 Configure security settings, such as enabling a firewall, setting up antivirus software,

and ensuring that the operating system is up to date with the latest security
patches.

12. User Account Management:

 Manage user accounts, including creating additional accounts, setting permissions,

and adjusting user settings.

13. Configure Network Settings:

 Set up network connectivity, including connecting to Wi-Fi or configuring Ethernet

settings.

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14. Customization:

 Customize the desktop environment, appearance settings, and other personalization

options.

15. Verify and Test:

 After the setup is complete, verify that everything is working as expected. Test
hardware functionality, network connectivity, and installed applications.

16. Create System Restore Point (Optional):

 Some operating systems allow you to create a system restore point, which can be
useful for restoring the system to a previous state if issues arise.

Windows Common Utilities:

Windows operating systems come with a variety of built-in utilities and tools that help
users manage and maintain their systems. Here are some common utilities found in
Windows:

1. Control Panel: Purpose: The Control Panel provides access to various system
settings and configurations. You can manage hardware, network, security, and other
aspects of your system.
2. File Explorer: Purpose: File Explorer is the file management application in
Windows. It allows you to navigate, organize, and interact with files and folders on
your computer.
3. Task Manager: Purpose: Task Manager provides information about running
processes and applications, system performance, and allows you to manage tasks,
end processes, and monitor resource usage.
4. Device Manager: Purpose: Device Manager is used to view and manage hardware
devices installed on your computer. You can update drivers, disable devices, and
troubleshoot hardware issues.
5. Disk Cleanup: Purpose: Disk Cleanup helps you free up disk space by removing
unnecessary files such as temporary files, system cache, and other non-essential
data.
6. Disk Defragmenter: Disk fragmentation is a phenomenon that can occur over
time as files on a hard disk become scattered across different physical locations.

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Disk defragmentation is a process designed to organize and optimize the placement

of files on a disk to improve system performance. In Windows, the built-in tool for
disk defragmentation is called "Optimize Drives."
7. Disk Management: Purpose: Disk Management allows you to manage disk drives
and partitions on your computer. You can create, delete, format, and resize
partitions.
8. Task Scheduler: Purpose: Task Scheduler enables you to schedule automated
tasks and programs to run at specific times or under certain conditions.

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UNIT-III: WORD PROCESSING

Understanding Word Processing:

Word processing refers to the creation, editing, formatting, and printing of documents
using specialized software called word processors. Word processing software provides a
range of features to make document creation efficient and visually appealing. Microsoft
Word and Google Docs are examples of popular word processing applications.

Basic Concepts:

1. Document:

 A document is the digital file created and edited using word processing software. It
can contain text, images, tables, and other elements.

2. Text Entry:

 Users can enter and edit text using a keyboard. The text can be manipulated,
selected, copied, and pasted within the document.

3. Formatting:

 Formatting involves changing the appearance of text. This includes adjusting font
styles, sizes, colors, and applying features such as bold, italic, and underline.

4. Paragraph Formatting:

 Word processors allow users to format entire paragraphs, adjusting indentation, line
spacing, and alignment.

5. Styles:

 Styles are predefined sets of formatting options that can be applied to text or
paragraphs for a consistent look throughout the document.

6. Inserting Objects:

 Users can insert various objects into documents, including images, tables, charts,
shapes, and hyperlinks.

7. Headers and Footers:

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 Headers and footers are sections at the top and bottom of each page, respectively,
where users can add information such as page numbers, document titles, and dates.

8. Page Layout:

 Users can control the layout of pages, adjusting margins, page size, and orientation
(portrait or landscape).

9. Spell Check and Grammar:

 Word processors often include built-in spell-check and grammar-check tools to help
users identify and correct errors.

10. Review and Collaboration:

 Collaboration features allow users to track changes, add comments, and work on
documents simultaneously with others.

11. Templates:

 Templates provide pre-designed document formats for common types like resumes,
letters, and reports.

12. Saving and Exporting:

 Users can save their documents in the word processor's native format or export
them to other file formats, such as PDF or plain text.

Opening and Closing Word Document:

Opening and closing a Word document is a fundamental aspect of using Microsoft Word or
any other word processing software. Here are the basic steps for opening and closing a
Word document in Microsoft Word:

Opening a Word Document:

Launch Microsoft Word:

 Click on the Microsoft Word icon on your desktop or open it from the Start menu.

Navigate to "File":

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 In the top-left corner of the Word window, click on the "File" tab. This will take you
to the Backstage view.

Choose "Open":

 In the Backstage view, select "Open" from the list of options. This will open the
Open dialog box.

Locate and Select the Document:

 Browse to the location where your Word document is saved.

 Select the document you want to open.

Click "Open":

 Once you've selected the document, click the "Open" button. The selected
document will now be opened in Microsoft Word.

Closing Word Application:

If you want to close the entire Microsoft Word application (including all open documents),
you can click the "X" button in the top-right corner of the Word window, or you can select
"Exit Word" from the File menu.

Remember to save your changes before closing a document if you have made edits. If the
document is new and hasn't been saved, you'll be prompted to save it before closing.
Following these steps will help you efficiently open, close, and navigate through Word
documents in Microsoft Word.

Creating Tables

Following different ways are available to create table in MS-Word:

1. Create table using Mouse over

Goto Insert Tab, click on table then make selection of columns and rows you want to
create table for and then left click of mouse to complete.

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2. Create table through Insert table dialog box

Click on Insert Tab -> Table -> In table size,
give no. of columns and No. of rows you need for table.

3. Create table using draw table:

To draw a table your own, click on
Insert Tab -> Table -> Draw Table ->
start drawing table manually.

4. Create table from MS-Excel

To create an excel spreadsheet in MS-Word,
click on Insert Tab -> Table -> Excel spreadsheet

5. Create table from quick tables

To create a table using pre-made templates of MS-Word, click on Insert Tab > Table
> Quick Table.

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Spell and Grammar Check

Spell Check:

 Open Your Document:

o Open the Word document that you want to check.
 Go to the "Review" Tab:
o Navigate to the "Review" tab in the Word ribbon at the top of the window.
 Start Spell Check:
o Click on the "Spelling & Grammar" button in the "Proofing" group.
Alternatively, you can press F7 on your keyboard.
 Review Suggestions:
o Word will start checking the document for spelling errors. If a potential error
is found, Word will suggest corrections.
 Choose Corrected Words:
o Review each suggested correction. You can choose to accept or ignore each
suggestion.
 Finish Spell Check:
o Once the spell check is complete, Word will display a message indicating that
the spelling and grammar check is finished.

Grammar Check:

Microsoft Word's grammar check is integrated with the spell check feature. It checks for
grammatical errors and suggests corrections in a similar manner.

 Open Your Document:

o Open the Word document you want to check.

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 Go to the "Review" Tab:

o Navigate to the "Review" tab in the Word ribbon.
 Start Grammar Check:
o Click on the "Spelling & Grammar" button in the "Proofing" group, or press F7
on your keyboard.
 Review Suggestions:
o Word will check for both spelling and grammar errors. If any grammar errors
are found, Word will suggest corrections.
 Choose Corrected Phrases:
o Review each suggested correction, including grammar suggestions. Accept or
ignore each suggestion as needed.
 Finish Grammar Check:
o Once the grammar check is complete, Word will display a message indicating
that the spelling and grammar check is finished.

Microsoft Word includes a Thesaurus feature that allows you to find synonyms (words with
similar meanings) for a selected word. Here's how you can use the Thesaurus in MS Word:

Using the Thesaurus:

 Open Your Document:

o Open the Word document in which you want to find synonyms.
 Select the Word:
o Highlight the word for which you want to find synonyms.
 Go to the "Review" Tab:
o Navigate to the "Review" tab in the Word ribbon at the top of the window.
 Access the Thesaurus:
o In the "Proofing" group, look for the "Thesaurus" button. Click on it.
 View Synonyms:
o The Research pane will open on the right side of the document, displaying a
list of synonyms for the selected word.
 Select a Synonym:
o Click on a synonym in the list to replace the selected word with the chosen
synonym.
 Close the Thesaurus Pane:
o Once you're done, you can close the Thesaurus pane by clicking the "X" in the
top-right corner or by pressing the "Esc" key.

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Printing a Word document

Printing a Word document in Microsoft Word is a straightforward process. Here are the
basic steps to print a Word document:

 Open Your Document:

o Open the Word document that you want to print.
 Go to the "File" Tab:
o Navigate to the "File" tab in the Word ribbon at the top of the window.
 Select "Print":
o In the Backstage view, select the "Print" option. You will see a preview of the
document on the right.
 Choose Printer and Settings:
o In the Print settings, choose the printer you want to use from the "Printer"
dropdown menu.
o Adjust settings such as the number of copies, which pages to print, and other
print options based on your preferences.
 Preview (Optional):
o You can preview how the document will look when printed by clicking the
"Print Preview" button. This allows you to see how the pages will be arranged
and check for any potential issues.
 Click "Print":
o Once you have configured the print settings, click the "Print" button to start
the printing process.

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UNIT-III: SPREADSHEET

What is Work Book?

A Microsoft Office Excel workbook is a file that contains one or more worksheets that
you can use to organize various kinds of related information.

What is Work Sheet?

An Excel worksheet is a single spreadsheet that contains cells organized by rows and
columns. A worksheet begins with row number one and column A. Each cell can contain a
number, text or formula

Similar to MS-Word, where a file is called a document, in Excel, a file is called a workbook.
A document in MS-Word may have lot of pages, in Excel Pages are referred as Worksheets.

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Rows and Columns in Excel Worksheet

Following are rows and columns in single worksheet:

Excel 2003 - 65,536 rows and 256 columns

Excel 2007 - 10,48,576 rows and 16,384 columns

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How to save workbook?

To save a workbook follow steps given below (refer to below image)

1. Click on Office Ribbon button appears on top left

2. Click on Save, select drive and folder you want to save workbook in
3. Type name of workbook and click on Save button

How to open a saved workbook?

To open a saved workbook, follow steps given below (refer to below image)

1. Click on Office Ribbon button appears on top left

2. Click on Open button, selection drive and folder you want to open workbook from
3. Select workbook and click on Open button

Entering data in excel

Place cursor in the cell where you want to enter data and start typing as shown below:

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You can see that name and address entered above are not completely visible. To increase
width of columns, select all columns and double click in between column captions (A,B,C
etc) as shown below:

Autofill numbers

Place cursor in the cell where you want to enter data and start typing as shown below:

Type a number in cell A2, hold small black pointer and drag downwards

Generate series of numbers with interval

Place cursor in the cell where you want to enter data and start typing as shown below:

Type 1 in cell A2 and 2 in cell a3, now select A2 to A3, drag small black pointer upto cell
a6. You will see a series of numbers with interval of 1 will be generated.

Auto generate date, days of week and months

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Type date in a2, day of week in B2 and month in C2. Select A2:C2, now drag black pointer
upto cell A7.

Merge and Centre

To show common title on group of cells, we can use merge & centre.

Type title in a1. Select a1,b1 and c1 and click on Merge and Centre in Alignment group.

Wrap Text

When we want to show common title on group of cells, we can use merge and centre
(Home Tab).

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1

Type text in A2 cell, select Column A, click on Wrap Text in Alignment. Entire text will be
now in same cell where you typed it.

Freeze Panes

Freeze Panes is a feature in Microsoft Excel that allows a row or column to lock in place,
making it always visible when scrolling vertically or horizontally through an open
document. To lock headings at top and first 5 columns from scrolling, click on designation
and then goto View Tab and click on Freeze Panes, freeze.

Understanding Shapes of Cursor

Before entering text, it is important to understand three shapes of cursor that appears
changing during we work:

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The thick white cross. This is used for cell selection.

The thin black cross. This is used for autofilling data and for copying formulas, both of
which will be covered later in this course.

The four-headed arrow. This is used for moving cells or other items.

Applying basic arithmetic calculations

In excel formulas begin with = sign.

You can use basic farmulaes to add, subtract, divide and multiply entered numbers. This is
advanced way to calculate as compared to using calculator.

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Applying basic arithmetic functions

To find sum of given numbers, average of entered numbers, find greatest and smallest nos
in the series, enter following formulae:

Single If function

The IF function can perform a logical test and return one value for a TRUE result, and
another for a FALSE result. For example, to "pass" scores above 33:
=IF(B2>=33,"Pass","Fail").

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Sumif

You can use the SUMIF function in Excel to sum cells based on number or text strings that
meet specific criteria. Always enclose text in double quotation marks.

Nested / Multiple IFs

The term "Nested IF" refers to using more than one IF function so that you can test for
more conditions and return more possible results. Each IF statement needs to be carefully
"nested" inside another so that the logic is correct. We can find out grades depending on
percentage obtained as mentioned below:

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Percentage Grade Description

90-100 O Outstanding
80-89 A+ Excellent
70-79 A Very Good
60-69 B+ Good
55-59 B Above Average
50-54 C Average
40-49 P Pass
Below 40 F Fail

Data Sorting

You can arrange (sort) entire data on any order i.e. department wise, designation wise,
name wise or salary wise. You can sort data on single column or multiple columns too.

Sorting on Single Column

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Sorting Data on Multiple Columns

You can sort data on desired levels. Here data is being sorted primarily on Department
followed by Designation within Department. If you want to sort name also within
designation, you can add one more level and select name from dropdown list.

Data Filter

Many times you may require to pick up specific data from entire data. For example, you
may require details of those employees who are working in Accounts department as an
Officer. Or Want know all employees working as Executive but drawing salary less than
8000. In such case you may filter desired data easily by using Data Filter function on
Excel.

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Data Validation

You can use data validation to restrict the type of data or the values that users enter into a
cell. A common data validation shows below that user is restricted to pick up department
name from dropdown list only.

To apply validation follow steps given below:

1. Select column you want to validate data for (here department)

2. Click on Data Tab then Data Validation
3. Select "List" from dropdown and type department names or select from worksheet if
already have typed.
4. Click on OK

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Now you will see that a

dropdown will appear in entire
column D.

User will have to select

department name from list only.

Excel will not accept any value

other than available in the list we

Similarly, you can restrict data entry for nos. and date type data also as shown below:

You can show appropriate message, during entry (input message) or after wrong entry
(Error Alert).

For a column which accepts

figures only and you want
to restrict user to enter
numbers in a fix range, you
can set validation for it.
Here, user will be able to
enter figures from 1000 to
10000 in the selected
column.

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UNIT-IV : PRESENTATION

Introduction to MS-PowePoint

PowerPoint is a presentation program that can create professional and attractive

slideshows including text, images, audio, animated objects and videos.

Microsoft PowerPoint is a powerful presentation software developed by Microsoft. It offers

users many ways to display information from simple presentations to complex multimedia
presentations. PowerPoint is a slideshow presentation program that is part of the Microsoft
office suite.

Features of PowerPoint

1. Integration

PowerPoint is compatible with all other software in the Microsoft Office suite. In addition to
image and audio support, PowerPoint 2007 also has video-integration functionality; you
can embed videos within a presentation for easy playback without exiting the program.

2. Transitions

Animate the change from one slide to another. Once you select a transition style, like a
Fade, Wipe or Push, specify how long the transition should last in the Duration menu.

3. Adding smart art

Smart Art can be used to create professional diagrams that include pictures and text or
combinations of the two.

4. Inserting shapes

As you can see, the gallery of available shapes is very extensive. Once you have selected
your chosen shape, you can just click in your slide to insert a default version of the shape
or, to set a particular size and position, click and drag with the mouse to create the shape
and size you want.

5. Inserting an image

Inserting Picture allows you to browse to an image file saved somewhere on your system.
You can resize, recolour, crop image as per your requirement.

6. Adding animation

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Animations can be applied to every object on a slide – including titles and other text to
apply an animation effect, choose the object or objects to be animated, then choose
Animation Styles or Add Animation from the Animations toolbar.

Save Presentation

To save a presentation, click on Office button, click on Save or Press Ctrl + S, following
dialog box will appear, type name for presentation and click on Save.

Open Presentation

To open a saved presentation, click on Ribbon button, click on Open, select presentation
and click on

Run Presentation

To run presentation press F5 key or click on appears in bottom right of the

window.

Presentation Themes

To apply themes, click on Design tab, click on the theme you want to apply for your
presentation.

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Presentation Views
There are various views available in PowerPoint as described below:

1. Normal View

Normal view is the first view in editing mode

where you’ll work most frequently to create your
slides. Below, Normal view displays slide
thumbnails on the left, a large window showing
the current slide, and a section below the current
slide where you can type your speaker notes for
that slide.

You can get to Normal view from the task bar

Normal View button in PowerPoint at the bottom of
the slide window, or from the View tab on the
ribbon.

2. Slide Sorter View

Slide Sorter is the second view in

PowerPoint, you can see all of the slides
in your presentation laid out as thumbnail
pictures. You cannot modify the content
of the individual slides shown.

You use Slide Sorter view to reorganize,

insert, delete and copy the presentation
slides. You can also add and preview
slide transition animation here, as well.

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3. Notes Page

The Third view is Notes Page view. It is not one of

the view commands included at the bottom of
Normal view; however, it can be accessed from the
View tab.

Notes Page view provides a space for presentation

notes, which are often called speaker notes. The
notes can be added to the presentation from this
view. You can enter your speaker notes directly
into the text placeholder in Notes Page view, or
while in Normal view you can enter your notes in
the area below the slide.

4. Slide Show View

You can get to SlideShow view from the task bar

Shows Slide Show View button in PowerPoint at the
bottom of the slide window.

Use Slide Show view to deliver your presentation to

your audience. Slide Show view occupies the full
computer screen, exactly the way your presentation
will look on a big screen when your audience sees it.

5. Slide Master

Slide Masters are used to create consistent

layouts throughout your presentation.
Using masters you can format titles,
backgrounds, colors, dates, times, and
slide numbers. Changes made to the
Master Slide and the Master Layouts are
applied to all slides with that layout.

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6. Handout

To select which handout layout to modify, click

the ―Handout Master‖ tab in the Ribbon. Then
select the desired layout from the ―Slides Per
Page‖ drop-down in the ―Page Setup‖ button
group. You can then modify the placeholder
information in the main window.

You can use the Handout Master in PowerPoint

to set the appearance of all printed handouts
for a presentation. To access this view, click
the ―View‖ tab in the Ribbon. Then click the
―Handout Master‖ button in the ―Master Views‖
button group.

7. Notes Master

The notes master in PowerPoint lets you alter

the appearance of the ―Notes Page‖
presentation view. Enter this view by clicking
the ―View‖ tab in the Ribbon. Then click the
―Notes Master‖ button in the ―Master Views‖
button group. Doing this then displays the
notes master for the presentation in the main
window. The ―Notes Master‖ tab also appears
in the Ribbon.

To alter the appearance of the ―Notes Page‖

view of your presentation slides, click the
―View‖ tab in the Ribbon..

Insert Illustrations
1. Picture

To insert picture / image click on Insert

Tab, click on Picture button in Illustration
group. Select image you want to insert in
presentation and click on open button.

You can resize image, colour it, crop it as

per your requirement. Image can be
animated also.

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2. Photo Album

PowerPoint allows you to import a set of

pictures into a photo album presentation. With
the photo album feature you can select,
rearrange, adjust, and add text to your
pictures. By default, one picture will appear on
each slide, but you can adjust the slide layout
to include multiple images if you want.

3. ClipArt

To insert clipArt, click on Insert Tab, click on

ClipArt, Search you want specific clipart, click
on clipart you want to insert from searched
result.

4. Shapes

You can add shapes, such as boxes, circles, and

arrows, to your documents, email messages, slide
shows, and spreadsheets. To add a shape, click Insert,
click Shapes, select a shape, and then click and drag
to draw the shape.

After you add one or more shapes, you can add text,
bullets, and numbering to them, and you can change
their fill, outline, and other effects on the Format tab.

5. SmartArt

Creating professional-looking
slides with illustrations seems
challenging, but PowerPoint
2007 makes using illustrations
easy with the addition of
SmartArt graphics. SmartArt

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graphics are a type of illustration

that allow you to visually
communicate information you
might otherwise include in a
presentation as text.

6. Chart

Charts and graphs are an effective way to present

information to your audience, as compared to show
data in a simple list of numbers. PowerPoint 2007 is
fully integrated with the spreadsheet tools of Excel
2007, making it very easy to create a chart from
scratch or to import data from an existing
spreadsheet.

Insert Media clips

Insert Movie from file

To Insert movie from file – click on Insert Tab, Media Clips group, Movie – Movie from files
– Select video file – click on Ok button. You will get options – Automatically or when
clicked. Click on Automatic if you want to run video on the slide entrance or click on When
Clicked to run video manually.

Movie from Clip Organizer

To Insert movie from clip organizer – click on Insert Tab, media clips group – Movie from
clip organizer – click on movie from list or search for movie you want.

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Insert Audio from File

Similar to the process explained above to insert video / movie, sound file also can be
inserted. Apart from inserting file, you can insert sound from clip organizer, play audio
from CD or record your own sound and play in presentation.

You will get options – Automatically or when clicked. Click on Automatic if you want to run
audio on the slide entrance or click on When Clicked to run audio manually.

Transition

Transitions are the movements you see when one slide changes to another in Slide Show
view. Transition effects are different from animation effects. The term animation in
PowerPoint refers to the movements of text and objects on the slide, while transitions refer
to the movement of the slide as it changes to another slide.

To apply transitions, click on Animation Tab, click on the transition as shown below to
apply.

Animation

You can animate the text, pictures, shapes, tables, SmartArt graphics, and other objects in
your PowerPoint presentation.

Effects can make an object appear, disappear, or move. They can change an object's size
or color.

To apply animation, click on the object or text box you wish to animate to select it.

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In the Animations tab under the Animations group, select an option from the Animate pull-
down list. As you hover your mouse over each choice PowerPoint will preview the effect on
your slide.

Repeat for any other slides or objects you wish to animate.

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UNIT-V: INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET, WWW, AND WEB BROWSERS

The Internet, World Wide Web (WWW), and web browsers are interconnected
components that have revolutionized the way people access and share information. Let's
explore each of these concepts:

Internet:

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and devices that

communicate with each other using a standardized set of protocols. It enables the transfer
of data and information across vast distances, connecting people, businesses,
governments, and organizations worldwide. The Internet serves as the infrastructure that
supports various services, including email, file sharing, online gaming, and, most notably,
the World Wide Web.

World Wide Web (WWW):

The World Wide Web, commonly known as the Web, is a system of interlinked hypertext
documents and multimedia content accessible via the Internet. These documents, often
referred to as web pages, are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) and can
contain text, images, videos, hyperlinks, and other multimedia elements. The WWW was
invented by Sir Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, and it has since become a fundamental tool for
information retrieval and communication on the Internet.

Web Browsers:

Web browsers are software applications that enable users to access and interact with the
World Wide Web. They interpret and display web pages written in languages such as
HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. Common web browsers include Google Chrome, Mozilla
Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Safari, and Opera. Users input a web address or click on
hyperlinks, and the browser retrieves and displays the requested web page. Additionally,
modern web browsers support features like bookmarks, tabbed browsing, extensions, and
private browsing modes.

Here are some key features of web browsers:

Address Bar: Users enter the URL of a website or search query here.

Navigation Buttons: Back, forward, and refresh buttons help users navigate through
web pages.

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Tabs: Browsers allow users to open multiple web pages in separate tabs for efficient
multitasking.

Bookmarks: Users can save and organize their favorite websites for quick access.

Extensions: Additional software that enhances browser functionality, such as ad blockers

or password managers.

Security Features: Browsers implement security measures to protect users from

malicious websites, including HTTPS support and warning messages.

In summary, the Internet is the global network that connects computers, the World Wide
Web is the system of interconnected web pages and content accessed through the
Internet, and web browsers are the tools that allow users to navigate and interact with
this vast repository of information. Together, these components have transformed the way
we communicate, access information, and conduct various activities in the digital age.

Basic of Computer networks; LAN, WAN:

Computer networks are essential for the communication and sharing of resources among
devices, allowing them to work together and access information efficiently. Two common
types of computer networks are Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks
(WANs). Let's explore the basics of each:

Local Area Network (LAN):

Definition: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that spans a small geographic area,
such as a single building, a floor within a building, or a campus.

Scope: LANs are designed for high data transfer rates and provide fast communication
among devices. They are typically used in homes, offices, schools, or any environment
where devices are in close proximity to each other.

Components: LANs consist of interconnected devices, such as computers, servers,

printers, and network devices like routers and switches.

Topology: Common LAN topologies include star, bus, ring, and mesh, where devices are
connected in various configurations.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

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Definition: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a broad area, often
spanning cities, countries, or even continents. Unlike LANs, WANs connect devices over
long distances.

Scope: WANs provide connectivity between geographically separated LANs and are used
to facilitate communication and resource sharing over large distances.

Components: WANs use a variety of technologies, including leased lines, satellite links,
and public and private data networks. The Internet itself is a global WAN that connects
devices worldwide.

Topology: WANs often have a point-to-point or star topology, with devices connected
through routers and other networking equipment.

Concept of Internet:

The Internet is a global network that connects millions of private, public, academic,
business, and government networks. It's a vast, decentralized system that facilitates the
exchange of information, communication, and the sharing of resources on a global scale.

Key elements of Internet:

Network of Networks: The Internet is not a single, centralized network but a network
of interconnected networks. It consists of countless devices (computers, servers, routers,
switches) linked together through various technologies.

Protocols: The functioning of the Internet relies on a set of standardized protocols,

including TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). These protocols ensure
that data can be transmitted and received reliably across diverse networks.

World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web, often referred to as the Web, is a
major component of the Internet. It consists of interconnected documents and resources,
accessible via web browsers. The web facilitates the sharing of information through
hyperlinks and multimedia content.

Information Access: One of the primary purposes of the Internet is to provide access to
vast amounts of information. Users can retrieve data, research topics, and communicate
globally through various online platforms.

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Communication: The Internet supports a wide range of communication tools, including

email, instant messaging, video conferencing, and social media platforms. These tools
enable real-time interaction and collaboration across geographical boundaries.

E-commerce: The Internet has transformed commerce through e-commerce platforms.

Businesses and consumers can buy and sell goods and services online, leading to a global
marketplace.

Entertainment and Media: The Internet serves as a platform for entertainment,

streaming services, and online media consumption. Users can access music, videos,
games, and other forms of digital content.

Social Networking: Social media platforms allow people to connect, share updates, and
communicate with others globally. These networks have become integral to personal and
professional interactions.

Cloud Computing: Cloud computing leverages the Internet to provide on-demand access
to computing resources. This includes storage, processing power, and applications
delivered as services over the Internet.

Security and Privacy: Security measures, such as encryption and firewalls, are critical to
protect data transmitted over the Internet. Privacy concerns have also become significant
as users share personal information online.

Global Reach: The Internet has eliminated geographical barriers, allowing individuals and
organizations worldwide to connect and collaborate. It has facilitated global
communication, trade, and cultural exchange.

Continuous Evolution: The Internet is dynamic and continually evolving. Advancements

in technology, new applications, and changes in user behavior contribute to its ongoing
development.

In essence, the Internet is a dynamic and multifaceted ecosystem that has profoundly
impacted nearly every aspect of modern life. Its ability to connect people, enable
information exchange, and support a myriad of applications makes it a fundamental
component of the digital age.

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Applications of Internet

The Internet is a versatile platform that has transformed various aspects of our lives. Its
applications are diverse, ranging from communication and information access to
entertainment and commerce. Here are some key applications of the Internet:

1. Communication:

Email: Electronic mail allows users to send and receive messages instantly, facilitating
efficient communication globally.

Instant Messaging: Platforms like WhatsApp, Telegram, and others enable real-time
text, voice, and video communication.

Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn connect people
for social interaction, networking, and sharing updates.

2. Information Retrieval:

Web Browsing: The World Wide Web provides access to a vast array of information
through websites and online resources.

Search Engines: Google, Bing, and others help users find specific information on the
web.

3. Education:

Online Learning: Educational platforms and courses enable remote learning, providing
access to a wide range of subjects and expertise.

Research: Scholars and students use the Internet for research, accessing academic
journals, articles, and databases.

4. Entertainment:

Streaming Services: Platforms like Netflix, Hulu, and YouTube offer on-demand access
to movies, TV shows, and user-generated content.

Online Gaming: Multiplayer online games connect players worldwide for collaborative
and competitive gaming experiences.

5. E-commerce:

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Online Shopping: Platforms like Amazon, eBay, and others allow users to buy and sell
goods and services online.

Digital Payments: Internet-based payment systems, including PayPal and various mobile
wallets, facilitate online transactions.

6. Business and Collaboration:

Remote Work: Internet tools such as video conferencing (e.g., Zoom, Microsoft Teams)
enable remote collaboration and virtual meetings.

Cloud Computing: Services like Google Drive, Dropbox, and Microsoft Azure provide
online storage and collaborative tools.

7. Healthcare:

Telemedicine: Internet-based platforms connect patients with healthcare providers for

remote consultations and medical advice.

Health Information: People access health-related information, resources, and support

online.

8. News and Information Sharing:

Blogs and Forums: Online platforms enable individuals to share opinions, experiences,
and expertise on various topics.

News Websites: Traditional and online news outlets disseminate information globally in
real time.

9. Social Activism and Awareness:

Online Campaigns: The Internet is a powerful tool for social activism, allowing
individuals and groups to raise awareness and mobilize support for various causes.

10. Smart Home and IoT:

Home Automation: Internet-connected devices enable the control of smart home

devices, such as thermostats, lights, and security systems, remotely.

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11. Travel and Navigation:

Booking Services: Travel booking websites and apps facilitate the planning and
reservation of flights, accommodations, and transportation.

Maps and Navigation: Services like Google Maps provide real-time navigation and
location-based information.

12. Government Services:

E-Government: Many government services, including tax filing, permit applications, and
public information, are available online.

These applications illustrate the broad impact of the Internet on various aspects of society,
enhancing communication, efficiency, and accessibility in a wide range of fields.

What is ISP?

ISP stands for Internet Service Provider. An Internet Service Provider is a company or
organization that provides users and businesses with access to the Internet. ISPs offer
various services that enable individuals and organizations to connect to the Internet,
access websites, send and receive emails, and engage in other online activities. Here are
some key aspects of ISPs:

Internet Connectivity: ISPs provide the necessary infrastructure and services to

connect users to the Internet. This connectivity can be established through various
technologies, including DSL (Digital Subscriber Line), cable, fiber-optic, satellite, and
wireless connections.

Services Offered by ISPs:

Broadband Internet: Most ISPs offer broadband services, providing high-speed and
continuous Internet access.

Email Services: ISPs often include email accounts as part of their service packages.

Web Hosting: Some ISPs offer web hosting services, allowing individuals and businesses
to host their websites on the Internet.

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Some ISPs provide Internet access through wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi or cellular
networks. These are often referred to as Wireless Internet Service Providers (WISPs).

Basics of internet connectivity-related troubleshooting

Troubleshooting internet connectivity issues is a common task, and understanding the

basics can help identify and resolve problems efficiently. Here are some fundamental steps
and considerations for troubleshooting internet connectivity:

Check Physical Connections: Ensure that all cables (Ethernet cables, phone lines,
power cables) are securely connected to the appropriate ports on your modem, router,
and computer. For wireless connections, check if Wi-Fi is enabled on your device.

Restart Modem and Router: Power cycle your modem and router by unplugging them,
waiting for about 10-15 seconds, and then plugging them back in. This can resolve issues
related to device memory and configuration.

Verify Internet Service Status: Check if your Internet Service Provider (ISP) is
experiencing any outages or service disruptions. You can visit the ISP's website or contact
their customer support for information.

Check Router Lights: Examine the lights on your router. Different routers have different
indicator lights, but commonly, there are lights for power, internet connection, and Wi-Fi.
Consult your router's manual to interpret the status of these lights.

Run Network Troubleshooter: Most operating systems have built-in network

troubleshooters that can diagnose and automatically fix common connectivity issues. Run
the troubleshooter on your computer to identify potential problems.

Check IP Configuration: Ensure that your device is configured to obtain an IP address

automatically (using DHCP) unless you have a specific static IP configuration. Incorrect IP
settings can lead to connectivity problems.

Ping Test: Use the ping command to test your connection to a specific website or IP
address. Open the command prompt (or Terminal on Mac/Linux) and type ping
www.example.com (replace "www.example.com" with a website). If you receive replies,
your connection is working; otherwise, it may indicate a problem.

Flush DNS Cache: DNS (Domain Name System) issues can cause connectivity problems.
You can flush the DNS cache on your computer by opening the command prompt (or

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Terminal) and typing ipconfig /flushdns (on Windows) or sudo dscacheutil -flushcache (on
Mac).

Check Firewall and Security Software: Firewalls and security software can sometimes
block internet access. Verify that your firewall settings or security software are not
preventing your device from connecting to the internet.

Update Network Drivers: Ensure that your network drivers are up to date. Outdated or
incompatible drivers can lead to connectivity issues. Visit the manufacturer's website to
download the latest drivers for your network adapter.

Try a Different Device: If possible, try connecting another device to the same network.
If the second device can connect successfully, the issue may be with the original device.

Contact ISP Support: If none of the above steps resolves the issue, contact your
Internet Service Provider's customer support. They can provide additional guidance,
perform remote diagnostics, and escalate the issue if needed.

Remember that specific troubleshooting steps may vary depending on the operating
system, network setup, and devices involved. If you're unsure or if the issue persists,
seeking assistance from your ISP or a knowledgeable IT professional is recommended.

WWW (World Wide Web)

A search engine is a software application or an online service that allows users to search
for information on the World Wide Web. The primary function of a search engine is to
retrieve relevant and organized results in response to a user's query or search terms.
Users input their queries into a search engine's search bar, and the engine then scans its
vast database of indexed web pages to provide a list of results ranked by relevance.

Key components and characteristics of search engines include:

Crawling and Indexing: Search engines use automated programs called web crawlers
or spiders to traverse the internet and gather information from web pages. This process is
known as crawling.

The collected information is then stored in a massive database, creating an index of web
pages.

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Query Processing: When a user enters a search query, the search engine processes the
query using complex algorithms to match it with relevant entries in its index.

Ranking Algorithm: Search engines use algorithms to determine the relevance and
ranking of search results. Factors such as keyword relevance, content quality, website
authority, and user engagement contribute to the ranking.

User Interface: The search engine provides a user interface, typically a webpage with a
search bar, where users can enter their queries.

Search Results Page: After processing the query, the search engine displays a Search
Engine Results Page (SERP) containing a list of links to web pages deemed relevant to the
query.

Each result on the SERP usually includes a title, a brief snippet or description of the
content, and the URL.

Sponsored Listings: Search engines often display sponsored listings or advertisements

alongside organic search results. Advertisers pay for these placements based on various
models, such as pay-per-click.

Examples of Search Engines:

Google: The most widely used search engine globally, known for its speed, accuracy, and
user-friendly interface.

Bing: Microsoft's search engine, providing web search, image search, and video search.

Yahoo: Although powered by Bing, Yahoo maintains its own search engine, incorporating
additional features like news and email.

Specialized Search Engines:

Some search engines focus on specific types of content or industries. Examples include
YouTube for video content, Amazon for product searches, and Yelp for local business
information.

Continuous Updates: Search engines continually update their algorithms and indexes to
improve the accuracy and relevance of search results. These updates aim to adapt to
changing user behaviors and evolving web content.

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Popular search engines have become integral tools for accessing information on the
internet, and they play a crucial role in shaping the way people navigate and discover
content online.

Understanding URL

A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a web address used to specify the location of a
resource on the internet. URLs are essential for navigating the World Wide Web, as they
provide a standardized way to access web pages, files, and other resources. Let's break
down the components of a URL:

Scheme: The scheme indicates the protocol used to access the resource. Common
schemes include:

http: HyperText Transfer Protocol (unsecured)

https: HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure (secured, using SSL/TLS)

ftp: File Transfer Protocol

mailto: Email address (opens the default email client)

Hostname: The hostname (or domain name) identifies the server hosting the resource.
For example, in the URL https://www.example.com, "www.example.com" is the hostname.

Port (Optional): The port number is optional and specifies a specific communication
endpoint on the server. If omitted, the default port for the given scheme is used (e.g., 80
for HTTP, 443 for HTTPS). It is often not explicitly specified in URLs.

Path: The path indicates the specific location of the resource on the server. It starts with
a forward slash ("/") after the domain name. For example, in the URL
https://www.example.com/path/to/resource, "/path/to/resource" is the path.

Example of URL

https://www.example.com:8080/path/to/resource?param1=value1&param2=value2#secti
on

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Understanding Domain Name

A domain name is a human-readable address that serves as a label for identifying a

specific location on the Internet. It provides an easy-to-remember way for users to access
websites and other resources. Each domain name corresponds to a unique numerical IP
address, which is used by computers to locate each other on the internet. Here are the
key components of a domain name:

Top-Level Domain (TLD): The top-level domain is the rightmost part of a domain name
and typically indicates the type or purpose of the website. Common TLDs include:

.com: Commercial, .org: Organization, .net: Network, .gov: Government

.edu: Education, .co: Company or community, .info: Information

Second-Level Domain (SLD): The second-level domain is the main part of the domain
name, appearing to the left of the top-level domain. It represents the specific name
chosen by the owner or entity. For example, in the domain name "example.com,"
"example" is the second-level domain.

Subdomain (Optional): A subdomain is a domain that is part of a larger domain. It is

created by adding a prefix to the main domain name. For instance, in "blog.example.com,"
"blog" is a subdomain of "example.com."

Domain Name System (DNS): The Domain Name System is a hierarchical system that
translates human-readable domain names into numerical IP addresses used by computers
to locate each other on the internet. DNS servers maintain a distributed database of
domain name-to-IP address mappings.

Understanding IP Address

An IP address, or Internet Protocol address, is a numerical label assigned to each device

connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. IP
addresses serve two main purposes: host or network interface identification and location
addressing. They are fundamental for the functioning of the Internet, as they enable
devices to find and communicate with each other.

There are two types of IP addresses:

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IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numerical labels,
typically represented as four sets of decimal numbers separated by periods (e.g.,
192.168.0.1).

The total number of IPv4 addresses is limited to approximately 4.3 billion, leading to the
exhaustion of available addresses.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): IPv6 addresses are 128-bit, allowing for a vastly
larger number of unique addresses compared to IPv4.

IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups of hexadecimal digits separated by colons
(e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

IPv6 was introduced to address the limitations of IPv4 and accommodate the growing
number of devices connected to the Internet.

Key points about IP addresses:

Host Identification: An IP address serves as a unique identifier for a device (such as a

computer, smartphone, or server) on a network. It distinguishes one device from another.

Routing and Location: IP addresses are used for routing data packets between devices
on a network. They also help in determining the geographic location of a device on the
internet.

Dynamic and Static IP Addresses:

Dynamic: Some devices receive dynamically assigned IP addresses from a DHCP

(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server each time they connect to a network.

Static: Servers, network devices, and certain other systems often have static (fixed) IP
addresses that do not change.

Private and Public IP Addresses:

Private: Used within a local network and not directly accessible from the internet.
Common private IP address ranges include 192.168.x.x and 10.x.x.x.

Public: Routable on the internet and uniquely identify devices globally.

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e-Governance Websites

As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, e-Governance websites can vary from
country to country, and even within countries, different government agencies may have
their own dedicated portals. These websites are designed to provide online access to
government services, information, and resources. To find the official e-Governance website
for a specific country or region, it's best to directly visit the official government website or
use search engines with relevant keywords.

Here are a few examples of how you can search for e-Governance websites:

Country-Specific Search: Search for "e-Governance website [Country Name]" in a

search engine. For example, "e-Governance website India" or "e-Governance portal USA."

Official Government Websites: Visit the official government website for a country or
region. Many governments have a dedicated section or portal for e-Governance services.

Local Government Websites: In some cases, e-Governance services may be provided

at the state or local government level. Check the websites of relevant local government
authorities.

Web Browsing

Web browsing refers to the activity of navigating and exploring the World Wide Web using
a web browser. A web browser is a software application that allows users to access, view,
and interact with content on the internet. Here's an overview of the key aspects of web
browsing:

Web Browser: A web browser is a software application that retrieves and displays
content on the World Wide Web. Common web browsers include Google Chrome, Mozilla
Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Safari, and Opera.

Components of a Web Browser:

Address Bar: Users enter the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) of a website or a search
query here.

Navigation Buttons: Back, Forward, and Refresh buttons help users navigate through
web pages.

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Tabs: Browsers allow users to open multiple web pages in separate tabs for efficient
multitasking.

Bookmarks: Users can save and organize their favorite websites for quick access.

Extensions: Additional software that enhances browser functionality, such as ad blockers

or password managers.

Home Page: The default or customized page that loads when the browser is opened.

Settings: Users can configure browser settings, privacy preferences, and other options.

Accessing Websites:

Users can access websites by typing the URL into the address bar or by clicking on
hyperlinks from search results, bookmarks, or other web pages.

Search Engines: Search engines like Google, Bing, or Yahoo allow users to enter search
queries and receive a list of relevant web pages. Results are displayed on a Search Engine
Results Page (SERP).

Hyperlinks: Hyperlinks, or simply links, are clickable elements that direct users from one
web page to another. They are fundamental for navigation on the web.

Web Page Rendering: Browsers interpret and render HTML, CSS, and JavaScript code to
display web pages. They ensure that text, images, videos, and other elements are
presented as intended by the website's design.

Security Features: Browsers implement security measures to protect users from

malicious websites. Features include HTTPS support, warnings for insecure sites, and
protection against phishing.

Cookies and Privacy: Cookies are small pieces of data stored on the user's device by
websites. Browsers provide options to manage cookies and privacy settings to control the
tracking of user data.

Private Browsing Mode: Most browsers offer a private or incognito mode that allows
users to browse without saving browsing history, cookies, or other personal data.

Web browsing is a fundamental activity in the digital age, enabling users to access
information, connect with services, and engage with online content. Browsers play a

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crucial role in providing a user-friendly interface for navigating the vast and dynamic
landscape of the World Wide Web.

Web Browsing Software

Web browsing software, commonly known as web browsers, is designed to access and
navigate the World Wide Web. Here are some of the most widely used web browsers:

Google Chrome: Developed by Google, Chrome is one of the most popular and widely
used web browsers. It is known for its speed, simplicity, and integration with various
Google services. Chrome supports a vast number of extensions and has a clean user
interface.

Mozilla Firefox: Firefox is an open-source web browser developed by the Mozilla

Foundation. It is known for its focus on privacy and customization. Firefox supports a wide
range of add-ons and has features like tracking protection and a built-in password
manager.

Microsoft Edge: Edge is the default web browser in Windows 10 and later versions. It
was initially developed by Microsoft using its own EdgeHTML engine but was later rebuilt
on the Chromium open-source project, which is the same engine that powers Google
Chrome. Edge offers features such as Collections for organizing web content.

Apple Safari: Safari is the default web browser on Apple devices, including Mac
computers, iPhones, and iPads. It is known for its speed and energy efficiency. Safari
features a clean design, and on macOS, it integrates well with the system.

Opera: Opera is a web browser that includes a variety of features such as a built-in ad
blocker, free VPN service, and a sidebar for quick access to bookmarks and other tools. It
is known for its innovative features and customization options.

Brave: Brave is a privacy-focused web browser that blocks ads and trackers by default. It
aims to provide a faster and more secure browsing experience. Brave also has a built-in
cryptocurrency-based reward system for users and content creators.

Vivaldi: Vivaldi is a browser that focuses on customization and advanced features. It

allows users to tailor the interface to their preferences, and it offers features like tab
stacking and a built-in note-taking tool.

Tor Browser: The Tor Browser is based on Mozilla Firefox and is designed to enhance
privacy and security. It routes internet traffic through the Tor network, which aims to
anonymize users' online activities.

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Basics of Electronic Mail (eMail)

Electronic mail, commonly known as email, is a method of exchanging digital messages

between people using electronic devices. It has become a fundamental communication
tool in both personal and professional settings. Here are the basics of electronic mail:

Components of an Email Address:

An email address consists of two main parts:

Username: The unique identifier for an individual or organization.

Domain: The server or service provider hosting the email account.

Example: [email protected]

Email Client: An email client is a software application or web-based service used to send,
receive, and manage emails. Common email clients include Microsoft Outlook, Gmail,
Apple Mail, and Mozilla Thunderbird.

Email Protocol: Email communication is facilitated by protocols such as:

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails.

POP (Post Office Protocol) and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Used for
receiving emails.

Email Server: An email server is a computer or system that handles email processing. It
stores and manages incoming emails, and it is responsible for sending outgoing emails.

Email Header: The email header contains metadata about the message, including sender
and recipient details, subject, date, and routing information.

Email Body: The email body contains the main content of the message. It can include
text, images, links, and attachments.

Attachments: Users can attach files, documents, or multimedia content to their emails.
Common attachment formats include documents (PDFs, Word), images, and compressed
files.

Subject Line: The subject line provides a brief summary or description of the email's
content. It helps recipients understand the purpose of the message.

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Inbox and Folders: Emails are organized in folders within the user's mailbox. The inbox
is the primary folder for receiving incoming emails. Users can create additional folders to
categorize and manage their emails.

Drafts, Sent, and Trash:

Drafts: Unfinished or unsent emails are saved as drafts.

Sent: Copies of sent emails are stored in the Sent folder.

Trash (or Deleted Items): Deleted emails are moved to the Trash or Deleted Items folder
before being permanently deleted.

CC (Carbon Copy) and BCC (Blind Carbon Copy):

CC allows users to send a copy of the email to additional recipients for information.

BCC hides the email addresses of additional recipients from others.

Signature: Users can include a personalized email signature, typically at the end of their
messages, providing contact information or other details.

Spam and Filters: Spam filters help identify and filter out unwanted or malicious emails.
Users can also set up filters to organize and manage incoming emails.

Encryption and Security: Some email services provide encryption to secure the content
of emails, especially sensitive information.

Webmail vs. Email Clients: Webmail allows users to access their emails through a web
browser, while email clients are standalone applications installed on a device.

Email is a versatile and widely used communication tool, supporting various types of
interactions, from simple text messages to formal business communications. Its
widespread adoption has made it an integral part of personal and professional
communication.

Getting an Email Account:

Choose an Email Service Provider: Popular providers include Gmail, Outlook, Yahoo
Mail, and others. Visit the provider's website to sign up.

Create an Account: Click on the "Sign Up" or "Create Account" button.

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Fill in the required information, including a unique username and a secure password.

Verify Your Identity:

Follow the provider's instructions to verify your identity, often through a verification code
sent to your phone or an alternative email address.

Set Up Your Account: Customize your account settings, including a profile picture,
email signature, and other preferences.

Sending and Receiving Emails: Sending an Email: Log In:

Go to the email provider's website and log in to your email account.

Access the Compose or New Email Option:

Look for the "Compose," "New," or "+" button to start a new email.

Enter Recipient's Email Address: Type the recipient's email address in the "To" field.
You can add multiple recipients if needed.

Subject: Provide a concise and descriptive subject for your email.

Compose Your Email: Use the message body to compose your email. You can format
text, add links, and include attachments if necessary.

Attach Files: Use the "Attach" or "Insert" option to attach files (documents, images, etc.)
to your email.

Check Before Sending: Review your email for accuracy and completeness before
clicking the "Send" button.

Receiving and Reading Emails:

Inbox: When someone sends you an email, it will appear in your inbox. Click on the email
to open and read it.

Replying to Emails: Use the "Reply" or "Reply All" option to respond to the sender. This
opens a new email with the original message included.

Forwarding Emails: Use the "Forward" option to send the email to another recipient.

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Managing Unwanted Emails (Spam): Mark unwanted emails as spam to help your
email provider filter similar messages in the future.

Accessing Sent Emails:

Sent Folder: Most email services automatically save a copy of sent emails in the "Sent"
folder. Locate this folder in your email interface.

View Sent Emails: Open the "Sent" folder to view a list of emails you have sent.

Using Emails:

Organize Emails: Use folders or labels to organize your emails. Common folders include
Inbox, Sent, Drafts, and Spam.

Search Function: Use the search bar to find specific emails quickly. Enter keywords,
sender names, or other details.

Filters and Rules: Set up filters or rules to automatically organize or categorize incoming
emails based on criteria you define.

Signature: Create an email signature with your name, contact information, and any other
details you want to include in your outgoing emails.

Settings and Preferences: Explore your email provider's settings to customize your
email experience, including notification preferences, security settings, and more.

Remember to regularly check your email for new messages, manage your inbox, and keep
your account secure by using strong passwords and enabling two-factor authentication if
available. Additionally, be cautious about clicking on links or downloading attachments
from unknown or suspicious emails to avoid phishing attempts.

Document Collaboration

Document collaboration refers to the process of multiple individuals working together on a

document in real-time regardless of their physical location. This collaborative approach
enhances efficiency, teamwork, and allows for the creation, editing, and sharing of
documents seamlessly.

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Key aspects of document collaboration:

Real-Time Collaboration: Simultaneous Editing: Multiple users can edit a document at

the same time, and changes are reflected in real-time. This is particularly useful for team
projects and quick decision-making.

Live Chat and Comments: Users can communicate within the document through chat or
comments. This feature facilitates discussions and provides context for edits.

Cloud-Based Collaboration Platforms:

Google Workspace (formerly G Suite): Offers tools like Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides
that enable real-time collaboration. Documents are stored in Google Drive.

Microsoft 365 (formerly Office 365): Provides cloud-based versions of Microsoft Word,
Excel, and PowerPoint, with features for collaborative editing. Documents are stored in
OneDrive.

Zoho Docs: Zoho's suite of productivity tools allows users to collaborate on documents,
spreadsheets, and presentations.

Version Control:

History and Revisions: Collaborative tools often track changes and revisions made to a
document. Users can review previous versions and restore or compare changes.

Check-In/Check-Out: In some systems, users can "check out" a document to make

changes, preventing others from editing it simultaneously. After editing, they "check in"
the document, making it available to others.

Access Control and Permissions: Role-Based Permissions: Users may have different
roles with specific permissions, such as view-only, editing, or administrative access.

Sharing Settings: Users can control who has access to the document—whether it's open
to everyone in the organization, specific individuals, or external collaborators.

Notifications and Alerts: Users receive notifications about changes made by others,
comments, or other relevant activities within the document. This helps maintain awareness
of collaborative efforts.

Integration with Communication Tools:

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Document collaboration platforms often integrate with communication tools such as chat
applications, video conferencing, and project management software.

File Formats and Compatibility: Collaborative tools should support common file
formats and ensure compatibility with popular applications to facilitate seamless sharing
and editing.

Offline Editing and Syncing: Some platforms allow users to work on documents offline,
with changes automatically syncing when an internet connection is reestablished.

Project Collaboration: In addition to document collaboration, some platforms offer

project collaboration features, allowing users to manage tasks, timelines, and related
resources.

Security and Data Encryption: Robust security measures, including data encryption,
user authentication, and secure data transmission, are critical to protect sensitive
information.

Document collaboration has become an integral part of modern work environments,

enabling teams to work efficiently, improve communication, and produce high-quality
documents collaboratively. Organizations can choose from a variety of collaboration tools
based on their specific needs and preferences.

Instant Messaging

Instant messaging (IM) is a form of real-time communication between two or more people
over the internet. It allows users to exchange text messages, multimedia files, and
sometimes voice and video calls instantly. Instant messaging is typically done through
dedicated messaging apps or platforms. Here are key aspects of instant messaging:

Text Messaging: Instant messaging primarily involves the exchange of text messages in
real-time. Users can type and send messages to individuals or groups.

Multimedia Sharing: Users can share multimedia content such as images, videos, audio
recordings, and documents within the messaging platform.

Real-Time Communication: Instant messaging provides real-time communication,

allowing users to see when others are online and receive messages instantly.

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Contact Lists and Presence Status: Users maintain a contact list, which shows the
online or offline status of their contacts. Presence indicators such as "available," "away," or
"busy" provide information about a user's availability.

Emoticons and Emoji: Emoticons (emotion icons) and emoji are often used to convey
emotions, reactions, or expressions in a more visual and fun way.

Group Chats: Users can create group chats to communicate with multiple people
simultaneously. Group chats are useful for team collaboration, family communication, or
socializing with friends.

Voice and Video Calls: Many instant messaging apps support voice and video calls,
allowing users to have audio or video conversations in addition to text messaging.

Stickers and GIFs: Some messaging platforms include stickers and GIFs that users can
send to express emotions or add humor to conversations.

Read Receipts: Read receipts inform users when their messages have been read by the
recipient. This feature provides acknowledgment that a message has been received and
viewed.

End-to-End Encryption: Some messaging apps incorporate end-to-end encryption to

enhance the security and privacy of messages. This means that only the sender and the
intended recipient can read the messages.

Status Updates: Users can update their status to share information about their current
activities, moods, or thoughts with their contacts.

Cross-Platform Accessibility: Many messaging apps are available on multiple

platforms, including smartphones, tablets, and desktop computers. This ensures users can
stay connected across different devices.

Notification Alerts: Users receive notifications or alerts when they receive new
messages, ensuring they are aware of incoming communication.

Examples of popular instant messaging apps include:

WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, iMessage (Apple), Telegram, Signal, WeChat

Instant messaging has become a ubiquitous form of communication, providing a quick and
convenient way for people to connect, share information, and stay in touch in both
personal and professional settings.

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Netiquette

"Netiquette" is a term derived from the combination of "network" and "etiquette." It refers
to the set of guidelines and rules governing online behavior, communication, and social
interaction. Practicing netiquette helps create a positive and respectful online environment.
Here are some essential netiquette guidelines:

Be Respectful: Treat others online with the same respect and courtesy you would in
face-to-face interactions. Avoid offensive language, personal attacks, or disrespectful
behavior.

Use Proper Language and Tone: Communicate clearly and use proper grammar and
spelling. Avoid excessive use of uppercase letters, as it can be interpreted as shouting. Be
mindful of your tone and how it may come across in written form.

Think Before You Post: Before posting or commenting, consider the potential impact of
your words. If in doubt, take a moment to review your message and ensure it is
appropriate and constructive.

Be Mindful of Others' Privacy: Respect the privacy of others. Avoid sharing personal
information about yourself or others without consent. Be cautious about sharing sensitive
or private details.

Use Descriptive Subject Lines: When sending emails or participating in online forums,
use clear and descriptive subject lines. This helps others quickly understand the topic and
relevance of the message.

Stay On Topic: In group discussions or forums, stay on topic to maintain the relevance of
the conversation. If you have a new topic to discuss, start a new thread or discussion.

Respond Promptly: When someone reaches out to you online, respond in a timely
manner. This helps maintain effective communication and shows respect for others' time.

Avoid Spamming: Refrain from sending unsolicited messages, advertisements, or

promotions. Respect the communication preferences of others.

Use Emoticons Thoughtfully: Emoticons can help convey emotions in online

communication, but use them judiciously. Avoid excessive use, especially in professional or
formal contexts.

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Understand the Platform's Rules: Different online platforms may have specific rules
and guidelines. Familiarize yourself with the terms of use and community guidelines of the
platform you are using.

Be Patient and Tolerant: Online discussions may involve people from diverse
backgrounds and perspectives. Be patient, open-minded, and tolerant of differing opinions.
Constructive dialogue is more productive than arguments.

Acknowledge and Credit Sources: When sharing information or content, provide

proper attribution and credit to the original source. Respect intellectual property rights.

Use Private Channels for Private Discussions: If a conversation is meant to be

private or involves sensitive information, use private messaging or other secure channels
rather than public forums.

Practice Safe Online Behavior: Protect your online identity and be cautious about
sharing personal information. Use strong passwords, be wary of phishing attempts, and
stay informed about online security best practices.

By adhering to netiquette principles, individuals contribute to a positive online culture,

fostering respectful communication and collaboration in various online environments.

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