UNIT:

COORDINATION &
RESPONSE
 LESSON1:
NERVOUS CONTROL IN
HUMANS
The Nervous System
• The human nervous system consists of the:

 1-central nervous system (CNS) – the brain and the spinal cord

 2-peripheral nervous system (PNS) – all of the nerves in the body

• It allows us to make sense of our surroundings and respond to them and to coordinate and regulate body
functions

• Information is sent through the nervous system as nerve impulses – electrical signals that pass along nerve cells
known as neurones

• A bundle of neurones is known as a nerve

Types of Neurone

• There are three main types of neurone: sensory, relay and motor
• Sensory neurones carry impulses from sense organs to the CNS (brain or spinal cord)
• Relay neurones are found inside the CNS and connect sensory and motor neurones
• Motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)
• Neurones have a long fibre (axon)
• This means that less time is wasted transferring the impulse from one cell to another
• The axon is insulated by a fatty sheath with small uninsulated sections along it (called nodes)
• This means that the electrical impulse does not travel down the whole axon, but jumps from one node to the
next
• Their cell body contains many extensions called dendrites
• This means they can connect to many other neurones and receive impulses from them, forming a network for
easy communication
Types of Neurone

• Sensory neurones are long and have a cell body branching off the middle of the axon

• Relay neurones are short and have a small cell body at one end with many dendrites

• branching off it

• Motor neurones are long and have a large cell body at one end with long dendrites

branching off it
Voluntary & Involuntary Responses

• A voluntary response is one where you make a conscious decision to carry out a particular
action therefore it starts with your brain

• An involuntary (or reflex) response does not involve the brain as the coordinator of the
reaction and you are not aware you have completed it until after you have carried it out

• Involuntary actions are usually ones which are essential to basic survival and are rapid,
whereas voluntary responses often take longer as we consider what the response might be
before doing it
LESSON2:REFLEXES
The Reflex Arc

 An involuntary (or reflex) response does not involve the brain

as the coordinator of the reaction and you are not aware you
have completed it until after you have carried it out

 This is an automatic and rapid response to a stimulus such as

touching something sharp or hot

 As it does not involve the brain, a reflex response is quicker

than any other type of nervous response

 This helps to minimise the damage to the body

The Reflex Arc

 For example, if a person touches something hot, the

nervous system senses the stimulus and stimulates the

motor system and the muscles of the arm to contract and

pull or withdraw the hand away from the hot object.

The Reflex Arc
Reflex actions are:
1.Automatic
2.Fast
3.Protective

• The pin (the stimulus) is detected by a pain/pressure/touch receptor in the skin

• Sensory neurone sends electrical impulses to the spinal cord (the coordinator)
• Electrical impulse is passed on to relay neurone in the spinal cord
• Relay neurone connects to motor neurone and passes the impulse on
• Motor neurone carries impulse to a muscle in the leg (the effector)
• The muscle will contract and pull the foot up and away from the sharp object (the
response)
How an Impulse is Passed Across a Synapse

• How does a nerve impulse travel from one neurone

to another?

• A synapse is where two neurones functionally meet. A neurone that carries

the impulse towards the synapse is called the presynaptic neurone. A
neurone that carries the impulse away from the synapse is called the
postsynaptic neurone.

• Chemicals known as neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic

cell and diffuse across the synaptic cleft to start an action potential in the
postsynaptic cell
• Neurones never touch each other
• The junctions (gaps) in between them are called synapses
The Synapse: Definition
How an Impulse is Passed Across a Synapse

What are the changes that occur when the nerve impulse reaches the presynaptic membrane?
1. The electrical impulse travels along the first axon

2. This triggers the nerve-ending of the presynaptic neurone to release chemical messengers called neurotransmitters from vesicles
which fuse with the presynaptic membrane

3. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic gap and bind with receptor molecules on the membrane of the second neurone
(known as the post synaptic membrane)

4. This stimulates the second neurone to generate an electrical impulse that travels down the second axon

5. The neurotransmitters are then destroyed to prevent continued stimulation of the second neurone which would cause repeated
impulses to be sent

6. Synapses ensure that impulses only travel in one direction, avoiding confusion within the nervous system if impulses were
travelling in both directions

7. As this is the only part of the nervous system where messages are chemical as opposed to electrical, it is the only place where
drugs can act to affect the nervous system – eg this is where heroin works
 LESSON3:
SENSE ORGANS: THE EYE
Sense Organs
• Receptors are groups of specialised cells
• They detect a change in the environment and stimulate electrical impulses in response
• Sense organs contain groups of receptors that respond to specific stimuli
Sense Organs
• Once the receptor cell in the sense organ has been stimulated, it generates an electrical

impulse

• This is passed on to a sensory neurone which carries the impulse to the central nervous

system

• Here a response will be decided on and the impulse will be passed to a motor neurone (via

a relay neurone)

• The motor neurone carries the impulse to the effector (muscle or gland)

• The effector carries out the response

Structure of the Eye & Functions
• The eye is a sense organ containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light (rod
cells) and colour (cone cells)
The Pupil Reflex
• This is a reflex action carried out to protect the retina
from damage in bright light and
protect us from not seeing objects in dim light
• In dim light the pupil dilates (widens) in order to allow
as much light into the eye as
possible
• In bright light the pupil constricts (narrows) in order
to prevent too much light entering
the eye and damaging the retina
The Pupil Reflex

• In dim light, the pupil dilates (becomes larger) to allow more light to enter

the eye to improve vision

• In bright light, the pupil constricts (gets smaller) to allow less light to enter

the eye to protect the retina from damage

How Does the Pupil Reflex Work?
How Does the Pupil Reflex Work?
Accommodation: Viewing Near & Distant Objects

• The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called accommodation

• The lens is elastic and its shape can be changed when the suspensory
ligaments attached to it become tight or loose

• The changes are brought about by the contraction or relaxation of the ciliary
muscles
• Ciliary muscles contract

• Suspensory ligaments slacken

• This allows lens to become fatter

• Light is refracted more

• Ciliary muscles relax

• Suspensory ligaments stretch thin

• This allows lens to become thinner

• Light is refracted less

Rods & Cones
• There are two types of receptor cells in the retina:

• Rods which are sensitive to dim light

• Cones which distinguish between different colours in bright light

• There are 3 types of cone cells which are sensitive to different colours of light (red, blue and green)

• The fovea is an area on the retina where almost all of the cone cells are found

• Rod cells are found all over the retina, other than the area where the optic nerve attaches to the retina – there
are no light-sensitive cells at all in this area, and so it is known as the blind spot
 LESSON4:
HORMONES IN
HUMANS
What is a Hormone?

• A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which alters the
activity of one or more specific target organs i.e. they are chemicals which transmit information from
one part of the organism to another and bring about a change

• The glands that produce hormones in animals are known collectively as the endocrine system

• Endocrine glands have a good blood supply as when they make hormones they need to get them
into the bloodstream (specifically the blood plasma) as soon as possible so they can travel around the
body to the target organs to bring about the response

• Once a hormone has been used, it is destroyed by the liver

The Endocrine System

 Endocrine glands have a good blood supply as when they

make hormones they need to get them into the
bloodstream (specifically the blood plasma) as soon as
possible so they can travel around the body to the target
organs to bring about the response
 Hormones only affect cells with target receptors that the
hormone can bind to. These are either found on the cell
membrane, or inside cells. Receptors have to be
complementary to hormones for their to be an effect
 The liver regulates levels of hormones in the blood;
transforming or breaking down any that are in excess
How hormones work
More about Adrenaline
• Adrenaline is known as the fight or flight hormone as it is produced in situations where the body may be in danger

• It causes a range of different things to happen in the body, all designed to prepare it for movement (ie fight or flight).

• These include:

• Increasing blood glucose concentration for increased respiration in muscle cells

• Increasing pulse rate and breathing rate so glucose and oxygen can be delivered to muscle cells, and carbon dioxide taken
away, from muscles cells more quickly

• Diverting blood flow towards muscles and away from non-essential parts of the body such as the alimentary canal; again to
ensure the reactants of respiration are as available as possible

• Dilating pupils to allow as much light as possible to reach the retina so more information can be sent to the brain
Comparison of Nervous & Hormonal Control
 LESSON5:
HOMEOSTASIS
BLOOD GLUCOSE
Homeostasis: Basics

• Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment

• “The maintenance of a constant internal environment” means that internal conditions within your body (such as
temperature, blood pressure, water concentration, glucose concentration etc) need to be kept within set limits to ensure
that reactions in body cells can function, and therefore the organism as a whole, can live

• When one of these conditions deviates far away from the normal if not brought back within set limits the body will not
function properly and the eventual consequence without medical intervention will be death

• This is why diabetics need to control glucose intake (as their body cannot regulate it for them); why an extremely high and
prolonged fever will kill you; or why drinking too little or too much water can damage cells throughout the body – especially
the kidneys and brain – and lead to death within days

• Most homeostatic mechanisms in the body are controlled by a process known as negative feedback
Negative Feedback

• Negative feedback occurs when conditions change from the ideal or set point, and

returns conditions to this set point

• It works in the following way:

• if the level of something rises, control systems are switched on to reduce it again

• if the level of something falls, control systems are switched on to raise it again

• Negative feedback mechanisms are usually a continuous cycle of bringing levels down

and then bringing them back up so that overall, they stay within a narrow range of

what is considered ‘normal’

Control of Blood Glucose Levels

• Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback

mechanism involving the production of two hormones –
insulin and glucagon

• Both hormones which control blood glucose concentration

are made in the pancreas

• Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises and stimulates

liver and muscle cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen
to be stored

• Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls and

stimulates liver and muscle cells to convert stored glycogen
into glucose to be released into the blood
Diabetes

• Type 1 diabetes is a condition where the blood glucose levels are not able to be regulated as the insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas are not
able to produce insulin

• This means that blood glucose levels are often far too high

• It can be treated by injecting insulin

• The extra insulin causes the liver to convert glucose into glycogen, which reduces the blood glucose level

• Symptoms of diabetes include extreme thirst, weakness or tiredness, blurred vision, weight loss and loss of consciousness in extreme cases

• People with Type 1 diabetes have to monitor their blood glucose levels throughout the day as their levels of physical activity and their diet
affect the amount of insulin needed

• They can help to control their blood glucose level by being careful with their diet – eating foods that will not cause large increases in blood
glucose level, and by exercising, which can lower blood glucose levels due to increased respiration in the muscles
 LESSON6:
HOMEOSTASIS
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
The Skin & Homeostasis

• Control of body temperature is a homeostatic mechanism

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment

• This means that internal conditions within your body (such as temperature, blood pressure, water concentration,
glucose concentration etc) need to be kept within set limits in order to ensure that reactions in body cells can function
and therefore the organism as a whole can live

• The human body maintains the temperature at which enzymes work best, around 37°C

• If body temperature increases over this temperature, enzymes will denature and become less effective at catalysing
reactions such a respiration
Structure of the Skin
Regulating Temperature: Basics
• Regulation is controlled by the brain which contains receptors sensitive to the temperature of the blood

• The skin also has temperature receptors and sends nervous impulses to the brain via sensory neurones

• The brain responds to this information by sending nerve impulses to effectors in the skin to maintain the

temperature within a narrow range of the optimum, 37°C

• Fatty tissue under the dermis acts as a layer of insulation to prevent too much body heat being lost

through the skin

Vasodilation & Vasoconstriction

• When we are cold blood flow in capillaries slows down because arterioles leading to the skin capillaries get
narrower – this is known as vasoconstriction

• This reduces the amount of heat lost from blood by radiation as less blood flows through the surface of the
skin

• When we are hot blood flow in capillaries increases because blood vessels to the skin capillaries get wider –
this is known as vasodilation

• This cools the body as blood (which carries heat around the body) is flowing at a faster rate through the skin’s
surface and so more heat is lost by radiation
 LESSON7:
TROPIC RESPONSES
Plant Tropisms

• Plants can respond to changes in environment (stimuli) for survival, e.g. light, water,gravity

• Their responses are usually much slower than animals

• They grow either towards a stimulus (known as a positive response) or away from a
stimulus (known as a negative response)

• The responses are known as tropisms

Plant Tropisms
It is very important to a plant that its roots and shoots grow in the right

directions

• Shoots must grow upwards, away from gravity and towards light, so

that leaves are able to absorb sunlight

• This means that shoots have a positive phototropic response and a

negative gravitropic response

• Roots need to grow downwards into the soil, away from light and

towards gravity, in order to anchor the plant and absorb water and

minerals from the soil particles.

• This means that roots have a negative phototropic response and a

positive gravitropic response

 Investigating Tropisms
Phototropism
o Three identical plants are set up as shown below (A, B and C)
o The seedlings in A grow towards the light source
o In B the effect of the light only coming from one direction
has been cancelled out by using a clinostat (it revolves slowly
and repeatedly so the shoots are evenly exposed to light)
o This means all sides of the seedlings get an equal amount of
light so they do not curve
o towards the light source but grow straight up
o In C the seedlings grow straight up looking for light and the
plant becomes tall and slender with yellowing leaves due to
the lack of light
Gravitropism
• Add some damp cotton wool to two petri dishes

• Place 3 bean seedlings in the cotton wool in each petri dish

• A – radicle facing downwards

• B – horizontally

• C – radicle (root grows from here) facing upwards

• Cover each dish with a lid

• Attach one petri dish to a support so that it’s on its side

• Attach the second petri dish to a clinostat (as shown in the diagrams
above).

• Place both in a light-proof box (so that the seedlings are in complete
darkness), leave for two days and then observe growth of the seedlings
Gravitropism
• In the first petri dish all radicles (roots) have grown downwards
(positive gravitropic response) regardless of which way they were
initially facing (horizontal, up or down) and all plumules (shoots)
have grown upwards (negative gravitropic response)

• In the second petri dish, all radicles and all plumules have all
grown neither up nor down but straight outwards in whichever
direction they were placed as the effect of gravity has been
cancelled out by the revolving of the clinostat – they have shown
no gravitropic response at all

• The experiment needs to be done in a lightproof box in order to

cancel out the effect of light on the growth of the seedlings
 The Role of Auxin
• Plants respond to stimuli by producing a growth hormone called auxin which controls the direction of growth of roots or stems

• Therefore we say plants control their growth chemically

• Auxin is mostly made in the tips of the growing stems and roots and can diffuse to other parts of the stems or roots; spreading from a high
concentration in the shoot tips down the shoot to an area of lower concentration

• Auxin stimulates the cells behind the tip to elongate (get larger); the more auxin there is, the faster they will elongate and grow

• This is an important point. Only the region behind the tip of a shoot is able to contribute to growth by cell division and cell elongation. This
part of a shoot is called the meristem

• If light shines all around the tip, auxin is distributed evenly throughout and the cells in the meristem grow at the same rate – this is what
normally happens with plants growing outside

• When light shines on the shoot predominantly from one side though, the auxin produced in the tip concentrates on the shaded side, making
the cells on that side elongate and grow faster than the cells on the sunny side

• This unequal growth on either side of the shoot causes the shoot to bend and grow in the direction of the light
The role of auxin can be tested

using seedlings placed in a box

that has a slit on one side, only

allowing light in from one

direction:
Plant Hormones & Weedkillers

• Most weedkillers contain synthetic hormones like auxin – known as 2,4D

• They are selective so they are sprayed onto an area such as a lawn or farm crops and the

synthetic auxin affects the weeds but not the grass / crop plants

• The weeds respond by growing very fast and then dying, leaving more space, nutrients

and water for the grass or crop plants to grow