CHAPTER-3

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
The branch of Physics which deals with the study of electric charges in motion (or the dynamic state of
charge) is called current electricity. The flow of electric charges through a conductor constitutes electric
current. The electric current is measured by the rate of flow of charge. The charge flowing per second
in an electric circuit is the measure of electric current in that circuit. Thus, if in an electric circuit, an
𝑸
amount of charge Q flows in t second, then the electric current in the circuit is given by 𝑰 = 𝒕 .

Electric current is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is ampere (A). 1 A = 1 C s-1 (coulomb/second)

Ohm’s law:
It states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
applied across its ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions remain unchanged.
𝐕
Thus 𝑰 𝜶 𝑽  𝑽 𝜶 𝑰 or = a constant. This constant is called resistance of the conductor
𝐈
𝐕
(R). i.e. = 𝑹 or V = IR
𝐈

Resistance is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is ohm (Ω), 1 Ω = 1VA-1

Factors affecting the resistance
1
R depends on Length of the conductor l, ( R α l), Area of cross-section A, (R α A), Temperature and
Nature of material
𝑙 𝒍
i.e. 𝑅 𝛼  𝑹 = 𝝆 𝑨 , where 𝝆 is a constant of proportionality called resistivity or specific
𝐴
𝑹𝑨
resistance of the material of the conductor 𝝆 = .
𝒍

When A = 1 and l = 1 then 𝝆 = R

∴ Specific resistance is defined as the resistance of the conductor of unit length and unit area of cross
section.
SI unit of resistivity is Ω m
➢ Resistivity ρ depends on the temperature and nature of the material. It is independent of length
or area of cross-section of the material.

Current Density (𝒋⃗)

The current density at a point in a conductor is the ratio of the current at that point in the conductor to
the area of cross- section of the conductor at that point. Thus, if a current I be distributed uniformly
over the area of cross-section A of a conductor, then the current density at a point on that area will be
𝐈
given by, j = 𝐀 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑰 = 𝑱𝑨

This expression is valid only if the current density is uniform and the surface of the cross-sectional
area is perpendicular to the direction of current. However, if the current density is not uniform, the
general relation is I = ∫ 𝑗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑗 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 , where ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴 is the current through small area ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴.

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 Current density is a vector quantity. The direction of current density at a point is the direction of
motion of the positive charge at that point. SI unit of current density is Am-2.

Vector form of Ohm’s law

According to Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
If l is the length of the conductor and V the potential difference applied across it, then the electric field
𝑉 𝑙 𝜌𝑙
existing in the conductor 𝐸 = → 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑙 ∴ 𝐸𝑙 = 𝐼𝑅. But 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴  𝐸𝑙 = 𝐼
𝑙 𝐴
𝐼𝜌 𝐼
ie, 𝐸 =
𝐴
but
𝐴
=𝐽  𝐸 = 𝑗𝜌 In vector form 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑗⃗ ρ

𝐸⃗⃗ 1
OR 𝐽⃗ = 𝜌 , but = 𝜎 , conductivity
𝜌

⃗⃗
∴ 𝒋⃗ = 𝝈𝑬

Drift velocity of electrons ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)

𝐯𝐝
In the absence of an electric field, the free electrons of a metal are in a state of continuous random
motion and they have velocities in all possible directions (105m/s). ∴ The average random velocity of
free electron is zero. Hence there is no net flow of charge in any direction.

In the presence of an external field 𝐸⃗⃗ , each electron experiences a force in the opposite direction of 𝐸⃗⃗
𝐹 −𝑒𝐸 ⃗ ⃗⃗
(i.e., 𝐹⃗ = −𝑒𝐸⃗⃗ ) and undergoes an acceleration 𝑎⃗ given by 𝑎⃗ = 𝑚 = 𝑚 where “m” is the mass of
electron.
As the electrons accelerate, they frequently collide with positive metal ions or other electrons of the
metal. Between two successive collisions, an electron gains a velocity in a direction opposite to 𝐸⃗⃗
.However; the gain in velocity lasts only for a short time and is lost in the next collision.
The average time that elapses between two successive collisions of an electron is called relaxation
time 𝜏 and is given by
𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 … … … + 𝑡𝑁
𝜏=
𝑁
During the relaxation time, an electron gains an average velocity given by
𝑣𝑑 = 0 + 𝑎⃗𝜏
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗
−𝒆𝑬
Or ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅 = 𝝉, where 𝑣𝑑 represents drift velocity of electrons.
𝒎
Drift velocity is defined as the average velocity gained by the free electrons of a conductor in the
opposite direction of the externally applied electric field.

Relation between drift velocity and current

Consider a conductor of length 𝑙, area of cross-section 𝐴 and number density of electrons 𝑛 where 𝑛 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑁
=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙.

Total number of electrons,

𝑁 = 𝑛𝑉 = 𝑛 × 𝐴𝑙

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 Total charge of the conductor 𝑄 = 𝑁 × 𝑒 = 𝑛𝐴𝑙𝑒
Let 𝑉 be the potential difference applied across its ends and 𝑣𝑑 be the drift velocity of electrons.
The time taken by the electrons to move from one end to the other end of the conductor is 𝑡 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙 𝑄 𝑛𝐴𝑙𝑒
= , Current, 𝑰 = = 𝑙 = 𝒏𝑨𝒆𝒗𝒅
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑑 𝑡
𝑣𝑑

𝐼
Current density 𝑗 is given by 𝐽 = 𝐴 = 𝒏𝒆𝑽𝒅

Expression for resistivity from the concept of drift velocity

The drift velocity of an electron under the influence of an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ is given by
eEτ 𝑉
vd = But 𝐸 = where V is the potential difference applied across the conductor of length 𝑙
m 𝑙

𝑒𝜏 𝑉 𝑣𝑑 𝑚𝑙
∴ 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚 𝑙
.  𝑉= 𝑒𝜏

Current 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑
𝑉 𝑣𝑑 𝑚𝑙/𝑒𝜏 𝑣𝑑 𝑚𝑙 𝑚𝑙
Resistance 𝑅 = = = =
𝐼 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 .𝑒𝜏 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐴

𝑚𝑙
𝑖𝑒, 𝑅 =
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐴
𝑅𝐴 𝑚𝑙 𝐴 𝒎
Resistivity 𝜌 = = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐴  𝝆=
𝑙 𝑙 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉

i.e., 𝜌 is independent of the dimensions 𝑙 or 𝐴, but depends on

i. Number density (n) i.e., number of electrons per unit volume, which is different for different materials.
ii. Relaxation time𝜏, which depends on the temperature.

Mobility (µ)
Mobility of a charge carrier is a magnitude of drift velocity acquired per unit electric field.
𝑽𝒅 𝒆𝑬𝝉 𝒆𝝉
i.e. 𝝁 = 𝑬
= 𝒎𝑬
 𝒎
. SI Unit of mobility is ms-1N-1C or m2V-1S-1.

Dependence of resistivity with temperature

𝑚
Resistivity 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏

In the case of metals, as the temperature increases the time of the collision or the relaxation time "𝜏"
decreases. There is no considerable change in the number density of electrons with the temperature.
There for the resistivity of metals increase with increase in temperature

In case of semiconductors like germanium, silicon, etc. (or insulators), as the temperature increases,
the number density of free electrons increases and relaxation time "𝜏" decreases. But increase in
number density dominates over the decrease in relaxation time. Therefore, resistivity of
semiconductors decreases with increase in temperature.

Susamma Shajan / ST. THOMAS CENTRAL SCHOOL 3

 Temperature coefficient of resistivity – The temperature coefficient of resistivity is defined as the
𝝆 −𝝆
increase in resistivity per unit resistivity per degree rise in temperature. It is given by 𝛂 = 𝝆 (𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟏 ) ,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
where 𝜌1 is the resistivity at the temperature 𝑇1 and 𝜌2 is the resistivity at the temperature 𝑇2 .Thus the
resistivity at temperature 𝑇2 is given by

𝝆𝟐 = 𝝆𝟏 [1+ α (T2 - T1)] → 1

𝑙
As R = 𝜌 𝐴 , R 𝛼 𝜌. Hence equation 1 can be written in terms of resistance as

R2 = R0 [1+ α (T2 – T1 )] SI unit of 𝛼 is K-1 (Kelvin-1).

• For metals, 𝛂 is positive i.e., resistance of metals increases with the increase in temperature.

• For semi-conductors and insulators, α is negative i.e., their resistance decreases with the increases in
temperature.

• For alloys like constantan and manganin, α is very small. So, they are used for making standard
resistors.

Graphs showing the variation of resistivity with temperature (𝑻)

Some alloys like constantan, manganin, nichrome etc. have very low temperature coefficient of
resistivity (𝛼) ie, their resistance does not change appreciably with increase in temperature. Hence
these materials are used for making standard resistors. They are also used in metre-bridge and
potentiometer because of its high resistivity and low temperature coefficient of resistivity.

Ohmic conductors are the one which obey Ohm’s law. For these conductors V-I graph is a straight line
passing through the origin. For example, a metallic conductor for small currents is an ohmic conductor.

Non-Ohmic conductors are the one which do not obey Ohm’s law.

E.g., Electrolytes, diodes, transistors etc.

Limitations of Ohm’s law

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 1. V – I relationship is non-linear (or V ceases to
be proportional to I)
When a large current flow through a
metallic conductor, it gets heated up and
its resistance increases. The V – I graph
becomes non-linear. i.e., the conductor
becomes non ohmic at higher currents.

2. V – I relationship depends on the sign of V.

i.e., if I is the current for a certain V, then

reversing the direction of V keeping its
magnitude fixed does not produce a current
of the same magnitude as I in the opposite
direction. E.g., Diode

3. V – I relationship is non-unique.

i.e., there is more than one value

of V for the same current I.
Eg. GaAs (Gallium Arsenide)

Internal resistance of a cell (r)

Internal resistance of a cell is defined as the resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of
current between its electrodes. It depends on
i. Nature of electrolyte
ii. Concentration of electrolyte (Inversely proportional)
iii. Distance between the electrodes (Directly proportional)
iv. Common area of the electrodes immersed in the electrolyte (Inversely proportional)
v. Temperature of the electrolyte (Inversely proportional)

EMF (Electromotive force) and Terminal Voltage

EMF (𝜀 ) is defined as the potential difference across the terminals of a cell in an open circuit, i.e.,
when no current is drawn from the cell.

Susamma Shajan / ST. THOMAS CENTRAL SCHOOL 5

 SI unit is Volt (V).
Terminal voltage (V) is defined as the potential difference across the terminals of a cell in a closed
circuit, i.e., when current is being drawn from the cell (or when the cell is in use). SI unit is Volt (V).
Emf is greater than terminal voltage i.e. 𝜀 > 𝑉
Or 𝜺 − 𝑽 = 𝑰𝒓 where 𝑟 is the internal resistance of the cell and product 𝑰𝒓 is called the potential drop
across the internal resistance.
∴ 𝜀 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟 → (1)
𝜺
According to Ohm’s Law 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅  𝜀 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟) or, 𝑰 = 𝑹+𝒓
𝛆
When R = 0, I is maximum. Hence 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐫

• In an open circuit 𝐼 = 0 ∴ equation (1) becomes 𝜀=𝑉

i.e., potential difference between the terminals of a cell is equal to its emf when no current is
drawn from the cell, i.e., when the cell is in open circuit.
Special Case
• During charging of a cell current flows from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal of the cell and in this case 𝑉 > 𝜀
or 𝐕 = 𝛆 + 𝐈𝐫

Combination of cells
1. Series Combination
Consider two cells of EMFs 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 and internal resistance 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are connected in series as
shown in figure.
Let I be the current flowing through the combination.

According to the equation 𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟 we get

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝜀1 − 𝐼𝑟1 and 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝜀2 − 𝐼𝑟2
∴Total potential difference (V) between A and C is
V = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝜀1 − 𝐼𝑟1 + 𝜀2 − 𝐼𝑟2 = (𝜺𝟏 + 𝜺𝟐 ) − 𝑰(𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 ) → (𝟏)
If the two cells are replaced by a single cell of EMF 𝜀𝑒𝑞 and internal resistance 𝑟𝑒𝑞 then, 𝑽=
𝜺𝒆𝒒 − 𝑰𝒓𝒆𝒒 → (𝟐)

From equation (1) and (2)

𝜺𝒆𝒒 = 𝜺𝟏 + 𝜺𝟐 and 𝒓𝒆𝒒 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐

For series combination of 𝑛 cells,

Susamma Shajan / ST. THOMAS CENTRAL SCHOOL 6

 𝜺𝒆𝒒 = 𝜺𝟏 + 𝜺𝟐 + 𝜺𝟑 … … … . + 𝜺𝒏

And
𝒓𝒆𝒒 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟑 … … … . + 𝒓𝒏

Special cases – Consider n cells, each of emf 𝜀 and internal resistance r connected in series across an
external resistance R.
Total emf = n 𝜀, total internal resistance = n r, total circuit resistance = R + nr and
𝑛𝐸
Circuit current, I = .
𝑅+𝑛𝑟

If R >> nr, then nr can be neglected as compared to R.

𝐸
 I = n 𝑅 = n x current due to one cell

If R<< nr, then R can be neglected as compared to nr.

𝑛𝐸 𝐸
 I= = 𝑟 = current due to one cell
𝑛𝑟

Hence in order to get maximum current in a series grouping of cells, the external resistance R should
be very high as compared to the internal resistance of the battery (nr).

2. Parallel Combination
Consider two cells of EMFs 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 and internal resistance 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 , connected in parallel between
two points A and B as shown in figure.

In this case the potential difference between the points A and B, V remains constant.
𝜀1 −𝑉
∴ 𝑉 = 𝜀1 − 𝐼1 𝑟 1  𝐼1 = 𝑟1

𝜀2 −𝑉
Also, 𝑉 = 𝜀2 − 𝐼2 𝑟2  𝐼2 = 𝑟2

Total current 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝜀1 −𝑉 𝜀2 −𝑉 𝜀1 𝑉 𝜀2 𝑉
i.e., 𝐼 = + = − + −
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟2

𝜀 𝜀 1 1 𝜀1𝑟2 +𝜀2 𝑟1 𝑟 +𝑟
or , 𝐼 = ( 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) − 𝑉 (𝑟 + 𝑟 ) = ( ) − 𝑉 ( 𝑟1 𝑟 2 )
1 2 1 2 𝑟1 𝑟2 1 2

i.e. 𝐼𝑟1 𝑟2 = ( 𝜀1 𝑟2 + 𝜀2 𝑟1 ) − 𝑉(𝑟1 +𝑟2 )

or 𝑉(𝑟1 +𝑟2 ) = ( 𝜀1 𝑟2 + 𝜀2 𝑟1 ) − 𝐼𝑟1 𝑟2
𝜺𝟏 𝒓𝟐 +𝜺𝟐 𝒓𝟏 𝒓 𝒓
 𝑽=( ) − 𝑰 𝒓 𝟏+𝒓𝟐 → (𝟏)
𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐 𝟏 𝟐

If the two cells are replaced by a single cell of EMF 𝜀𝑒𝑞 and internal resistance 𝑟𝑒𝑞

Then 𝑽 = 𝜺𝒆𝒒 − 𝑰 𝒓𝒆𝒒 → (𝟐)

Susamma Shajan / ST. THOMAS CENTRAL SCHOOL 7

From (1) and (2)
𝜺 𝟏 𝒓𝟐 + 𝜺 𝟐 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝛆𝒆𝒒 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝐞𝐪 =
𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐
We can also write
𝛆𝒆𝒒 𝜺𝟏 𝜺𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝒂𝒏𝒅 = +
𝒓𝒆𝒒 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝒆𝒒 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐

For parallel combination of n cells

𝛆𝒆𝒒 𝜺 𝜺 𝜺 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 … … … … + 𝒓𝒏 and = 𝒓 + 𝒓 ………+𝒓
𝒓𝒆𝒒 𝟏 𝟐 𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒒 𝟏 𝟐 𝒏

SPECIAL CASE- Consider m cells connected in parallel. Let  and r be the emf and internal
resistance of each cell. Let this combination be connected across an external resistance R.
Total emf = , emf of one cell,
𝑟
Total internal resistance = 𝑚
 𝑚
Circuit current, I = 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑅+𝑟
𝑅+
𝑚

If R << r, then mR can be neglected as compared to r.


 I = m 𝑟 = m x current due to one cell.

If r<< R, then r may be neglected as compared to m R.

𝑚 
 I = 𝑚𝑅 = 𝑅 = current due to one cell.

Hence in order to get maximum current in parallel grouping of cells, the external resistance R should
be very low as compared to the internal resistance of each cell.

Heat produced in a conductor by electric current

When electric current is passed through a conductor, heat is produced in the conductor. This effect is
called heating effect of electric current.
According to Joule’s law of heating, the amount of energy dissipated in the form of heat in a time 𝑡 is
𝐕𝟐𝐭
𝐇 = 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑𝐭 𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞 = 𝐕𝐈𝐭 𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞 = 𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞
𝐑

Electric power
When voltage is applied in a circuit, it causes current to flow through it. Work is being done by the
voltage source in moving the electrons in the circuit. This electric work done in a unit time is called
electric power(P).
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐕𝟐
𝐏= = 𝐕𝐈 = 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑 = watt
𝐭 𝐑

The commercial unit of electric power is horsepower. 1 H.P =746 W

Susamma Shajan / ST. THOMAS CENTRAL SCHOOL 8

 Electrical energy
The total electric work done, or energy supplied by a voltage source in maintaining current in an
electric circuit for a given time is called electrical energy consumed in that circuit during that time.
𝑉2
i.e., Electrical energy, E = Electric power x Time = V I t = I2 R t = t joule.
𝑅

The commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh). 1kWh = 3.6 x 106 J.

Important Points

• When load is connected across a dc voltage source, power is transferred from the source to the load.
The amount of power transferred will depend upon the load resistance. If the load resistance RL is
made equal to the internal resistance Ri of the source, maximum power is transferred to the
load. This is known as maximum power transfer theorem.

• The efficiency of an electric device is the ratio of useful output power to the input power.

• If we connect bulbs of different powers in series, then the bulb of lowest power will give maximum
illumination.

In this case, same current I will flow in all the bulbs, Therefore, the heat produced in it (= I2 R t) will
be maximum when R is maximum. But resistance of the bulb is inversely proportional to power. [R =
𝑉2
]. So, less power, more resistance and maximum illumination.
𝑃

• If we connect bulbs of different powers in parallel, then the bulb of highest power will give maximum
illumination.

In this case the voltage is same for all the bulbs. Therefore, the heat produced in it
𝑉2𝑡
(= ) will be maximum when R is minimum. But resistance of the bulb is inversely proportional to
𝑅
𝑉2
power. [R = ]. So, high power, less resistance and maximum illumination.
𝑃

KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

1. Kirchhoff’s first law or junction rule

It states that the sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving that junction.
Or
In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of currents at any junction
is zero
Junction rule is based on the law of conservation of charge.
I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 Or ∑ 𝐈 = 𝟎

2. Kirchhoff’s second law or loop rule:

Around any closed loop of a network, the algebraic sum of changes in potential is zero. i.e. ∑ 𝑽 = 𝟎
Loop rule is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Susamma Shajan / ST. THOMAS CENTRAL SCHOOL 9

 Sign convention for applying loop rule.
1. For emf of a cell: When we traverse along a loop, if we meet the positive electrode of the cell first, then
the emf of that cell is taken as positive otherwise negative.
2. The product of current and resistance (IR) is taken as positive, if the resistor is traversed in the same
direction as that of current, otherwise negative.
Example:
Applying loop rule to closed path ABCFA,
we get
+𝜀1 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝜀2 = 0
For the closed path EDCFE,
+(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )𝑅3 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝜀2 = 0

Wheatstone Bridge
Statement of Wheatstone Bridge Principle.
Wheatstone Bridge consists of four resistors P, Q, R and S connected to form the four sides of a
quadrilateral. A cell is connected across one of its diagonals and a galvanometer across the other
diagonal. When the bridge is balanced (i.e., when no current flows through the galvanometer),
𝐏 𝐑
then =𝐒
𝐐

Proof
Consider the closed loop
ABDA.
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0

When 𝐼𝑔 = 0, 𝐼1 𝑃 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐈𝟏 𝐏 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 → (𝟏)
For the closed loop BCDB,
(𝐼1 − 𝐼𝑔 )𝑄 − (𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑔 )𝑆 − 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 = 0

When 𝐼𝑔 = 0, 𝐼1 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑆 = 0  𝐈𝟏 𝐐 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐒 → (𝟐)
𝐏 𝐑
Dividing equations (1) and (2), =
𝐐 𝐒

Susamma Shajan / ST. THOMAS CENTRAL SCHOOL 10