CRITICAL THINKING AND LOGIC – Summary notes by Sam.

Definition of terms
Critical thinking is the ability to analyse and evaluate information or institution objectively without bias in
order to make reasoned judgement or decision. By critical thinking we mean the ability to use cognitive skills
and strategies effectively in order to increase the probabilities of its desirable outcomes. Its a kind of thinking
that is purposive, reasoned and goal oriented. It is the thinking that is involved in effective problem solving,
calculations of likelihoods, formulation of inferences and decisive decision on making.

Philosophy refers to the study of totality of reality. It seeks to study the ultimate causes of reality. Reality of
Man, Cosmos (Universe or nature) and God

Logic refers to the study of valid reasoning. It comes from a Greek word logos which means reason,
discourse or dialectic.

Branches of Philosophy.
1. Logic
- The science of correct reasoning or thinking
- The order that human intellect follows naturally in knowing reality.
- Logic directs the mind in the process of reasoning and subsidiary processes as to enable it to attain
clearness, consistency and validity in those processes.
- The main aim of logic is to secure clearness in the definition and arrangement of our idea and other
mental images; consistency in our judgements and validity in our process of inference.
2. Ethics/ Axiology
- Ethics can be defined as the philosophical study of moral values. The study involves systematizing,
analysing, evaluating, applying, defending and recommending concepts of wright and wrong
behaviours. It deals with the rightness or wrongness of an act.
- In general terms morality has to o with dos and don’ts as expected of a rational human person.
- Morality of an act – Human act or an act of human.
❖ Human acts refer to deliberate acts done willingly or knowingly
❖ Acts of human refer to actions that human perform instinctively or involuntarily.
The followings are modifiers/Elements of human acts.
- The Act itself
- The intention
- The prevailing circumstances.
3. Epistemology.
- It comes from the word Episteme that refers to knowing.
- Epistemology refers to study of knowledge, the truth value of knowledge. Its the philosophical study
of knowledge and its justification.
 - As a theory of knowledge, epistemology seek to establish the process of claiming to know and to
what certainty basis are such claims founded. It answers the questions, how do we know? How do
we justify our knowledge claims of facts?

Sources of knowledge
- Empirical – Knowing through observation or sensation. Eg what we hear, see, touch, taste eg a.
Scholar like Geroge Barcley. He believed on what he sees.
b. Thomas in the bible believed in sensation
- Rational – This refers to knowing by reasoning. Eg Rene Descartsh.
He believes that everything can only be known through reasoning.

4. Metaphysics
- Meta means beyond physical/physics
- Metaphysics was developed by a philosopher Aristotle.
- It deals with non-physical and immaterial such as soul, things that are immortal

Characteristics of creative and critical thinking

1. Asking questions
2. Defining problems
3. Examining evidences
4. Analysing assumptions and biases
5. Avoiding emotional reasoning
6. Avoiding over simplification
7. Considering other interpretations
8. Tolerating ambiguity

Critical and creative thinking tools of evaluation.

They are also referred to as universal intellectual standards. These are standards that must be to applied to
thinking whenever one is interested in checking the quality of reasoning about a problem issue or situation.

To think critically entails having command of these standards, being able to make sound decision, being able
to pose questions that probe our thinking, questions which hold us accountable for our thinking, questions
that through disciplined consistency becomes internalized as questions we need to ask ourselves.

The ultimate goal then is for these questions to become infused in our thinking forming parts of our inner
voice, which then guide us to better reasoning.

The following are the most significant tools of evaluation.

1. Clarity.
A clear understanding of what the person asking the question is considering the problem to be.
Therefore, one can request for further elaboration, illustration or examples.

2. Accuracy
A statement may be clear but no accurate. Therefore, seek to find the truth
3. Precision
Try to be more specific and not a general comment
 4. Relevance
How the statement is connected to the question.
5. Depth
How the answer addresses the complexities in the question
6. Breadth
Considering other point of views or another way to look at the question
7. Logic
Does the question make sense?

Basic concepts in logic.

The science of correct reasoning or thinking.
Types of Logic
1. Formal logic or traditional approach
Developed by Aristotle. It is the systematic approach to reasoning and argumentation that uses
mathematical symbols and structure to represent statements and logical relationships
2. Informal logic
It’s concerned with everyday reasoning and argumentation in natural language. It does not follow
strict rules of reasoning.
Concepts
This is the sign of the nature of things as a representation of essence of things /reality. Eg what make a table
and not a chair. The physical characteristics and functions. The functionality makes the essence that exist in
the mind. Concepts are universal.
Terms
Words used to refer to somethings. Eg a term used to represent an animal like a cow. Terms are
conventional.
Essence
Are the intelligible aspects of reality grasped by the mind.
Judgement
Is the mental act of asserting the identity or diversity of two concepts. Eg A cow is black. We have two
concepts here, a cow and black colour. One can assert an identity that the cow is black or diversity that the
cow is not black. Judgement take place in intellect by combining the two concepts. When misjudgement is
made accidentally, it called error. When it is made intentionally it called sophism.
Proposition
Is the verbal expression of at least one judgement. Logic deals only with sentences that are
proposition(expressed). You judge what people say but not what they think.

Classification of proposition
a. Categorical proposition.
The statement that makes a simple assertion without the use of the following if, either or both.

b. Hypothetical proposition
Comprises of two or more propositions dependent on each other in regard to their truth and falsity
through the unifying terms (if, either or both) serving as copula – a term that join two judgements.
Types of hypothetical proposition
a. Conditional hypothetical proposition
It comprises two suppositions called antecedents and consequent eg if the cabinet secretary for
Education allows, the we can resume schools on Monday.
The first part with if is what we call antecedent and the second part is consequent
b. Disjunctive hypothetical proposition
It uses either/or or both. Eg either Arsenal or Manchester City will win premier league this season.
c. Conjunctive hypothetical proposition
It a compound proposition which comprises connectives such as “and” Eg Arsenal and Man City are
the contenders of the Premier league this season.

Universal, particular, singular proposition

1. Universal proposition.
It has universal subject applicable to the whole class which it represents. Eg All men are rational. It
represents the whole class – All men.
2. Particular proposition
Has a subject term applicable to unidentified or indefinite portion of a class it represents. Eg Some
students here are unmuting their microphones.
3. Singular proposition
Has a subject term applicable to one definite individual or collective unit. Eg Dr. Mokaya is a
passionate and eloquent teacher.

Symbols
A – Universal affirmative (All S is P)
S – Subject and P – Predicate (a part of the sentence that contain the action or state of the subject)
eg All human beings are mortal.

Human being become our Subject and mortal become a Predicate

It asserts that every member of human beings possesses the properties of mortality, meaning that all human
beings eventually die.

(All S is P) reflects a general truth or law that applies to all instances within the specified category

E - Universal negative (No S is P)

These are categorical propositions that assert that no members of a particular class have a certain property.
They follow the form “No S is P” eg No squares are circle. Meaning squares and circles have no common
elements. Although they are they are both geometric shapes, they have distinct characteristics and
properties making it impossible for square to be a circle and vice versa.

(No S is P) implies logical incompatibility. This reinforces the idea of categorical distinctions between
different classes or sets emphasizing their non-overlapping nature.
I – Particular affirmative (Some S is P)
These are categorical proposition that affirm the existence of at least on member of a class possessing a
certain property. Eg some students here like Arsenal.

(Some S is P) serves as the basis of inductive reasoning where conclusions are drawn based on observed
instances

O – Particular negative (Some S is not P)

These are categorical proposition that deny the existence of at least one member of a class possessing a
certain property. Eg Some students did not register correct units.

(Some S is not P) assert that some there is at least one instance within the subject class that does not have
the predicate property

Categorical proposition and immediate inference.

They don’t use if or either. They are statements that assert or deny something about classes or categories of
objects. They are typically represented in standard form using quantifiers (all, no, some) and copulas (are,
are not). These propositions are classified into four types based on their quantifiers and qualities.

These are:
1. Universal affirmative – A
Asserts that all members of a class have a certain property. For example, "All birds have wings."

2. Universal negative – E
Denies that any members of a class have a certain property. For example, "No reptiles are
mammals."

3. Particular affirmative – I
Asserts that at least one member of a class has a certain property. For example, "Some dogs are
friendly."

4. Particular negative – O
Denies that at least one member of a class has a certain property. For example, "Some insects do not
fly."
Inferences in categorical logic involves drawing conclusions from one or more categorical propositions. The
most common form of inference is the categorical syllogism, which consists of two premises and a
conclusion. Valid categorical syllogisms follow certain rules, such as the ones provided by the square of
opposition.

For example, from the premises "All mammals are warm-blooded" (A) and "All whales are mammals" (A),
we can validly infer the conclusion "All whales are warm-blooded" (A). This inference follows the rule of
Barbara syllogism, which states that if both premises are A propositions, the conclusion is also an A
proposition.

Understanding categorical propositions and inferences allows for the analysis of logical relationships
between classes and the drawing of valid conclusions based on those relationships.
Square of opposition
Its a diagram that represents the logical relationships between for types of categorical proposition
The squares consist of four corners, with each corners representing one of four types of the four types of
propositions.

The relationships between the propositions are as follows.

1. Contradiction:
A proposition and its contradictory (A and O, E and I) cannot both be true and cannot both be false
at the same time.

2. Contrariety:
A and E propositions cannot both be true but can both be false (though they cannot both be false if
one of them is true).

3. Subcontrariety:
I and O propositions can both be true but cannot both be false.

4. Subalternation:
The truth of a universal proposition implies the truth of its corresponding particular proposition, but
not vice versa.

5. Conversion:
A and E propositions can be converted by changing the subject and predicate terms, while I and O
propositions cannot be validly converted.

The square of opposition helps illustrate the logical relationships between categorical propositions and is
useful for analysing the validity of syllogisms and reasoning patterns. Syllogisms are form of deductive
reasoning consisting of two premises and a conclusion

The square of opposition serves several purposes:

1. Analyzing Logical Relationships:
It helps in understanding the logical relationships between different types of categorical
propositions, such as universal and particular affirmatives and negatives.
 2. Determining Valid Inferences:
It provides rules for determining which inferences are valid and which are not based on the
relationships between categorical propositions.

3. Identifying Contradictions:
It allows for the identification of contradictory propositions, which helps in avoiding logical
inconsistencies.

4. Formulating Syllogisms:
It provides a framework for constructing and evaluating syllogisms, which are logical arguments
consisting of two premises and a conclusion.

5. Understanding Categorical Logic:

It serves as a foundation for understanding and studying categorical logic, which is concerned with
the logical relationships between categories or classes of things.

Interpreting the square of opposition

It involves understanding the logical relationships between categorical propositions. Here's how you can
interpret it:
1. Universal Affirmative (A):
These propositions assert that all members of a particular category have a certain property. For
example, "All humans are mortal."

2. Universal Negative (E):

These propositions deny that any members of a particular category have a certain property. For
example, "No birds can fly underwater."
3. Particular Affirmative (I):
These propositions affirm that at least one member of a particular category has a certain property.
For example, "Some birds can sing."

4. Particular Negative (O):

These propositions deny that at least one member of a particular category has a certain property. For
example, "Some mammals do not lay eggs."

Conclusion
1. Contradiction:
A and O propositions are contradictory. If one is true, the other must be false.

2. Contrariety:
A and E propositions cannot both be true, but they can both be false. This means if one is true, the
other must be false, but if one is false, it doesn't necessarily mean the other is true.

3. Subcontrariety:
I and O propositions can both be true, but they cannot both be false. This means if one is false, the
other must be true, but if one is true, it doesn't necessarily mean the other is false.

4. Subalternation:
The truth of a universal proposition (A or E) implies the truth of its corresponding particular
proposition (I or O), but not vice versa. For example, if "All humans are mortal" (A) is true, then
"Some humans are mortal" (I) must also be true, but if "Some humans are mortal" (I) is true, it
doesn't necessarily mean "All humans are mortal" (A) is true