-MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

ABDELHAMID IBN BADIS UNIVERSITY - MOSTAGANEM

Faculty of Exact Sciences and Computer Science

Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
Engineering Computer Science

Name of the Module: Computer Architecture 1

By Dr Hamami Dalila

Semester 1

Academic Year: 2023-2024

Chapter 1: Introduction

Objective

The objective of this chapter is to recall some fundamental elements concerning the main
modules constituting the architecture of a computer. We take an overview of the functionalities
of each of these modules and their functional relationships. This is only to present in a manner
the overall functioning of the computer

Content

1. Structure of computer system

2. Computer Software
3. Characteristics of Computer
4. Additional information
 1. Definition
A computer is a digital device that is capable of computing and processing data. Computers run
instructions that are given to it.
Instructions are low level commands like addition, subtraction, comparison, etc.
The list of instruction is called program and internal storage is called memory. Information fed
to a computer can be categorised as either instruction or data.
Instruction are the explicit commands that govern the transfer or information within the
computer as well as between the computer and its I/O devices and specify the operations to be
performed.
A computer is defined as a machine for manipulating data according to a list of instructions.

2. Structure of computer system

A computer is an entity that interacts in some or the other way its external environment. All of
its linkages to external environment are classified as peripheral devices or communication lines.
The basic computer system consists of four main parts: Central Processing Unit (CPU),
Memory, Input/Output and Bus.

Figure 1 Functional units of computer

1.1 Central Processing Unit
It is the heart component of computer. This entity controls the operations of the computer and
performs its data processing functions. It is usually referred to as a processor. All the actions
of all components are controlled by the control unit of CPU.
1.1.1 Components of CPU
Its major structural components are Control Unit, ALU, Registers and CPU interconnections.
- Control Unit: it controls the operations of the CPU and hence the computer system by
routing the selected data items to the selected processing hardware at the right time.
Control unit acts as nerve centre for the other units.
 - Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The CPU runs instructions and performs
computations, mostly by the ALU. The ALU is a collection of logic circuits designed
to perform arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) and logical
operations (not, and, or, etc). when an arithmetic or logical operation is required, the
values and commend are sent to the ALU for processing.
- Registers: it is an internal memory of CPU providing storage internal to CPU.
- CPU interconnections: it allows communication among the control unit, ALU and
registers of the CPU.
1.1.2 Task of CPU
the CPU must carry out the task given below:
- read the given instructions.
- Decode them.
- Get operands for execution.
- Process the instruction.
- Give out/store the result.
To carry out these tasks the CPU needs to temporarily store some data. It must remember the
location of the last instruction so that it can know where to get the next instruction.
It needs to store instructions and data temporarily while an instruction is being executed. In
general, the CPU needs an internal memory for all store either instruction or data, this is
called register. Register memory is very fast for the CPU to access, since it is located on the
CPU itself.
1.2 Memory unit
memory unit is an integral part of a computer system. It is basically a large array of bytes.
Main function of a memory unit is to store the information needed by the system, which can
be data and instructions.
1.2.1 Memory characteristics
The system performance is largely dependent on the organization, storage capacity and speed
of operation of the memory system. The CPU can read or write to the memory, but it is much
slower than accessing registers. Most of the memory is in RAM, which can be thought of as a
large array of bytes. In an array, we can refer to individual elements using an index.
In computer organization, indexes are more commonly referred to as addresses, which are the
numbers used to identify successive locations.
The capacity is one factor that decides the size of the computer. Data are usually manipulated
within the machine in units of words (multiples of words or parts of word). The number of
bits in each word is called word length, large computers usually have 32 or more bits in a
word. The time required to access one word is called the memory access time.

1.2.2 Classification of memory

The memory can be broadly classified into four groups.

- Internal memory: it refers to a set of CPU registers. These serve as working memory,
storing temporary results during the computation process. As the cost of registers is very
 high, only few can be used in the CPU. Some of the important registers in CPU are as
follows: Accumulator (ACC), Instruction Register (IR), Program Counter (PC),
Memory Address Register (MAR), Memory Buffer Register (MBR), Data Register
(DR).

- Primary memory: called main memory. It consists of large number of semiconductor

storage cells, where each cell is capable of storing one bit of information. Data stored
in this memory can be directly acceded by the CPU. The primary memory is categorized
into two main types: Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM)

- Secondary memory: this memory is much larger in capacity and much slower than the
main memory. It stores system program, large data files and information not regularly
used by the CPU. When the capacity of the main memory is exceeded, the additional
information is stored in the secondary memory. Information from the secondary
memory is accessed indirectly through the I/O programs that transfer the information
between the main memory and secondary memory. General Secondary Memories are:
Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Zip Disk, Optical Disk, Magenetic Disk, etc.

- Cache memory: is a buffer memory which improve the system performance by fast
acting between the processor and the main memory.

1.2.3 Memory Representation

When the computer memory stores different kinds of data like input data, output data,
intermediate results, the binary digit or bit is used as the basic unit of memory. A bit is a
single binary digit (0 or 1). A bit is the smallest unit of representation of data in a
computer. However, the data is handled by the computer as a combination of bits. A group
of 8 bits form a byte. One byte is the smallest unit of data that is handled by the computer.
One byte can store 28, i.e., 256 different combinations of bits, and thus can be used to
represent 256 different symbols. In a byte, the different combinations of bits fall in the
range 00000000 to 11111111. A group of bytes can be further combined to form a word.
A word can be a group of 2, 4 or 8 bytes.
1 bit = 0 or 1
1 Byte (B) = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 210 = 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 220 = 1024KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 230 = 1024 MB = 1024 *1024 KB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 240 = 1024 GB = 1024 * 1024 *1024 KB

1.3 Input/Output devices

The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The Input unit accepts data from the user
and the Output unit provides the processed data to the user. The Input unit converts the data
that it accepts from the user, into a form that is understandable by the computer. Similarly, the
Output unit provides the output in a form that is understandable by the user. The input is
provided to the computer using input devices like keyboard, trackball and mouse. Some of the
commonly used output devices are monitor and printer.
 1.4 System connection / BUS

A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices. The communication

between the external environment and CPU is established through the system bus. System buses
is classified into three different types, depending on whether it carries data, control or addresses
information.
2. Computer Software
Software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and
documentation (flowcharts, manuals, etc.) that perform some tasks on an operating system.
Software is the way to perform different tasks electronically. Software is a set of rules to
perform a specific task. The software is the information that the computer uses to get the job
done. Software needs to be accessed before it can be used. There are many terms used for the
process of accessing software including running, executing, starting up, opening, and others.
Computer programs allow users to complete tasks. A program can also be referred to as an
application and the two words are used interchangeably.

Software package is a group of programs that solve a specific problem or perform a specific
type of job. For sample, a word-processing package may contain programs for text editing, text
formatting, drawing graphics, spelling checking, etc. Software is a collection of instructions
that enables a user to interact with the computer or have the computer perform specific tasks
for them. Without any software the computer would be useless.
2.1 Types of Software
Software can be broadly classified in two categories: System Software, Application Software

2.1.1 System software

System software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation and extend
the processing capability of a computer system.
BIOS is the basic program used as an interface between the operating system and the
motherboard. The BIOS is stored in the ROM and cannot be rewritten. When the computer is
switched on, it needs instructions to start. BIOS contain the instructions for the starting up of
the computer. The BIOS runs when the computer is switched on. It performs a Power On Self
Test (POST) that checks that the hardware is functioning properly and the hardware devices are
present. It checks whether the operating system is present on the hard drive. BIOS invokes the
bootstrap loader to load the operating system into memory. BIOS can be configured using an
interface named BIOS setup, which can be accessed when the computer is booting up (by
pressing the DEL key).
2.1.2 Application software
Application software is a set of one or more programs designed to solve a specific problem, or
do a specific task. For example, payroll processing software, examination results processing
software, railway/airline reservation software, computer games software are all application
software. Similarly, a program written by a scientist to solve a research problem is also
application software. The programs included in an application software package are called
application programs. The programmers who prepare application software are referred to as
application programmers.
3. Characteristics of Computer
The main characteristics of a computer are:
• Speed
• Accuracy
 • Diligence
• Storage Capability
• Versatility
• They can communicate
• We can do multitasking

4. Additional information

4.1 Data
Data are isolated values or raw facts, which by themselves have no much significance. The data
is provided as input to the computer, which is processed to generate some meaningful
information. Usually, data is static in nature, it can represent a set of discrete facts about events.
Data is a prerequisite to information.
An organization sometimes has to decide on the nature and volume of data that is required for
creating the necessary information.
4.2 Information
Information is a flow of messages. The patterns and relationship in the data is pointed out and
discussed.
The data is made informative and must be put into a context and linked like data.
Contrary to data, information has usually got some meaning and purpose.
4.3 Knowledge
Knowledge is a multifaceted concept with multilayered meaning. By knowledge we mean
human understanding of a subject matter that has been acquired through proper study and
experience.
Knowledge is usually based on learning, thinking, and proper understanding of the problem
area.
Knowledge is not information and information is not data.
Knowledge is derived from information in the same way information is derived from data.
We can view it as an understanding of information based on its perceived importance or
relevance to a problem area.
It can be considered as the integration of human perceptive processes that helps them to draw
meaningful conclusions.
 Figure 2. Data, Information and Knowledge Relation

4.4 CMOS Chip

CMOS is a type of memory technology, well known as memory chip. When the computer is
turned off, the power supply stops providing electricity to the motherboard. When the computer
is turned on again, the system still displays the correct clock time. This is because the CMOS
chip saves some system information, such as time, system date and essential system settings.
CMOS is kept powered by a button battery located on the motherboard. The CMOS chip is
working even when the computer power is switched off. Information of the hardware installed
in the computer (such as the number of tracks or sectors on each hard drive) is stored in the
CMOS chip.
4.5 Ports and Interfaces
Motherboard has a certain number of I/O sockets that are connected to the ports and interfaces
found on the rear side of a computer. You can connect external devices to the ports and
interfaces, which get connected to the computer’s motherboard.

Figure 3. Ports on the rear side of a PC

• Serial Port: to connect old peripherals.

• Parallel Port: to connect old printers.
• USB Ports: to connect newer peripherals like cameras, scanners and printers to the
computer.
It uses a thin wire to connect to the devices, and many devices can share that wire
simultaneously.
Firewire: It is another bus, used today mostly for video cameras and external hard drives.
RJ45 connector: It (called LAN or Ethernet port) is used to connect the computer to a network.
It corresponds to a network card integrated into the motherboard.
VGA connector: for connecting a monitor. This connector interfaces with the built-in graphics
card.
Audio plugs (line-in, line-out and microphone): for connecting sound speakers and the
microphone. This connector interfaces with the built-in sound card.
PS/2 port: to connect mouse and keyboard into PC.
SCSI port for connecting the hard disk drives and network connectors.

4.6 Expansion Slots

The expansion slots are located on the motherboard. The expansion cards are inserted in the
expansion slots. These cards give the computer new features or increased performance. There
are several types of slots:
- ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) slot: To connect modem and input devices.
- PCI (Peripheral Component InterConnect) slot : To connect audio, video and graphics.
They are much faster than ISA cards.
- AGP (Accelerated Graphic Port) slot: A fast port for a graphics card.
- PCI (Peripheral Component InterConnect) Express slot: Faster bus architecture than
AGP and PCI buses.
- PC Card: It is used in laptop computers. It includes Wi-Fi card, network card and
external modem.

4.7 Motherboard
The computer is built up around a motherboard. The motherboard is the most important
component in the PC. It is a large Printed Circuit Board (PCB), having many chips, connectors
and other electronics mounted on it. The motherboard is the hub, which is used to connect all
the essential components of a computer. The RAM, hard drive, disk drives and optical drives
are all plugged into interfaces on the motherboard. The motherboard contains the processor,
memory chips, interfaces and sockets, etc.

The motherboard may be characterized by the form factor, chipset and type of processor socket
used. Form factor refers to the motherboard’s geometry, dimensions, arrangement and electrical
requirements. Different standards have been developed to build motherboards, which can be
used in different brands of cases. Advanced Technology Extended (ATX) is the most common
design of motherboard for desktop computers. Chipset is a circuit, which controls the majority
of resources (including the bus interface with the processor, cache memory and RAM,
expansion cards, etc.) Chipset’s job is to coordinate data transfers between the various
components of the computer (including the processor and memory). As the chipset is integrated
into the motherboard, it is important to choose a motherboard, which includes a recent chipset,
in order to maximize the computer’s upgradeability. The processor socket may be a rectangular
connector into which the processor is mounted vertically (slot), or a square-shaped connector
with many small connectors into which the processor is directly inserted (socket). The Basic
Input Output System (BIOS) and Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) are
present on the motherboard.
References
1. Computer science courses, Basic Computer Tutorial for Beginners - fundamental concepts in
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computer/index.php
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