Chapter 1

Units and Vectors: Tools for Physics

1.1 The Important Stuff

1.1.1 The SI System
Physics is based on measurement. Measurements are made by comparisons to well–defined
standards which define the units for our measurements.
The SI system (popularly known as the metric system) is the one used in physics. Its
unit of length is the meter, its unit of time is the second and its unit of mass is the kilogram.
Other quantities in physics are derived from these. For example the unit of energy is the
2
joule, defined by 1 J = 1 kg·m
s2
.
As a convenience in using the SI system we can associate prefixes with the basic units to
represent powers of 10. The most commonly used prefixes are given here:

Factor Prefix Symbol

10−12 pico- p
10−9 nano- n
10−6 micro- µ
10−3 milli- m
10−2 centi- c
103 kilo- k
106 mega- M
109 giga- G

Other basic units commonly used in physics are:

Time : 1 minute = 60 s 1 hour = 60 min etc.

Mass : 1 atomic mass unit = 1 u = 1.6605 × 10−27 kg

1
2 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

1.1.2 Changing Units

In all of our mathematical operations we must always write down the units and we always
treat the unit symbols as multiplicative factors. For example, if me multiply 3.0 kg by 2.0 ms
we get
(3.0 kg) · (2.0 ms ) = 6.0 kg·m
s

We use the same idea in changing the units in which some physical quantity is expressed.
We can multiply the original quantity by a conversion factor, i.e. a ratio of values for
which the numerator is the same thing as the denominator. The conversion factor is then
equal to 1 , and so we do not change the original quantity when we multiply by the conversion
factor.
Examples of conversion factors are:
!
1 min 100 cm 1 yr 1m
     

60 s 1m 365.25 day 3.28 ft

1.1.3 Density
A quantity which will be encountered in your study of liquids and solids is the density of a
sample. It is usually denoted by ρ and is defined as the ratio of mass to volume:
m
ρ= (1.1)
V
kg g
The SI units of density are m3
but you often see it expressed in cm3
.

1.1.4 Dimensional Analysis

Every equation that we use in physics must have the same type of units on both sides of the
equals sign. Our basic unit types (dimensions) are length (L), time (T ) and mass (M).
When we do dimensional analysis we focus on the units of a physics equation without
worrying about the numerical values.

1.1.5 Vectors; Vector Addition

Many of the quantities we encounter in physics have both magnitude (“how much”) and
direction. These are vector quantities.
We can represent vectors graphically as arrows and then the sum of two vectors is found
(graphically) by joining the head of one to the tail of the other and then connecting head to
tail for the combination, as shown in Fig. 1.1 . The sum of two (or more) vectors is often
called the resultant.
We can add vectors in any order we want: A + B = B + A. We say that vector addition
is “commutative”.
We express vectors in component form using the unit vectors i, j and k, which each
have magnitude 1 and point along the x, y and z axes of the coordinate system, respectively.
1.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 3

B
B

A
A
A+B

(a) (b)

Figure 1.1: Vector addition. (a) shows the vectors A and B to be summed. (b) shows how to perform the
sum graphically.

C
By B
Cy

Ay
A
Ax Bx x
Cx

Figure 1.2: Addition of vectors by components (in two dimensions).

Any vector can be expressed as a sum of multiples of these basic vectors; for example,
for the vector A we would write:

A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k .

Here we would say that Ax is the x component of the vector A; likewise for y and z.
In Fig. 1.2 we illustrate how we get the components for a vector which is the sum of two
other vectors. If

A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k and B = Bx i + By j + Bz k

then
A + B = (Ax + Bx )i + (Ay + By )j + (Az + Bz )k (1.2)
Once we have found the (Cartesian) component of two vectors, addition is simple; just add
the corresponding components of the two vectors to get the components of the resultant
vector.
When we multiply a vector by a scalar, the scalar multiplies each component; If A is a
vector and n is a scalar, then

cA = cAxi + cAy j + cAz k (1.3)

4 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

In terms of its components, the magnitude (“length”) of a vector A (which we write as

A) is given by: q
A = A2x + A2y + A2z (1.4)

Many of our physics problems will be in two dimensions (x and y) and then we can also
represent it in polar form. If A is a two–dimensional vector and θ as the angle that A
makes with the +x axis measured counter-clockwise then we can express this vector in terms
of components Ax and Ay or in terms of its magnitude A and the angle θ. These descriptions
are related by:
Ax = A cos θ Ay = A sin θ (1.5)

q Ay
A= A2x + A2y tan θ = (1.6)
Ax
When we use Eq. 1.6 to find θ from Ax and Ay we need to be careful because the inverse
tangent operation (as done on a calculator) might give an angle in the wrong quadrant; one
must think about the signs of Ax and Ay .

1.1.6 Multiplying Vectors

There are two ways to “multiply” two vectors together.
The scalar product (or dot product) of the vectors a and b is given by

a · b = ab cos φ (1.7)

where a is the magnitude of a, b is the magnitude of b and φ is the angle between a and b.
The scalar product is commutative: a · b = b · a. One can show that a · b is related to
the components of a and b by:

a · b = a x bx + a y by + a z bz (1.8)

If two vectors are perpendicular then their scalar product is zero.

The vector product (or cross product) of vectors a and b is a vector c whose mag-
nitude is given by
c = ab sin φ (1.9)
where φ is the smallest angle between a and b. The direction of c is perpendicular to the
plane containing a and b with its orientation given by the right–hand rule. One way
of using the right–hand rule is to let the fingers of the right hand bend (in their natural
direction!) from a to b; the direction of the thumb is the direction of c = a × b. This is
illustrated in Fig. 1.3.
The vector product is anti–commutative: a × b = −b × a.
Relations among the unit vectors for vector products are:

i×j=k j×k=i k×i = j (1.10)

1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 5

C
A
A

B B

(a) (b)

Figure 1.3: (a) Finding the direction of A × B. Fingers of the right hand sweep from A to B in the
shortest and least painful way. The extended thumb points in the direction of C. (b) Vectors A, B and C.
The magnitude of C is C = AB sin φ.

The vector product of a and b can be computed from the components of these vectors
by:
a × b = (ay bz − az by )i + (az bx − ax bz )j + (axby − ay bx)k (1.11)
which can be abbreviated by the notation of the determinant:
i j k
a × b = ax ay az (1.12)
bx by bz

1.2 Worked Examples

1.2.1 Changing Units

1. The Empire State Building is 1472 ft high. Express this height in both meters
and centimeters. [FGT 1-4]

To do the first unit conversion (feet to meters), we can use the relation (see the Conversion
Factors in the back of this book):
1 m = 3.281 ft
We set up the conversion factor so that “ft” cancels and leaves meters:
1m
 
1472 ft = (1472 ft) = 448.6 m .
3.281 ft
So the height can be expressed as 448.6 m. To convert this to centimeters, use:

1 m = 100 cm
6 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

and get:
100 cm
 
448.6 m = (448.6 m) = 4.486 × 104 cm
1m
4
The Empire State Building is 4.486 × 10 cm high!

2. A rectangular building lot is 100.0 ft by 150.0 ft. Determine the area of this lot
in m2. [Ser4 1-19]

The area of a rectangle is just the product of its length and width so the area of the lot
is
A = (100.0 ft)(150.0 ft) = 1.500 × 104 ft2
To convert this to units of m2 we can use the relation

1 m = 3.281 ft

but the conversion factor needs to be applied twice so as to cancel “ ft2 ” and get “ m2 ”. We
write: 2
1m

4 2 4 2
1.500 × 10 ft = (1.500 × 10 ft ) · = 1.393 × 103 m2
3.281 ft
3 2
The area of the lot is 1.393 × 10 m .

3. The Earth is approximately a sphere of radius 6.37 × 106 m. (a) What is its
circumference in kilometers? (b) What is its surface area in square kilometers?
(c) What is its volume in cubic kilometers? [HRW5 1-6]

(a) The circumference of the sphere of radius R, i.e. the distance around any “great circle”
is C = 2πR. Using the given value of R we find:

C = 2πR = 2π(6.37 × 106 m) = 4.00 × 107 m .

To convert this to kilometers, use the relation 1 km = 103 m in a conversion factor:

!
7 71 km
C = 4.00 × 10 m = (4.00 × 10 m) · = 4.00 × 104 km
103 m

The circumference of the Earth is 4.00 × 104 km.

(b) The surface area of a sphere of radius R is A = 4πR2 . So we get

A = 4πR2 = 4π(6.37 × 106 m)2 = 5.10 × 1014 m2

Again, use 1 km = 103 m but to cancel out the units “ m2 ” and replace them with “ km2 ” it
must be applied twice:
!2
1 km
14 2
A = 5.10 × 10 m = (5.10 × 10 m ) · 14 2
= 5.10 × 108 km2
103 m
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 7

The surface area of the Earth is 5.10 × 108 km2 .

(c) The volume of a sphere of radius R is V = 34 πR3. So we get

V = 43 πR3 = 43 π(6.37 × 106 m)3 = 1.08 × 1021 m3

Again, use 1 km = 103 m but to cancel out the units “m3 ” and replace them with “ km3” it
must be applied three times:
!3
1 km
21 3
V = 1.08 × 10 m = (1.08 × 10 m ) ·21 3
= 1.08 × 1012 km3
103 m

The volume of the Earth is 1.08 × 1012 km3 .

4. Calculate the number of kilometers in 20.0 mi using only the following conver-
sion factors: 1 mi = 5280 ft, 1 ft = 12 in, 1 in = 2.54 cm, 1 m = 100 cm, 1 km = 1000 m.
[HRW5 1-7]

Set up the “factors of 1” as follows:

!  !
5280 ft 12 in 2.54 cm 1m 1 km
    
20.0 mi = (20.0 mi) · · · · ·
1 mi 1 ft 1 in 100 cm 1000 m
= 32.2 km

Setting up the “factors of 1” in this way, all of the unit symbols cancel except for km
(kilometers) which we keep as the units of the answer.

5. One gallon of paint (volume = 3.78 × 10−3 m3) covers an area of 25.0 m3 . What
is the thickness of the paint on the wall? [Ser4 1-31]

We will assume that the volume which the paint occupies while it’s covering the wall is
the same as it has when it is in the can. (There are reasons why this may not be true, but
let’s just do this and proceed.)
The paint on the wall covers an area A and has a thickness τ ; the volume occupied is the
area time the thickness:
V = Aτ .
We have V and A; we just need to solve for τ :
V 3.78 × 10−3 m3
τ= = = 1.51 × 10−4 m .
A 25.0 m2
The thickness is 1.51 × 10−4 m. This quantity can also be expressed as 0.151 mm.

2
ft
6. A certain brand of house paint claims a coverage of 460 gal . (a) Express this
quantity in square meters per liter. (b) Express this quantity in SI base units. (c)
8 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

What is the inverse of the original quantity, and what is its physical significance?
[HRW5 1-15]

(a) Use the following relations in forming the conversion factors: 1 m = 3.28 ft and 1000 liter =
264 gal. To get proper cancellation of the units we set it up as:
2 !
1m 264 gal

ft2 ft2 2
460 gal
= (460 gal
) · · = 11.3 mL
3.28 ft 1000 L

(b) Even though the units of the answer to part (a) are based on the metric system, they
are not made from the base units of the SI system, which are m, s, and kg. To make the
complete conversion to SI units we need to use the relation 1 m3 = 1000 L. Then we get:
1000 L
 
2 2
11.3 mL = (11.3 mL ) · = 1.13 × 104 m−1
1 m3
So the coverage can also be expressed (not so meaningfully, perhaps) as 1.13 × 104 m−1 .
(c) The inverse (reciprocal) of the quantity as it was originally expressed is
 2
−1
ft gal
460 gal = 2.17 × 10−3 ft2
.

Of course when we take the reciprocal the units in the numerator and denominator also
switch places!
Now, the first expression of the quantity tells us that 460 ft2 are associated with every
gallon, that is, each gallon will provide 460 ft2 of coverage. The new expression tells us that
2.17 × 10−3 gal are associated with every ft2 , that is, to cover one square foot of surface with
paint, one needs 2.17 × 10−3 gallons of it.

m
7. Express the speed of light, 3.0 × 108 s
in (a) feet per nanosecond and (b)
millimeters per picosecond. [HRW5 1-19]

(a) For this conversion we can use the following facts:

1 m = 3.28 ft and 1 ns = 10−9 s

to get:
! !
3.28 ft 10−9 s
3.0 × 108 ms = (3.0 × 108 ms ) · ·
1m 1 ns
ft
= 0.98 ns
ft
In these new units, the speed of light is 0.98 ns .
(b) For this conversion we can use:

1 mm = 10−3 m and 1 ps = 10−12 s

1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 9

and set up the factors as follows:

!
1 mm 10−12 s
 
3.0 × 108 ms = (3.0 × 108 ms ) · ·
10−3 m 1 ps
mm
= 3.0 × 10−1 ps

mm
In these new units, the speed of light is 3.0 × 10−1 ps
.

8. One molecule of water (H2 O) contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom
of oxygen. A hydrogen atom has a mass of 1.0 u and an atom of oxygen has a
mass of 16 u, approximately. (a) What is the mass in kilograms of one molecule
of water? (b) How many molecules of water are in the world’s oceans, which
have an estimated total mass of 1.4 × 1021 kg? [HRW5 1-33]

(a) We are given the masses of the atoms of H and O in atomic mass units; using these
values, one molecule of H2 O has a mass of

mH2 O = 2(1.0 u) + 16 u = 18 u

Use the relation between u (atomic mass units) and kilograms to convert this to kg:
!
1.6605 × 10−27 kg
mH2 O = (18 u) = 3.0 × 10−26 kg
1u

One water molecule has a mass of 3.0 × 10−26 kg.

(b) To get the number of molecules in all the oceans, divide the mass of all the oceans’
water by the mass of one molecule:
1.4 × 1021 kg
N= = 4.7 × 1046 .
3.0 × 10 kg
−26

. . . a large number of molecules!

1.2.2 Density

9. Calculate the density of a solid cube that measures 5.00 cm on each side and
has a mass of 350 g. [Ser4 1-1]

The volume of this cube is

V = (5.00 cm) · (5.00 cm) · (5.00 cm) = 125 cm3

So from Eq. 1.1 the density of the cube is

m 350 g
ρ= = = 2.80 cmg 3
V 125 cm3
10 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

r2

r1

Figure 1.4: Cross–section of copper shell in Example 11.

10. The mass of the planet Saturn is 5.64 × 1026 kg and its radius is 6.00 × 107 m.
Calculate its density. [Ser4 1-2]

The planet Saturn is roughly a sphere. (But only roughly! Actually its shape is rather
distorted.) Using the formula for the volume of a sphere, we find the volume of Saturn:

V = 34 πR3 = 43 π(6.00 × 107 m)3 = 9.05 × 1023 m3

Now using the definition of density we find:

m 5.64 × 1026 kg
ρ= = = 6.23 × 102 mkg3
V 9.05 × 1023 m3
g
While this answer is correct, it is useful to express the result in units of cm3
. Using our
conversion factors in the usual way, we get:
3
103 g
! 
1m
6.23 × 102 mkg3 = (6.23 × 102 mkg3 ) · · = 0.623 cmg 3
1 kg 100 cm
The average density of Saturn is 0.623 cmg 3 . Interestingly, this is less than the density of
water.

11. How many grams of copper are required to make a hollow spherical shell
with an inner radius of 5.70 cm and an outer radius of 5.75 cm? The density of
copper is 8.93 g/ cm3 . [Ser4 1-3]

A cross–section of the copper sphere is shown in Fig. 1.4. The outer and inner radii are
noted as r2 and r1 , respectively. We must find the volume of space occupied by the copper
metal; this volume is the difference in the volumes of the two spherical surfaces:

Vcopper = V2 − V1 = 34 πr23 − 43 πr13 = 34 π(r23 − r13 )

With the given values of the radii, we find:

Vcopper = 43 π((5.75 cm)3 − (5.70 cm)3 ) = 20.6 cm3

1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 11

Now use the definition of density to find the mass of the copper contained in the shell:

mcopper  
ρ= =⇒ mcopper = ρVcopper = 8.93 cmg 3 (20.6 cm3 ) = 184 g
Vcopper

184 grams of copper are required to make the spherical shell of the given dimensions.

12. One cubic meter (1.00 m3 ) of aluminum has a mass of 2.70 × 103 kg, and 1.00 m3
of iron has a mass of 7.86 × 103 kg. Find the radius of a solid aluminum sphere
that will balance a solid iron sphere of radius 2.00 cm on an equal–arm balance.
[Ser4 1-39]

In the statement of the problem, we are given the densities of aluminum and iron:

ρAl = 2.70 × 103 kg

m3
and ρFe = 7.86 × 103 kg
m3
.

A solid iron sphere of radius R = 2.00 cm = 2.00 × 10−2 m has a volume

VFe = 34 πR3 = 43 π(2.00 × 10−2 m)3 = 3.35 × 10−5 m3

so that from MFe = ρFe VFe we find the mass of the iron sphere:
 
kg
MFe = ρFe VFe = 7.86 × 103 m3
(3.35 × 10−5 m3) = 2.63 × 10−1 kg

If this sphere balances one made from aluminum in an “equal–arm balance”, then they
have the same mass. So MAl = 2.63 × 10−1 kg is the mass of the aluminum sphere. From
MAl = ρAl VAl we can find its volume:

MAl 2.63 × 10−1 kg

VAl = = = 9.76 × 10−5 m3
ρAl 2.70 × 103 mkg3

Having the volume of the sphere, we can find its radius:

 31
3VAl

VAl = 4
3
πR3 =⇒ R=
4π

This gives:
!1
3(9.76 × 10−5 m3 ) 3
R= = 2.86 × 10−2 m = 2.86 cm
4π

The aluminum sphere must have a radius of 2.86 cm to balance the iron sphere.
12 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

1.2.3 Dimensional Analysis

13. The period T of a simple pendulum is measured in time units and is

s
`
T = 2π .
g
where ` is the length of the pendulum and g is the free–fall acceleration in units
of length divided by the square of time. Show that this equation is dimensionally
correct. [Ser4 1-14]

The period (T ) of a pendulum is the amount of time it takes to makes one full swing
back and forth. It is measured in units of time so its dimensions are represented by T .
On the right side of the equation we have the length `, whose dimensions are represented
by L. We are told that g is a length divided by the square of a time so its dimensions must
be L/T 2 . There is a factor of 2π on the right side, but this is a pure number and has no
units. So the dimensions of the right side are:
√
v
u L
u
t 
L
= T2 = T
T2

so that the right hand side must also have units of time. Both sides of the equation agree in
their units, which must be true for it to be a valid equation!

14. The volume of an object as a function of time is calculated by V = At3 + B/t,

where t is time measured in seconds and V is in cubic meters. Determine the
dimension of the constants A and B. [Ser4 1-15]

Both sides of the equation for volume must have the same dimensions, and those must
be the dimensions of volume where are L3 (SI units of m3). Since we can only add terms
with the same dimensions, each of the terms on right side of the equation (At3 and B/t)
must have the same dimensions, namely L3 .
Suppose we denote the units of A by [A]. Then our comment about the dimensions of
the first term gives us:
L3
[A]T 3 = L3 =⇒ [A] = 3
T
so A has dimensions L /T . In the SI system, it would have units of m3/ s3 .
3 3

Suppose we denote the units of B by [B]. Then our comment about the dimensions of
the second term gives us:
[B]
= L3 =⇒ [B] = L3 T
T
so B has dimensions L3T . In the SI system, it would have units of m3 s.
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 13

15. Newton’s law of universal gravitation is

Mm
F =G
r2
Here F is the force of gravity, M and m are masses, and r is a length. Force has
the SI units of kg · m/s2 . What are the SI units of the constant G? [Ser4 1-17]

If we denote the dimensions of F by [F ] (and the same for the other quantities) then
then dimensions of the quantities in Newton’s Law are:
ML
[M] = M (mass) [m] = M [r] = L [F ] :
T2
What we don’t know (yet) is [G], the dimensions of G. Putting the known dimensions into
Newton’s Law, we must have:
ML M ·M
2
= [G]
T L2
since the dimensions must be the same on both sides. Doing some algebra with the dimen-
sions, this gives:
ML L2 L3
 
[G] = =
T 2 M2 MT 2
so the dimensions of G are L3 /(MT 2 ). In the SI system, G has units of

m3
kg · s3

16. In quantum mechanics, the fundamental constant called Planck’s constant,

h, has dimensions of [ML2 T −1 ]. Construct a quantity with the dimensions of
length from h, a mass m, and c, the speed of light. [FGT 1-54]

The problem suggests that there is some product of powers of h, m and c which has
dimensions of length. If these powers are r, s and t, respectively, then we are looking for
values of r, s and t such that
hr ms ct
has dimensions of length.
What are the dimensions of this product, as written? We were given the dimensions of
h, namely [ML2 T −1]; the dimensions of m are M, and the dimensions of c are TL = LT −1 (it
is a speed). So the dimensions of hr ms ct are:

[ML2 T −1]r [M]s [LT −1]t = M r+s L2r+t T −r−t

where we have used the laws of combining exponents which we all remember from algebra.
14 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

Now, since this is supposed to have dimensions of length, the power of L must be 1 but
the other powers are zero. This gives the equations:

r+s = 0
2r + t = 1
−r − t = 0

which is a set of three equations for three unknowns. Easy to solve!

The last of them gives r = −t. Substituting this into the second equation gives

2r + t = 2(−t) + t = −t = 1 =⇒ t = −1

Then r = +1 and the first equation gives us s = −1. With these values, we can confidently
say that
h
hr ms ct = h1 m−1 c−1 =
mc
has units of length.

1.2.4 Vectors; Vector Addition

17. (a) What is the sum in unit–vector notation of the two vectors a = 4.0i + 3.0j
and b = −13.0i + 7.0j? (b) What are the magnitude and direction of a + b? [HRW5
3-20]

(a) Summing the corresponding components of vectors a and b we find:

a + b = (4.0 − 13.0)i + (3.0 + 7.0)j

= −9.0i + 10.0j

This is the sum of the two vectors is unit–vector form.

(b) Using our results from (a), the magnitude of a + b is
q
|a + b| = (−9.0)2 + (10.0)2 = 13.4

and if c = a + b points in a direction θ as measured from the positive x axis, then the
tangent of θ is found from
cy
 
tan θ = = −1.11
cx
If we naively take the arctangent using a calculator, we are told:

θ = tan−1 (−1.11) = −48.0◦

which is not correct because (as shown in Fig. 1.5), with cx negative, and cy positive, the
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 15

Figure 1.5: Vector c, found in Example 17. With cx = −9.0 and cy = +10.0, the direction of c is in the
second quadrant.

y N

b
o
4.0 m 35
W 5.0 m a E

Figure 1.6: Vectors a and b as given in Example 18.

correct angle must be in the second quadrant. The calculator was fooled because angles
which differ by multiples of 180◦ have the same tangent. The direction we really want is
θ = −48.0◦ + 180.0◦ = 132.0◦

18. Vector a has magnitude 5.0 m and is directed east. Vector b has magnitude
4.0 m and is directed 35◦ west of north. What are (a) the magnitude and (b) the
direction of a + b? What are (c) the magnitude and (d) the direction of b − a?
Draw a vector diagram for each combination. [HRW6 3-15]
(a) The vectors are shown in Fig. 1.6. (On the axes are shown the common directions N, S,
E, W and also the x and y axes; “North” is the positive y direction, “East” is the positive
x direction, etc.) Expressing the vectors in i, j notation, we have:
a = (5.00 m)i
and
b = −(4.00 m) sin 35◦ + (4.00 m) cos 35c irc
= (−2.29 m)i + (3.28 m)j
So if vector c is the sum of vectors a and b then:
cx = ax + bx = (5.00 m) + (−2.29 m) = 2.71 m
cy = ay + by = (0.00 m) + (3.28 m) = 3.28 m
16 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

y N
y N
-a
c b
b
d
W E
W E
a x
x

S
S

(a) (b)

Figure 1.7: (a) Vector diagram showing the addition a + b. (b) Vector diagram showing b − a.

The magnitude of c is
q q
c= c2x + c2y = (2.71 m)2 + (3.28 m)2 = 4.25 m

(b) If the direction of c, as measured counterclockwise from the +x axis is θ then

cy 3.28 m
tan θ = = = 1.211
cx 2.71 m
then the tan−1 operation on a calculator gives

θ = tan−1 (1.211) = 50.4◦

and since vector c must lie in the first quadrant this angle is correct. We note that this angle
is
90.0◦ − 50.4◦ = 39.6◦
just shy of the +y axis (the “North” direction). So we can also express the direction by
saying it is “39.6◦ East of North”.
A vector diagram showing a, b and c is given in Fig. 1.7(a).
(c) If the vector d is given by d = b − a then the components of d are given by

dx = bx − ax = (−2.29 m) − (5.00 m) = −7.29 m

cy = ay + by = (3.28 m) − (0.00 m) + (3.28 m) = 3.28 m

The magnitude of c is
q q
d= d2x + d2y = (−7.29 m)2 + (3.28 m)2 = 8.00 m

(d) If the direction of d, as measured counterclockwise from the +x axis is θ then

dy 3.28 m
tan θ = = = −0.450
dx −7.29 m
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 17

y
b

105o

30o
x

Figure 1.8: Vectors for Example 19.

Naively pushing buttons on the calculator gives

θ = tan−1 (−0.450) = −24.2◦
which can’t be right because from the signs of its components we know that d must lie in the
second quadrant. We need to add 180◦ to get the correct answer for the tan−1 operation:
θ = −24.2◦ + 180.0◦ = 156◦
But we note that this angle is
180◦ − 156◦ = 24◦
shy of the −y axis, so the direction can also be expressed as “24◦ North of West”.
A vector diagram showing a, b and d is given in Fig. 1.7(b).

19. The two vectors a and b in Fig. 1.8 have equal magnitudes of 10.0 m. Find
(a) the x component and (b) the y component of their vector sum r, (c) the
magnitude of r and (d) the angle r makes with the positive direction of the x
axis. [HRW6 3-21]

(a) First, find the x and y components of the vectors a and b. The vector a makes an angle
of 30◦ with the +x axis, so its components are
ax = a cos 30◦ = (10.0 m) cos 30◦ = 8.66 m
ay = a sin 30◦ = (10.0 m) sin 30◦ = 5.00 m
The vector b makes an angle of 135◦ with the +x axis (30◦ plus 105◦ more) so its components
are
bx = b cos 135◦ = (10.0 m) cos 135◦ = −7.07 m
by = b sin 135◦ = (10.0 m) sin 135◦ = 7.07 m
Then if r = a + b, the x and y components of the vector r are:
rx = ax + bx = 8.66 m − 7.07 m = 1.59 m
ry = ay + by = 5.00 m + 7.07 m = 12.07 m
18 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

A
12.0 m

40.0o
o
20.0 x
15.0 m
C

Figure 1.9: Vectors A and C as described in Example 20.

So the x component of the sum is rx = 1.59 m, and. . .

(b) . . . the y component of the sum is ry = 12.07 m.
(c) The magnitude of the vector r is
q q
r= rx2 + ry2 = (1.59 m)2 + (12.07 m)2 = 12.18 m

(d) To get the direction of the vector r expressed as an angle θ measured from the +x axis,
we note:
ry
tan θ = = 7.59
rx
and then take the inverse tangent of 7.59:
θ = tan−1 (7.59) = 82.5◦
Since the components of r are both positive, the vector does lie in the first quadrant so that
the inverse tangent operation has (this time) given the correct answer. So the direction of r
is given by θ = 82.5◦ .

20. In the sum A + B = C, vector A has a magnitude of 12.0 m and is angled 40.0◦
counterclockwise from the +x direction, and vector C has magnitude of 15.0 m
and is angled 20.0◦ counterclockwise from the −x direction. What are (a) the
magnitude and (b) the angle (relative to +x) of B? [HRW6 3-22]

(a) Vectors A and C are diagrammed in Fig. 1.9. From these we can get the components
of A and C (watch the signs on vector C from the odd way that its angle is given!):
Ax = (12.0 m) cos(40.0◦ ) = 9.19 m Ay = (12.0 m) sin(40.0◦ ) = 7.71 m
Cx = −(15.0 m) cos(20.0◦ ) = −14.1 m Cy = −(15.0 m) sin(20.0◦ ) = −5.13 m
(Note, the vectors in this problem have units to go along with their magnitudes, namely m
(meters).) Then from the relation A + B = C it follows that B = C − A, and from this we
find the components of B:
Bx = Cx − Ax = −14.1 m − 9.19 m = −23.3 m
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 19

By = Cy − Ay = −5.13 m − 7.71 m = −12.8 m

Then we find the magnitude of vector B:
q q
B= Bx2 + By2 = (−23.3)2 + (−12.8)2 m = 26.6 m

(b) We find the direction of B from:

By
 
tan θ = = 0.551
Bx
If we naively press the “atan” button on our calculators to get θ, we are told:

θ = tan−1 (0.551) = 28.9◦ (?)

which cannot be correct because from the components of B (both negative) we know that
vector B lies in the third quadrant. So we need to ad 180◦ to the naive result to get the
correct answer:
θ = 28.9◦ + 180.0◦ = 208.9◦ .
This is the angle of B, measured counterclockwise from the +x axis.

21. If a − b = 2c, a + b = 4c and c = 3i + 4j, then what are a and b? [HRW5 3-24]

We notice that if we add the first two relations together, the vector b will cancel:

(a − b) + (a + b) = (2c) + (4c)

which gives:
2a = 6c =⇒ a = 3c
and we can use the last of the given equations to substitute for c; we get

a = 3c = 3(3i + 4j) = 9i + 12j

Then we can rearrange the first of the equations to solve for b:

b = a − 2c = (9i + 12j) − 2(3i + 4j)

= (9 − 6)i + (12 − 8)j
= 3i + 4j

So we have found:
a = 9i + 12j and b = 3i + 4j

22. If A = (6.0i − 8.0j) units, B = (−8.0i + 3.0j) units, and C = (26.0i + 19.0j) units,
determine a and b so that aA + bB + C = 0. [Ser4 3-46]
20 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

450

x
450

Figure 1.10: Vectors for Example 23

The condition on the vectors given in the problem:

aA + bB + C = 0

is a condition on the individual components of the vectors. It implies:

aAx + bBx + Cx = 0 and aAy + bBy + Cy = 0 .

So that we have the equations:

6.0a − 8.0b + 26.0 = 0

−8.0a + 3.0b + 19.0 = = 0

We have two equations for two unknowns so we can find a and b. The are lots of ways
to do this; one could multiply the first equation by 4 and the second equation by 3 to get:

24.0a − 32.0b + 104.0 = 0

−24.0a + 9.0b + 57.0 = = 0

Adding these gives

−161.0
−23.0b + 161 = 0 =⇒ b= = 7.0
−23.0
and then the first of the original equations gives us a:
30.0
6.0a = 8.0b − 26.0 = 8.0(7.0) − 26.0 = 30.0 =⇒ a= = 5.0
6.0
and our solution is
a = 7.0 b = 5.0

23. Three vectors are oriented as shown in Fig. 1.10, where |A| = 20.0 units,
|B| = 40.0 units, and |C| = 30.0 units. Find (a) the x and y components of the
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 21

resultant vector and (b) the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
[Ser4 3-47]

(a) Let’s first put these vectors into “unit–vector notation”:

A = 20.0j
B = (40.0 cos 45◦ )i + (40.0 sin 45◦ )j = 28.3i + 28.3j
C = (30.0 cos(−45◦ ))i + (30.0 sin(−45◦ ))j = 21.2i − 21.2j

Adding the components together, the resultant (total) vector is:

Resultant = A + B + C
= (28.3 + 21.2)i + (20.0 + 28.3 − 21.2)j
= 49.5i + 27.1j

So the x component of the resultant vector is 49.5 and the y component of the resultant is
27.1.
(b) If we call the resultant vector R, then the magnitude of R is given by
q q
R= R2x + R2y = (49.5)2 + (27.1)2 = 56.4

To find its direction (given by θ, measured counterclockwise from the x axis), we find:

Ry 27.1
tan θ = = = 0.547
Rx 49.5
and then taking the inverse tangent gives a possible answer for θ:

θ = tan−1 (0.547) = 28.7◦ .

Is this the right answer for θ? Since both components of R are positive, it must lie in the
first quadrant and so θ must be between 0◦ and 90◦ . So the direction of R is given by 28.7◦ .

24. A vector B, when added to the vector C = 3.0i + 4.0j, yields a resultant vector
that is in the positive y direction and has a magnitude equal to that of C. What
is the magnitude of B? [HRW5 3-26]

If the vector B is denoted by B = Bx i + By j then the resultant of B and C is

B + C = (Bx + 3.0)i + (By + 4.0)j .

We are told that the resultant points in the positive y direction, so its x component must
be zero. Then:
Bx + 3.0 = 0 =⇒ Bx = −3.0 .
22 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

Now, the magnitude of C is

q q
C= Cx2 + Cy2 = (3.0)2 + (4.0)2 = 5.0

so that if the magnitude of B + C is also 5.0 then we get

q
|B + C| = (0)2 + (By + 4.0)2 = 5.0 =⇒ (By + 4.0)2 = 25.0 .

The last equation gives (By + 4.0) = ±5.0 and apparently there are two possible answers

By = +1.0 and By = −9.0

but the second case gives a resultant vector B + C which points in the negative y direction
so we omit it. Then with By = 1.0 we find the magnitude of B:
q q
B= (Bx )2 + (By )2 = (−3.0)2 + (1.0)2 = 3.2

The magnitude of vector B is 3.2.

1.2.5 Multiplying Vectors

25. Vector A extends from the origin to a point having polar coordinates (7, 70◦ )
and vector B extends from the origin to a point having polar coordinates (4, 130◦ ).
Find A · B. [Ser4 7-13]

We can use Eq. 1.7 to find A · B. We have the magnitudes of the two vectors (namely
A = 7 and B = 4) and the angle φ between the two is

φ = 130◦ − 70◦ = 60◦ .

Then we get:
A · B = AB cos φ = (7)(4) cos 60◦ = 14

26. Find the angle between A = −5i − 3j + 2k and B = −2j − 2k. [Ser4 7-20]

Eq. 1.7 allows us to find the cosine of the angle between two vectors as long as we know
their magnitudes and their dot product. The magnitudes of the vectors A and B are:
q q
A= A2x + A2y + A2z = (−5)2 + (−3)2 + (2)2 = 6.164
q q
B= Bx2 + By2 + Bz2 = (0)2 + (−2)2 + (−2)2 = 2.828
and their dot product is:

A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz = (−5)(0) + (−3)(−2) + (2)(−2) = 2

1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 23

Then from Eq. 1.7, if φ is the angle between A and B, we have

A·B 2
cos φ = = = 0.114
AB (6.164)(2.828)
which then gives
φ = 83.4◦ .

27. Two vectors a and b have the components, in arbitrary units, ax = 3.2,
ay = 1.6, bx = 0.50, by = 4.5. (a) Find the angle between the directions of a and
b. (b) Find the components of a vector c that is perpendicular to a, is in the xy
plane and has a magnitude of 5.0 units. [HRW5 3-51]

(a) The scalar product has something to do with the angle between two vectors... if the
angle between a and b is φ then from Eq. 1.7 we have:
a·b
cos φ = .
ab
We can compute the right–hand–side of this equation since we know the components of a
and b. First, find a · b. Using Eq. 1.8 we find:

a · b = a x bx + a y by
= (3.2)(0.50) + (1.6)(4.5)
= 8.8

Now find the magnitudes of a and b:

q q
a= a2x + a2y = (3.2)2 + (1.6)2 = 3.6
q q
b= b2x + b2y = (0.50)2 + (4.5)2 = 4.5
This gives us:
a·b 8.8
cos φ = = = 0.54
ab (3.6)(4.5)
From which we get φ by:
φ = cos−1 (0.54) = 57◦

(b) Let the components of the vector c be cx and cy (we are told that it lies in the xy plane).
If c is perpendicular to a then the dot product of the two vectors must give zero. This tells
us:
a · c = ax cx + ay cy = (3.2)cx + (1.6)cy = 0
This equation doesn’t allow us to solve for the components of c but it does give us:
1.6
cx = − cy = −0.50cy
3.2
24 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

Since the vector c has magnitude 5.0, we know that

q
c= c2x + c2y = 5.0

Using the previous equation to substitute for cx gives:

q
c = c2x + c2y
q
= (−0.50 cy )2 + c2y
q
= 1.25 c2y = 5.0

Squaring the last line gives

1.25c2y = 25 =⇒ c2y = 20. =⇒ cy = ±4.5

One must be careful... there are two possible solutions for cy here. If cy = 4.5 then we have

cx = −0.50 cy = (−0.50)(4.5) = −2.2

But if cy = −4.5 then we have

cx = −0.50 cy = (−0.50)(−4.5) = 2.2

So the two possibilities for the vector c are

cx = −2.2 cy = 4.5

and
cx = 2.2 cy = −4.5

28. Two vectors are given by A = −3i + 4j and B = 2i + 3j. Find (a) A × B and
(b) the angle between A and B. [Ser4 11-7]

(a) Setting up the determinant in Eq. 1.12 (or just using Eq. 1.11 for the cross product) we
find:
i j k
A × B = −3 4 0 = (0 − 0)i + (0 − 0)j + ((−9) − (8))k = −17k
2 3 0

(b) To get the angle between A and B it is easiest to use the dot product and Eq. 1.7. The
magnitudes of A and B are:
q q q q
A= A2x + A2y = (−3)2 + (4)2 = 5 B= Bx2 + By2 = (2)2 + (3)2 = 3.61
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 25

and the dot product of the two vectors is

A · B = AxBx + Ay By + Az Bz = (−3)(2) + (4)(3) = 6

so then if φ is the angle between A and B we get:

A·B 6
cos φ = = = 0.333
AB (5)(3.61)

which gives
φ = 70.6◦ .

29. Prove that two vectors must have equal magnitudes if their sum is perpen-
dicular to their difference. [HRW6 3-23]

Suppose the condition stated in this problem holds for the two vectors a and b. If the
sum a + b is perpendicular to the difference a − b then the dot product of these two vectors
is zero:
(a + b) · (a − b) = 0
Use the distributive property of the dot product to expand the left side of this equation. We
get:
a·a−a·b+b·a−b·b
But the dot product of a vector with itself gives the magnitude squared:

a · a = a2x + a2y + a2z = a2

(likewise b · b = b2 ) and the dot product is commutative: a · b = b · a. Using these facts,

we then have
a 2 − a · b + a · b + b2 = 0 ,
which gives:
a 2 − b2 = 0 =⇒ a 2 = b2
Since the magnitude of a vector must be a positive number, this implies a = b and so vectors
a and b have the same magnitude.

30. For the following three vectors, what is 3C · (2A × B) ?

A = 2.00i + 3.00j − 4.00k

B = −3.00i + 4.00j + 2.00k C = 7.00i − 8.00j

[HRW6 3-36]
26 CHAPTER 1. UNITS AND VECTORS: TOOLS FOR PHYSICS

Actually, from the properties of scalar multiplication we can combine the factors in the
desired vector product to give:

3C · (2A × B) = 6C · (A × B) .

Evaluate A × B first:
i j k
A×B = 2.0 3.0 −4.0 = (6.0 + 16.0)i + (12.0 − 4.0)j + (8.0 + 9.0)k
−3.0 4.0 2.0

= 22.0i + 8.0j + 17.0k

Then:
C · (A × B) = (7.0)(22.0) − (8.0)(8.0) + (0.0)(17.0) = 90
So the answer we want is:

6C · (A × B) = (6)(90.0) = 540

31. A student claims to have found a vector A such that

(2i − 3j + 4k) × A = (4i + 3j − k) .

Do you believe this claim? Explain. [Ser4 11-8]

Frankly, I’ve been in this teaching business so long and I’ve grown so cynical that I don’t
believe anything any student claims anymore, and this case is no exception. But enough
about me; let’s see if we can provide a mathematical answer.
We might try to work out a solution for A, but let’s think about some of the basic
properties of the cross product. We know that the cross product of two vectors must be
perpendicular to each of the “multiplied” vectors. So if the student is telling the truth, it
must be true that (4i + 3j − k) is perpendicular to (2i − 3j + 4k). Is it?
We can test this by taking the dot product of the two vectors:

(4i + 3j − k) · (2i − 3j + 4k) = (4)(2) + (3)(−3) + (−1)(4) = −5 .

The dot product does not give zero as it must if the two vectors are perpendicular. So we
have a contradiction. There can’t be any vector A for which the relation is true.
Chapter 2

Motion in One Dimension

2.1 The Important Stuff

2.1.1 Position, Time and Displacement
We begin our study of motion by considering objects which are very small in comparison to
the size of their movement through space. When we can deal with an object in this way we
refer to it as a particle. In this chapter we deal with the case where a particle moves along
a straight line.
The particle’s location is specified by its coordinate, which will be denoted by x or y.
As the particle moves, its coordinate changes with the time, t. The change in position from
x1 to x2 of the particle is the displacement ∆x, with ∆x = x2 − x1 .

2.1.2 Average Velocity and Average Speed

When a particle has a displacement ∆x in a change of time ∆t, its average velocity for
that time interval is

∆x x2 − x1
v= = (2.1)
∆t t2 − t1
The average speed of the particle is absolute value of the average velocity and is given
by
Distance travelled
s= (2.2)
∆t
In general, the value of the average velocity for a moving particle depends on the initial
and final times for which we have found the displacements.

2.1.3 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

We can answer the question “how fast is a particle moving at a particular time t?” by finding
the instantaneous velocity. This is the limiting case of the average velocity when the time

27
28 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

interval ∆t include the time t and is as small as we can imagine:

∆x dx
v = lim = (2.3)
∆t→0 ∆t dt

The instantaneous speed is the absolute value (magnitude) of the instantaneous ve-
locity.
If we make a plot of x vs. t for a moving particle the instantaneous velocity is the slope
of the tangent to the curve at any point.

2.1.4 Acceleration
When a particle’s velocity changes, then we way that the particle undergoes an acceleration.
If a particle’s velocity changes from v1 to v2 during the time interval t1 to t2 then we
define the average acceleration as

∆x x2 − x1
v= = (2.4)
∆t t2 − t1

As with velocity it is usually more important to think about the instantaneous accel-
eration, given by
∆v dv
a = lim = (2.5)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
If the acceleration a is positive it means that the velocity is instantaneously increasing;
if a is negative, then v is instantaneously decreasing. Oftentimes we will encounter the word
deceleration in a problem. This word is used when the sense of the acceleration is opposite
that of the instantaneous velocity (the motion). Then the magnitude of acceleration is given,
with its direction being understood.

2.1.5 Constant Acceleration

A very useful special case of accelerated motion is the one where the acceleration a is constant.
For this case, one can show that the following are true:

v = v0 + at (2.6)
x = x0 + v0t + 21 at2 (2.7)
v2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 ) (2.8)
x = x0 + 12 (v0 + v)t (2.9)

In these equations, we mean that the particle has position x0 and velocity v0 at time t = 0;
it has position x and velocity v at time t.
These equations are valid only for the case of constant acceleration.
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 29

2.1.6 Free Fall

An object tossed up or down near the surface of the earth has a constant downward accel-
eration of magnitude 9.80 sm2 . This number is always denoted by g. Be very careful about
the sign; in a coordinate system where the y axis points straight up, the acceleration of a
freely–falling object is
ay = −9.80 sm2 = −g (2.10)
Here we are assuming that the air has no effect on the motion of the falling object. For
an object which falls for a long distance this can be a bad assumption.
Remember that an object in free–fall has an acceleration equal to −9.80 sm2 while it is
moving up, while it is moving down, while it is at maximum height... always!

2.2 Worked Examples

2.2.1 Average Velocity and Average Speed

1. Boston Red Sox pitcher Roger Clemens could routinely throw a fastball at a
horizontal speed of 160 km
hr
. How long did the ball take to reach home plate 18.4 m
away? [HRW5 2-4]

We assume that the ball moves in a horizontal straight line with an average speed of 160
km/hr. Of course, in reality this is not quite true for a thrown baseball.
We are given the average velocity of the ball’s motion and also a particular displacement,
namely ∆x = 18.4 m. Equation 2.1 gives us:
∆x ∆x
v= =⇒ ∆t =
∆t v
But before using it, it might be convenient to change the units of v. We have:
!
km 1000 m 1 hr
 
v = 160 · · = 44.4 ms
hr 1 km 3600 s

Then we find:
∆x 18.4 m
∆t = = = 0.414 s
v 44.4 ms
The ball takes 0.414 seconds to reach home plate.

2. Taking the Earth’s orbit to be a circle of radius 1.5 × 108 km, determine the
speed of the Earth’s orbital motion in (a) meters per second and (b) miles per
second. [Wolf 2-18]
30 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

(a) This is not straight line motion of course, but we can sill find an average speed by
dividing the distance traveled (around a circular path) by the time interval. Here, the
distance traveled by the Earth as it goes once around the Sun is the circumference of the
orbit,
C = 2πR = 2π(1.5 × 108 km) = 9.42 × 108 km = 9.42 × 1011 m
and the time interval over which that takes place is one year,
!
24 hr 3600 s

1 yr = 365.25 day = 3.16 × 107 s
1 day 1 hr

so the average speed is

C 9.42 × 1011 m
s= = = 2.99 × 104 m
s
t 3.16 × 107 s

mi
(b) To convert this to s
, use 1 mi = 1.609 km. Then
 1 mi
 
s = 2.99 × 104 m
s
= 18.6 mi
s
1.609 × 103 m

2.2.2 Acceleration

3. An electron moving along the x axis has a position given by x = (16te−t ) m,

where t is in seconds. How far is the electron from the origin when it momentarily
stops? [HRW6 2-20]

To find the velocity of the electron as a function of time, take the first derivative of x(t):

dx
v= = 16e−t − 16te−t = 16e−t (1 − t) ms
dt
again where t is in seconds, so that the units for v are ms .
Now the electron “momentarily stops” when the velocity v is zero. From our expression
for v we see that this occurs at t = 1 s. At this particular time we can find the value of x:

x(1 s) = 16(1)e−1 m = 5.89 m

The electron was 5.89 m from the origin when the velocity was zero.

4. (a) If the position of a particle is given by x = 20t − 5t3 , where x is in meters

and t is in seconds, when if ever is the particle’s velocity zero? (b) When is its
acceleration a zero? (c) When is a negative? Positive? (d) Graph x(t), v(t), and
a(t). [HRW5 2-28]
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 31

(a) From Eq. 2.3 we find v(t) from x(t):

dx d
v(t) = = (20t − 5t3 ) = 20 − 15t2
dt dt
m
where, if t is in seconds then v will be in s
. The velocity v will be zero when

20 − 15t2 = 0

which we can solve for t:

20
15t2 = 20 =⇒ t2 = = 1.33 s2
15
(The units s2 were inserted since we know t2 must have these units.) This gives:

t = ±1.15 s

(We should be careful... t may be meaningful for negative values!)

(b) From Eq. 2.5 we find a(t) from v(t):
dv d
a(t) = = (20 − 15t2 ) = −30t
dt dt
m
where we mean that if t is given in seconds, a is given in s2
. From this, we see that a can
be zero only at t = 0.
(c) From the result is part (b) we can also see that a is negative whenever t is positive. a is
positive whenever t is negative (again, assuming that t < 0 has meaning for the motion of
this particle).
(d) Plots of x(t), v(t), and a(t) are given in Fig. 2.1.

5. In an arcade video game a spot is programmed to move across the screen

according to x = 9.00t − 0.750t3 , where x is distance in centimeters measured from
the left edge of the screen and t is time in seconds. When the spot reaches a
screen edge, at either x = 0 or x = 15.0 cm, t is reset to 0 and the spot starts
moving again according to x(t). (a) At what time after starting is the spot
instantaneously at rest? (b) Where does this occur? (c) What is its acceleration
when this occurs? (d) In what direction is it moving just prior to coming to
rest? (e) Just after? (f) When does it first reach an edge of the screen after
t = 0? [HRW5 2-31]

(a) This is a question about the instantaneous velocity of the spot. To find v(t) we calculate:
dx d
v(t) = = (9.00t − 0.750t3 ) = 9.00 − 2.25t2
dt dt
cm
where this expression will give the value of v in s
when t is given in seconds.
32 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

20
0
x, (m)

-20
-40
-60
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
t

0
v, (m/s)

-50

-100
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
t
a, (m/s2)

-50

-100
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
t

Figure 2.1: Plot of x(t), v(t), and a(t) for Example 4.

2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 33

We want to know the value of t for which v is zero, i.e. the spot is instantaneously at
rest. We solve:
9.00
9.00 − 2.25t2 = 0 =⇒ t2 = = 4.00 s2
2.25
(Here we have filled in the proper units for t2 since by laziness they were omitted from the
first equations!) The solutions to this equation are

t = ±2.00 s

but since we are only interested in times after the clock starts at t = 0, we choose t = 2.00 s.
(b) In this part we are to find the value of x at which the instantaneous velocity is zero. In
part (a) we found that this occurred at t = 3.00 s so we calculate the value of x at t = 2.00 s:

x(2.00 s) = 9.00 · (2.00) − 0.750 · (2.00)3 = 12.0 cm

(where we have filled in the units for x since centimeters are implied by the equation). The
dot is located at x = 12.0 cm at this time. (And recall that the width of the screen is
15.0 cm.)
(c) To find the (instantaneous) acceleration at all times, we calculate:
dv d
a(t) = = (9.00 − 2.25t2 ) = −4.50t
dt dt
m
where we mean that if t is given in seconds, a will be given in s2
. At the time in question
(t = 2.00 s) the acceleration is

a(t = 2.00 s) = −4.50 · (2.00) = −9.00

that is, the acceleration at this time is −9.00 sm2 .

(d) From part (c) we note that at the time that the velocity was instantaneously zero the
acceleration was negative. This means that the velocity was decreasing at the time. If
the velocity was decreasing yet instantaneously equal to zero then it had to be going from
positive to negative values at t = 2.00 s. So just before this time its velocity was positive.
(e) Likewise, from our answer to part (d) just after t = 2.00 s the velocity of particle had to
be negative.
(f) We have seen that the dot never gets to the right edge of the screen at x = 15.0 cm. It
will not reverse its velocity again since t = 2.00 s is the only positive time at which v = 0. So
it will keep moving to back to the left, and the coordinate x will equal zero when we have:

x = 0 = 9.00t − 0.750t3

Factor out t to solve:

t=0 or

2
t(9.00 − 0.750t ) = 0 =⇒
(9.00 − 0.750t2 ) = 0 otherwise.
34 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

x, cm 15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
-1 0 1 2 3 4
t, s
-5.0

-10.0

Figure 2.2: Plot of x vs t for moving spot. Ignore the parts where x is negative!

The first solution is the time that the dot started moving, so that is not the one we want.
The second case gives:
9.00
(9.00 − 0.750t2 ) = 0 =⇒ t2 = = 12.0 s2
0.750
which gives
t = 3.46 s
since we only want the positive solution. So the dot returns to x = 0 (the left side of the
screen) at t = 3.46 s.
If we plot the original function x(t) we get the curve given in Fig. 2.2 which shows that
the spot does not get to x = 15.0 cm before it turns around. (However as explained in the
problem, the curve does not extend to negative values as the graph indicates.)

2.2.3 Constant Acceleration

6. The head of a rattlesnake can accelerate 50 sm2 in striking a victim. If a car

could do as well, how long would it take to reach a speed of 100 km hr
from rest?
[HRW5 2-33]

First, convert the car’s final speed to SI units to make it easier to work with:
!  !
km km 1000 m 1 hr

100 = 100 · · = 27.8 ms
hr hr 1 km 3600 s
The acceleration of the car is 50 sm2 and it starts from rest which means that v0 = 0. As
we’ve found, the final velocity v of the car is 27.8 ms . (The problem actually that this is final
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 35

speed but if our coordinate system points in the same direction as the car’s motion, these
are the same thing.) Equation 2.6 lets us solve for the time t:
v − v0
v = v0 + at =⇒ t=
a
Substituting, we find
27.8 ms − 0
t= = 0.55 s
50 sm2
If a car had such a large acceleration, it would take 0.55 s to attain the given speed.

7. A body moving with uniform acceleration has a velocity of 12.0 cm s

when its
x coordinate is 3.00 cm. If its x coordinate 2.00 s later is −5.00 cm, what is the
magnitude of its acceleration? [Ser4 2-25]

In this problem we are given the initial coordinate (x = 3.00 cm), the initial velocity
(v0 = 12.0 cm
s
), the final x coordinate (x = −5.00 cm) and the elapsed time (2.00 s). Using
Eq. 2.7 (since we are told that the acceleration is constant) we can solve for a. We find:

x = x0 + v0t + 21 at2 =⇒ 1 2
2
at = x − x0 − v 0 t

Substitute things:
 
1 2
2
at = −5.00 cm − 3.00 cm − 12.0 cm
s
(2.00 s) = −32.0 cm

Solve for a:
2(−32.0 cm) 2(−32.0 cm)
a= 2
= = −16.0 cm
s2
t (2.00 s)2
The x acceleration of the object is −16. cm
s2
. (The magnitude of the acceleration is 16.0 cm
s2
.)

8. A jet plane lands with a velocity of 100 ms and can accelerate at a maximum
rate of −5.0 sm2 as it comes to rest. (a) From the instant it touches the runway,
what is the minimum time needed before it stops? (b) Can this plane land at a
small airport where the runway is 0.80 km long? [Ser4 2-31]

(a) The data given in the problem is illustrated in Fig. 2.3. The minus sign in the acceleration
indicates that the sense of the acceleration is opposite that of the motion, that is, the plane
is decelerating.
The plane will stop as quickly as possible if the acceleration does have the value −5.0 sm2 ,
so we use this value in finding the time t in which the velocity changes from v0 = 100 ms to
v = 0. Eq. 2.6 tells us:
v − v0
t=
a
Substituting, we find:
(0 − 100 ms )
t= = 20 s
(−5.0 sm2 )
36 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

a = -5.0 m/s2
100 m/s v=0

Figure 2.3: Plane touches down on runway at 100 ms and comes to a halt.

The plane needs 20 s to come to a halt.

(b) The plane also travels the shortest distance in stopping if its acceleration is −5.0 sm2 .
With x0 = 0, we can find the plane’s final x coordinate using Eq. 2.9, using t = 20 s which
we got from part (a):
x = x0 + 21 (v0 + v)t = 0 + 12 (100 ms + 0)(20 s) = 1000 m = 1.0 km
The plane must have at least 1.0 km of runway in order to come to a halt safely. 0.80 km is
not sufficient.

9. A drag racer starts her car from rest and accelerates at 10.0 sm2 for the entire
distance of 400 m ( 41 mile). (a) How long did it take the car to travel this distance?
(b) What is the speed at the end of the run? [Ser4 2-33]

(a) The racer moves in one dimension (along the x axis, say) with constant acceleration
a = 10.0 sm2 . We can take her initial coordinate to be x0 = 0; she starts from rest, so that
v0 = 0. Then the location of the car (x) is given by:
x = x0 + v0t + 21 at2
= = 0 + 0 + 12 at2 = 12 (10.0 sm2 )t2
We want to know the time at which x = 400 m. Substitute and solve for t:
2(400 m)
400 m = 12 (10.0 sm2 )t2 =⇒ t2 = = 80.0 s2
(10.0 sm2 )
which gives
t = 8.94 s .
The car takes 8.94 s to travel this distance.
(b) We would like to find the velocity at the end of the run, namely at t = 8.94 s (the time
we found in part (a)). The velocity is:

v = v0 + at
= 0 + (10.0 sm2 )t = (10.0 sm2 )t
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 37

Accelerating
region

1.0 cm

Path of
electron

Voltage source

Figure 2.4: Electron is accelerated in a region between two plates, in Example 10.

At t = 8.94 s, the velocity is

v = (10.0 sm2 )(8.94 s) = 89.4 ms

The speed at the end of the run is 89.4 ms .

10. An electron with initial velocity v0 = 1.50 × 105 ms enters a region 1.0 cm long
where it is electrically accelerated, as shown in Fig. 2.4. It emerges with velocity
v = 5.70 × 106 ms . What was its acceleration, assumed constant? (Such a process
occurs in the electron gun in a cathode–ray tube, used in television receivers
and oscilloscopes.) [HRW5 2-39]

We are told that the acceleration of the electron is constant, so that Eqs. 2.6–2.9 can be
used.
Here we know the initial and final velocities of the electron (v0 and v). If we let its initial
coordinate be x0 = 0 then the final coordinate is x = 1.0 cm = 1.0 × 10−2 m. We don’t know
the time t for its travel through the accelerating region and of course we don’t know the
(constant) acceleration, which is what we’re being asked in this problem.
We see that we can solve for a if we use Eq. 2.8:

v 2 − v02
v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0) =⇒ a=
2(x − x0 )

Substitute and get:

(5.70 × 106 ms )2 − (1.50 × 105 m 2

s
)
a =
2(1.0 × 10−2 m)
= 1.62 × 1015 sm2
m
The acceleration of the electron is 1.62 × 1015 s2
(while it is in the accelerating region).
38 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

11. A world’s land speed record was set by Colonel John P. Stapp when on
March 19, 1954 he rode a rocket–propelled sled that moved down a track at
1020 km
h
. He and the sled were brought to a stop in 1.4 s. What acceleration did
he experience? Express your answer in g units. [HRW5 2-41]

For the period of deceleration of the rocket sled (which lasts for 1.4 s) were are given the
initial velocity and the final velocity, which is zero since the sled comes to rest at the end.
First, convert his initial velocity to SI units:
103 m
! !
1h
v0 = 1020 km
h
= (1020 km
h
) = 283.3 ms
1 km 3600 s
The Eq. 2.6 gives us the acceleration a:
v − v0
v = v0 + at =⇒ a=
t
Substitute:
0 − 283.3 ms
a= = −202.4 sm2
1.4 s
The acceleration is a negative number since it is opposite to the sense of the motion; it is a
deceleration. The magnitude of the sled’s acceleration is 202.4 sm2 .
To express this as a multiple of g, we note that
|a| 202.4 sm2
= = 20.7
g 9.80 sm2
so the magnitude of the acceleration was |a| = 20.7 g. That’s a lotta g’s!

12. A subway train is traveling at 80 km h

when it approaches a slower train 50 m
ahead traveling in the same direction at 25 km h
. If the faster train begins deceler-
m
ating at 2.1 s2 while the slower train continues at constant speed, how soon and
at what relative speed will they collide? [wolf 2-73]
First, convert the initial speeds of the trains to units of ms . We find:

80 km
h
= 22.2 ms 25 km
h
= 6.94 ms .
The situation of the trains at t = 0 (when the rear train begins to decelerate) is shown in
Fig. 2.5. We choose the origin of the x axis to be at the initial position of the rear train;
then the initial position of the front train is x = 50 m. If we call the x–coordinate of the rear
train x1, then since it has initial velocity 22.2 ms and acceleration −2.1 sm2 (note the minus
sign!) the equation for x1 (t) is
x1 (t) = (22.2 ms )t + 21 (−2.1 sm2 )t2 = (22.2 ms )t + (−1.05 sm2 )t2
Meanwhile, the front car has an initial velocity of 6.94 ms and no acceleration, so its
coordinate (x2) is given by
x2(t) = 50 m + (6.94 ms )t
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 39

a = -2.1 m/s2
22.2 m/s 6.94 m/s

1 2
x1 50 m

x2

Figure 2.5: Two subway trains in Example 12.

The trains will collide if there is ever a time at which their coordinates are equal. So we
want to see if there is a t which gives the condition:

(22.2 ms )t + (−1.05 sm2 )t2 = 50 m + (6.94 ms )t

This is a quadratic equation, for which we can use the quadratic formula. Neglecting the
units for simplicity, we can rearrange the terms and rewrite it as

1.05t2 − 15.28t + 50 = 0

and the quadratic formula gives the answers as

√ q
15.28 ± (15.28)2 − 4(1.05)(50)
(
−b ± b2 − 4ac 9.58 s
= =
2a 2(1.05) 4.97 s

This is a little confusing because there are two possible answers! (Both values of t are
positive.) But the answer we want is the first one, 4.97 s — after the collision, the second
time is not relevant1. So the trains will collide t = 4.97 s after the rear car begins to
decelerate.
At the time we have found, the velocity of the rear train is

v = v0 + at = 22.2 ms + (−2.1 sm2 )(4.97 s) = 11.8 ms

and the velocity of the front train remains 6.94 ms . So at the time of the collision, the rear
train is going faster by a difference of

∆v = 11.8 ms − 6.94 ms = 4.8 ms

That is the relative speed at which the collision takes place.

2.2.4 Free Fall

40 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

y y=50 m

v0

y= 0 m

Figure 2.6: Object thrown upward reaches height of 50 m.

13. (a) With what speed must a ball be thrown vertically from ground level to
rise to a maximum height of 50 m? (b) How long will it be in the air? [HRW5 2-61]

(a) First, we decide on a coordinate system. I will use the one shown in Fig. 2.6, where the
y axis points upward and the origin is at ground level. The ball starts its flight from ground
level so its initial position is y0 = 0. When the ball is at maximum height its coordinate is
y = 50 m, but we also know its velocity at this point. At maximum height the instantaneous
velocity of the ball is zero. So if our “final” point is the time of maximum height, then v = 0.
So for the trip from ground level to maximum height, we know y0, y, v and the acceleration
a = −9.8 sm2 = −g, but we don’t know v0 or the time t to get to maximum height.
From our list of constant–acceleration equations, we see that Equation 2.8 will give us
the initial velocity v0:

v 2 = v02 + 2a(y − y0 ) =⇒ v02 = v 2 − 2a(y − y0)

Substitute, and get:

2
v02 = (0)2 − 2(−9.8 sm2 )(50 m − 0) = 980 ms2
The next step is to “take the square root”. Since we know that v0 must be a positive number,
2
we know that we should take the positive square root of 980 ms2 . We get:

v0 = +31 ms

The initial speed of the ball is 31 ms

(b) We want to find the total time that the ball is in flight. What do we know about the
ball when it returns to earth and hits the ground? We know that its y coordinate is equal to
zero. (So far, we don’t know anything about the ball’s velocity at the the time it returns to
ground level.) If we consider the time between throwing and impact, then we do know y0,
y, v0 and of course a. If we substitute into Eq. 2.7 we find:
1
However it would be relevant if the trains were on parallel tracks; then the collision would not take place
and we could find the times at which they were side-by-side and their relative velocities at those times.
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 41

8.00 m/s

30.0 m

Figure 2.7: Ball is thrown straight down with speed of 8.00 ms , in Example 14.

0 = 0 + (31 ms )t + 21 (−9.8 sm2 )t2

It is not hard to solve this equation for t. We can factor it to give:

t[(31 ms ) + 12 (−9.8 sm2 )t] = 0

which has two solutions. One of them is simply t = 0. This solution is an answer to the
question we are asking, namely “When does y = 0?” because the ball was at ground level
at t = 0. But it is not the solution we want. For the other solution, we must have:

(31 ms ) + 12 (−9.8 sm2 )t = 0

which gives
2(31 ms )
t= = 6.4 s
9.8 m
s2
The ball spends a total of 6.4 seconds in flight.

14. A ball is thrown directly downward with an initial speed of 8.00 ms from a
height of 30.0 m. When does the ball strike the ground? [Ser4 2-46]

We diagram the problem as in Fig. 2.7. We have to choose a coordinate system, and here
I will put the let the origin of the y axis be at the place where the ball starts its motion (at
the top of the 30 m height). With this choice, the ball starts its motion at y = 0 and strikes
the ground when y = −30 m.
We can now see that the problem is asking us: At what time does y = −30.0 m? We
have v0 = −8.00 ms (minus because the ball is thrown downward !) and the acceleration of
the the ball is a = −g = −9.8 sm2 , so at any time t the y coordinate is given by

y = y0 + v0t + 21 at2 = (−8.00 ms )t − 21 gt2

42 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

4.00 m
y v0

Figure 2.8: Student throws her keys into the air, in Example 15.

But at the time of impact we have

y = −30.0 m = (−8.00 ms )t − 21 gt2 = (−8.00 ms )t − (4.90 sm2 )t2 ,

an equation for which we can solve for t. We rewrite it as:

(4.90 sm2 )t2 + (8.00 ms )t − 30.0 m = 0

which is just a quadratic equation in t. From our algebra courses we know how to solve this;
the solutions are:
q
−(8.00 ms ) ± (8.00 ms )2 − 4(4.90 sm2 )(−30.0 m)
t=
2(4.90 sm2 )

and a little calculator work finally gives us:

−3.42 s

t=
1.78 s
Our answer is one of these . . . which one? Obviously the ball had to strike the ground at
some positive value of t, so the answer is t = 1.78 s.
The ball strikes the ground 1.78 s after being thrown.

15. A student throws a set of keys vertically upward to her sorority sister in a
window 4.00 m above. The keys are caught 1.50 s later by the sister’s outstretched
hand. (a) With what initial velocity were the keys thrown? (b) What was the
velocity of the keys just before they were caught? [Ser4 2-47]

(a) We draw a simple picture of the problem; such a simple picture is given in Fig. 2.8. Having
a picture is important, but we should be careful not to put too much into the picture; the
problem did not say that the keys were caught while they were going up or going down. For
all we know at the moment, it could be either one!
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 43

We will put the origin of the y axis at the point where the keys were thrown. This
simplifies things in that the initial y coordinate of the keys is y0 = 0. Of course, since this
is a problem about free–fall, we know the acceleration: a = −g = −9.80 sm2 .
What mathematical information does the problem give us? We are told that when
t = 1.50 s, the y coordinate of the keys is y = 4.00 m. Is this enough information to solve
the problem? We write the equation for y(t):

y = y0 + v0 t + 21 at2
= v0t − 21 gt2

where v0 is presently unknown. At t = 1.50 s, y = 4.00 m, so:

4.00 m = v0(1.50 s) − 21 (9.80 sm2 )(1.50 s)2 .

Now we can solve for v0 . Rearrange this equation to get:

v0(1.50 s) = 4.00 m + 21 (9.80 sm2 )(1.50 s)2 = 15.0 m .

So:
15.0 m
v0 = = 10.0 ms
1.50 s
(b) We want to find the velocity of the keys at the time they were caught, that is, at
t = 1.50 s. We know v0; the velocity of the keys at all times follows from Eq. 2.6,

v = v0 + at = 10.0 ms − 9.80 sm2 t

So at t = 1.50 s,
v = 10.0 ms − 9.80 sm2 (1.50 s) = −4.68 ms .
So the velocity of the keys when they were caught was −4.68 ms . Note that the keys had
a negative velocity; this tells us that the keys were moving downward at the time they were
caught!

16. A ball is thrown vertically upward from the ground with an initial speed of
15.0 ms . (a) How long does it take the ball to reach its maximum altitude? (b)
What is its maximum altitude? (c) Determine the velocity and acceleration of
the ball at t = 2.00 s. [Ser4 2-49]

(a) An illustration of the data given in this problem is given in Fig. 2.9. We measure the
coordinate y upward from the place where the ball is thrown so that y0 = 0. The ball’s
acceleration while in flight is a = −g = −9.80 sm2 . We are given that v0 = +15.0 ms .
The ball is at maximum altitude when its (instantaneous) velocity v is zero (it is neither
going up nor going down) and we can use the expression for v to solve for t:
v − v0
v = v0 + at =⇒ t=
a
44 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

v = 0 m/s
a = -9.80 m/s2

vo = +15.0 m/s

Figure 2.9: Ball is thrown straight up with initial speed 15.0 ms .

Plug in the values for the top of the ball’s flight and get:
(0) − (15.0 ms )
t= = 1.53 s .
(−9.80 sm2 )

The ball takes 1.53 s to reach maximum height.

(b) Now that we have the value of t when the ball is at maximum height we can plug it
into Eq. 2.7 and find the value of y at this time and that will be the value of the maximum
height. But we can also use Eq. 2.8 since we know all the values except for y. Solving for y
we find:
v 2 − v02
v 2 = v02 + 2ay =⇒ y=
2a
Plugging in the numbers, we get
(0)2 − (15.0 ms )2
y= = 11.5 m
2(−9.80 sm2 )

The ball reaches a maximum height of 11.5 m .

(c) At t = 2.00 s (that is, 2.0 seconds after the ball was thrown) we use Eq. 2.6 to find:

v = v0 + at = (15.0 ms ) + (−9.80 m
s2
)(2.00 s) = −4.60 ms .

so at t = 2.00 s the ball is on its way back down with a speed of 4.60 ms .
As for the next part, the acceleration of the ball is always equal to −9.80 sm2 while it is
in flight.

17. A baseball is hit such that it travels straight upward after being struck by
the bat. A fan observes that it requires 3.00 s for the ball to reach its maximum
height. Find (a) its initial velocity and (b) its maximum height. Ignore the
effects of air resistance. [Ser4 2-51]
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 45

t = 3.00 s v=0

v0

Figure 2.10: Ball is hit straight up; reaches maximum height 3.00 s later.

(a) An illustration of the data given in the problem is given in Fig. 2.10.
For the period from when the ball is hit to the time it reaches maximum height, we know
the time interval, the acceleration (a = −g) and also the final velocity, since at maximum
height the velocity of the ball is zero. Then Eq. 2.6 gives us v0:

v = v0 + at =⇒ v0 = v − at

and we get:
v0 = 0 − (−9.80 sm2 )(3.00 s) = 29.4 ms
The initial velocity of the ball was +29.4 ms .
(b) To find the value of the maximum height, we need to find the value of the y coordinate
at time t = 3.00 s. We can use either Eq. 2.7 or Eq. 2.8. the latter gives:

v 2 − v02
v 2 = v02 + 2a(y − y0 ) =⇒ (y − y0 ) =
2a
Plugging in the numbers we find that the change in y coordinate for the trip up was:

02 − (29.4 ms )2
y − y0 = = 44.1 m .
2(−9.80 ms2
)

The ball reached a maximum height of 44.1 m .

18. A parachutist bails out and freely falls 50 m. Then the parachute opens, and
thereafter she decelerates at 2.0 sm2 . She reaches the ground with a speed of 3.0 ms .
(a) How long was the parachutist in the air? (b) At what height did the fall
begin? [HRW5 2-84]

(a) This problem gives several odd bits of information about the motion of the parachutist!
We organize the information by drawing a diagram, like the one given in Fig. 2.11. It is
46 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

v=0 (a)

Free Fall
50 m

(b)

Deceleration

v=3.0 m/s (c)

Figure 2.11: Diagram showing motion of parachutist in Example 18.

very important to organize our work in this way!

At the height indicated by (a) in the figure, the skydiver has zero initial speed. As she
falls from (a) to (b) her acceleration is that of gravity, namely 9.80 sm2 downward . We know
that (b) is 50 m lower than (a) but we don’t yet know the skydiver’s speed at (b). Finally,
at point (c) her speed is 3.0 ms and between (b) and (c) her “deceleration” was 2.0 sm2 , but we
don’t know the difference in height between (b) and (c).
How can we start to fill in the gaps in our knowledge?
We note that on the trip from (a) to (b) we do know the starting velocity, the distance
travelled and the acceleration. From Eq. 2.8 we can see that this is enough to find the final
velocity, that is, the velocity at (b).
Use a coordinate system (y) which has its origin at level (b), and the y axis pointing
upward. Then the initial y coordinate is y0 = 50 m and the the initial velocity is v0 = 0.
The final y coordinate is y = 0 and the acceleration is constant at a = −9.80 sm2 . Then using
Eq. 2.8 we have:
2
v 2 = v02 + 2a(y − y + 0) = 0 + 2(−9.80 sm2 )(0 − 50 m) = 980 ms2
which has the solutions
v = ±31.3 ms
but here the skydiver is obviously moving downward at (b), so we must pick
v = −31.3 ms
for the velocity at (b).
While we’re at it, we can find the time it took to get from (a) to (b) using Eq. 2.6, since
we know the velocities and the acceleration for the motion. We find:
v − v0
v = v0 + at =⇒ t=
a
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 47

Substitute:
(−31.3 ms − 0)
t= = 3.19 s
−9.80 sm2
The skydiver takes 3.19 s to fall from (a) to (b).
Now we consider the motion from (b) to (c). For this part of the motion we know the
initial and final velocities. We also know the acceleration, but we must be careful about how it
is expressed. During this part of the trip, the skydiver’s motion is always downward (velocity
is always negative) but her speed decreases from 31.9 ms to 3.0 ms . The velocity changes from
−31.3 ms to −3.0 ms so that the velocity has increased . The acceleration is positive; it is in the
opposite sense as the motion and thus it was rightly called a “deceleration” in the problem.
So for the motion from (b) to (c), we have

a = +2.0 sm2

We have the starting and final velocities for the trip from (b) to (c) so Eq. 2.6 lets us solve
for the time t:
v − v0
v = v0 + at =⇒ t=
a
Substitute:
−3.0 ms − (−31.3 ms )
t= = 14.2 s
+2.0 sm2
Now we are prepared to answer part (a) of the problem. The time of the travel from (a)
was 3.19 s; the time of travel from (b) to (c) was 14.2 s. The total time in the air was

tTotal = 3.19 s + 14.2 s = 17.4 s

(b) Let’s keep thinking about the trip from (b) to (c); we’ll keep the origin at the same
place as before (at (b)). Then for the trip from (b) to (c) the initial coordinate is y0 = 0.
The initial velocity is v0 = −31.9 ms and the final velocity is v = −3.0 ms . We have the
acceleration, so Eq. 2.8 gives us the final coordinate y:

v 2 − v02
v 2 = v02 + 2a(y − y0 ) =⇒ y − y0 =
2a
Substitute:
(−3.0 ms )2 − (−31.3 ms )2
y − y0 = = −243 m
2(+2.0 sm2 )
Since we chose y0 = 0, the final coordinate of the skydiver is y = −243 m.
We have used the same coordinate system in both parts, so overall the skydiver has gone
from y = +50 m to y = −243 m. The change in height was

∆y = −243 m − 50 m = −293 m

So the parachutist’s fall began at a height of 293 m above the ground.

48 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

19. A stone falls from rest from the top of a high cliff. a second stone is thrown
downward from the same height 2.00 s later with an initial speed of 30.0 ms . If
both stones hit the ground simultaneously, how high is the cliff ? [Ser4 2-54]

This is a “puzzle”–type problem which goes beyond the normal substitute–and–solve

type; it involves more organization of our work and a clear understanding of our equations.
Here’s the way I would attack it.
We have two different falling objects here with their own coordinates; we’ll put our origin
at the top of the cliff and call the y coordinate of the first stone y1 and that of the second
stone y2. Each has a different dependence on the time t.
For the first rock, we have v0 = 0 since it falls from rest and of course a = −g so that its
position is given by
y1 = y0 + v0 t + 21 at2 = − 12 gt2
This is simple enough but we need to remind ourselves that here t is the time since the first
stone started its motion. It is not the same as the time since the second stone starts its
motion. To be clear, let’s call this time t1 . So we have:

y1 = − 21 gt21 = −4.90 sm2 t21

Now, for the motion of the second stone, if we write t2 for the time since it started its
motion, the facts stated in the problem tell us that its y coordinate is given by:

y2 = y0 + v0 t2 + 21 at22 = (−30.0 ms )t2 − 12 gt22

So far, so good. The problem tells us that the first stone has been falling for 2.0 s longer
than the second one. This means that t1 is 2.0 s larger than t2. So:

t1 = t2 + 2.0 s =⇒ t2 = t1 − 2.0 s

(We will use t1 as our one time variable.) Putting this into our last equation and doing some
algebra gives

y2 = (−30.0 ms )(t1 − 2.0 s) − 12 (9.80 sm2 )(t1 − 2.0 s)2

= (−30.0 ms )(t1 − 2.0 s) − (4.90 sm2 )(t21 − 4.0 st1 + 4.0 s2 )2
= (−4.90 sm2 )t21 + (−30.0 ms + 19.6 ms )t1 + (60.0 m − 19.6 m)
= (−4.90 sm2 )t21 + (−10.4 ms )t1 + (40.4 m)

We need to remember that this expression for y2 will be meaningless for values of t1 which
are less than 2.0 s. With this expression we can find values of y1 and y2 using the same time
coordinate, t1 .
Now, the problem tells us that at some time (t1 ) the coordinates of the two stones are
equal. We don’t yet yet know what that time or coordinate is but that is the information
contained in the statement “both stones hit the ground simultaneously”. We can find this
time by setting y1 equal to y2 and solving:

(−4.90 sm2 )t21 = (−4.90 sm2 )t21 + (−10.4 ms )t1 + (40.4 m)

2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 49

vA=0 A

vB B

30.0 m 1.50 s

vC C

Figure 2.12: Diagram for the falling object in Example 20.

Fortunately the t2 term cancels in this equation making it a lot easier. We get:
(−10.4 ms )t1 + (40.4 m) = 0
which has the solution
40.4 m
t1 = = 3.88 s
10.4 ms
So the rocks will have the same location at t1 = 3.88 s, that is, 3.88 s after the first rock has
been dropped.
What is that location? We can find this by using our value of t1 to get either y1 or y2
(the answer will be the same). Putting it into the expression for y1 we get:
y1 = −4.90 sm2 t21 = (−4.90 sm2 )(3.88 s)2 = −74 m

So both stones were 74 m below the initial point at the time of impact. The cliff is 74 m
high.

20. A falling object requires 1.50 s to travel the last 30.0 m before hitting the
ground. From what height above the ground did it fall? [Ser4 2-68]

This is an intriguing sort of problem... very easy to state, but not so clear as to where
to begin in setting it up!
The first thing to do is draw a diagram. We draw the important points of the object’s
motion, as in Fig. 2.12. The object has zero velocity at A; at B it is at a height of 30.0 m
above the ground with an unknown velocity. At C it is at ground level, the time is 1.50 s later
than at B and we also don’t know the velocity here. Of course, we know the acceleration:
a = −9.80 sm2 !!
We are given all the information about the trip from B to C, so why not try to fill in our
knowledge about this part? We know the final and initial coordinates, the acceleration and
the time so we can find the initial velocity (that is, the velocity at B). Let’s put the origin
at ground level; then, y0 = 30.0 m, y = 0 and t = 1.50 s, and using
y = y0 + v0t + 12 at2
50 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

we find:

v0t = (y − y0) − 12 at2 = (0 − (30.0 m)) − 12 (−9.80 sm2 )(1.50)2 = −19.0 m

so that
(−19.0 m) (−19.0 m)
v0 = = = −12.5 ms .
t (1.50 s)
This is the velocity at point B; we can also find the velocity at C easily, since that is the
final velocity, v:

v = v0 + at = (−12.5 ms ) + (−9.80 sm2 )(1.50 s) = −27.3 ms

Now we can consider the trip from the starting point, A to the point of impact, C. We
don’t know the initial y coordinate, but we do know the final and initial velocities: The
initial velocity is v0 = 0 and the final velocity is v = −27.3 ms , as we just found. With the
origin set at ground level, the final y coordinate is y = 0. We don’t know the time for the
trip, but if we use:
v 2 = v02 + 2a(y − y0 )
we find:
(v 2 − v02) (−27.3 ms )2 − (0)2
(y − y0) = = = −38.2 m
2a 2(−9.80 sm2 )
and we can rearrange this to get:

y0 = y + 38.2 m = 0 + 38.2 m = 38.2 m

and the so the object started falling from a height of 38.2 m .

There are probably cleverer ways to do this problem, but here I wanted to give you the
slow, patient approach!

21. A student is staring idly out her dormitory window when she sees a water
balloon fall past. If the balloon takes 0.22 s to cross the 130 cm–high window, from
what height above the top of the window was it dropped? [Wolf 2-78]

I will set up the vertical coordinate y as shown in Fig. 2.13. The origin is at the place
where the balloon was dropped, and we don’t know how far above the window that is. Note,
the y axis points downward here, so that y as a function of time is given by y = 21 gt2 .
Using this system, yet the y coordinate of the top of the window bet y1 and the bottom of
the window be y2. Suppose the balloon crosses the top of the window at t1 and the bottom
of the window at t2. The problem tells us that

y2 − y1 = 1.30 m and t2 − t1 = 0.22 s

Using the equation of motion for the balloon, we have

y1 = 12 gt21 and y2 = 12 gt22

2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 51

y1, t1
y

y2, t2

Figure 2.13: Diagram for the falling object in Example 21.

In fact at this point the problem is really solved because we have four equations for the four
unknowns y1, y2 , t1 and t2. We just need to do some math!
One way to solve the equations is to substitute for the y’s as:

y2 − y1 = 12 gt22 − 12 gt21 = 12 g(t22 − t21 ) = 1.30 m

But here we can factor the term t22 − t21 to give:

1
2
g(t22 − t21) = 21 g(t2 + t1)(t2 − t1 ) = 1.30 m

This gives us t2 + t1:

2(1.30 m) 2(1.30 m)
t2 + t1 = m = = 1.206 s
(9.80 s2 )(t2 − t1) (9.80 sm2 )(0.22 s)

Adding this to the equation t2 − t1 = 0.22s gives

2t2 = 1.43 =⇒ t2 = 0.71 s =⇒ t1 = 0.49

And then the equation for y1 gives us

y1 = 12 gt21 = 12 (9.80 sm2 )(0.492 s)2 = 1.19 m

so that the balloon began its fall 1.19 m above the top of the window.
52 CHAPTER 2. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
Chapter 4

Forces I

4.1 The Important Stuff

4.1.1 Newton’s First Law
With Newton’s Laws we begin the study of how motion occurs in the real world. The study
of the causes of motion is called dynamics, or mechanics. The relation between force
and acceleration was given by Isaac Newton in his three laws of motion, which form the
basis of elementary physics. Though Newton’s formulation of physics had to be replaced
later on to deal with motion at speeds comparable to the speed light and for motion on the
scale of atoms, it is applicable to everyday situations and is still the best introduction to
the fundamental laws of nature. The study of Newton’s laws and their implications is often
called Newtonian or classical mechanics.
Particles accelerate because they are being acted on by forces. In the absence of forces,
a particle will not accelerate, that is, it will move at constant velocity.
The user–friendly way of stating Newton’s First Law is:

Consider a body on which no force is acting. Then if it is at rest it

will remain at rest, and if it is moving with constant velocity it will
continue to move at that velocity.

Forces serve to change the velocity of an object, not to maintain its motion (contrary to
the ideas of philosophers in ancient times).

4.1.2 Newton’s Second Law

Experiments show that objects have a property called mass which measures how their motion
is influenced by forces. Mass is measured in kilograms in the SI system.
Newton’s Second Law is a relation between the net force (F) acting on a mass m and
its acceleration a. It says:

F = ma
P

77
78 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

In words, Newton’s Second Law tells us to add up the forces acting on a mass m; this
sum, F (or, Fnet) is equal to the mass m times its acceleration a.
P

This is a vector relation; if we are working in two dimensions, this equation implies both
of the following:
X X
Fx = max and Fy = may (4.1)

The units of force must be kg · sm2 , which is abbreviated 1 newton (N), to honor Isaac
Newton (1642–1727), famous physicist and smart person. Thus:

1 newton = 1 N = 1 kg·m
s2
(4.2)

Two other units of force which we encounter sometimes are:

1 dyne = 1 g·cm
s2
= 10−5 N and 1 pound = 1 lb = 4.45 N

4.1.3 Examples of Forces

To begin our study of dynamics we consider problems involving simple objects in simple
situations. Our first problems will involve little more than small masses, hard, smooth
surfaces and ideal strings, or objects that can be treated as such.
For all masses near the earth’s surface, the earth exerts a downward gravitational force
which is known as the weight of the mass and has a magnitude given by

W = mg

A taught string (a string “under tension”) exerts forces on the objects which are attached
to either end. The forces are directed inward along the length of the string.) In our first
problems we will make the approximation that the string has no mass, and when it passes
over any pulley, the pulley’s mass can also be ignored. In that case, the magnitude of the
string’s force on either end is the same and will usually be called T , the string’s tension.
A solid surface will exert forces on a mass which is in contact with it. In general the force
from the surface will have a perpendicular (normal) component which we call the normal
force of the surface. The surface can also exert a force which is parallel; this is a friction
force and will be covered in the next chapter.

4.1.4 Newton’s Third Law

Consider two objects A and B. The force which object A exerts on

object B is equal and opposite to the force which object B exerts on
object A: FAB = −FBA

This law is popularly stated as the “law of action and reaction”, but in fact it deals with
the forces between two objects.
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 79

4.1.5 Applying Newton’s Laws

In this chapter we will look at some applications of Newton’s law to simple systems involving
small blocks, surfaces and strings. (In the next chapter we’ll deal with more complicated
examples.)
A useful practice for problems involving more than one force is to draw a diagram showing
the individual masses in the problem along with the vectors showing the directions and
magnitudes of the individual forces. It is so important to do this that these diagrams are
given a special name, free–body diagrams.

4.2 Worked Examples

4.2.1 Newton’s Second Law

1. A 3.0 kg mass undergoes an acceleration given by a = (2.0i + 5.0j) sm2 . Find the
resultant force F and its magnitude. [Ser4 5-7]

Newton’s Second Law tells us that the resultant (net) force on a mass m is F = ma.
P

So here we find:

Fnet = ma
= (3.0 kg)(2.0i + 5.0j) sm2
= (6.0i + 15.j) N

The magnitude of the resultant force is

q
Fnet = (6.0 N)2 + (15. N)2 = 16. N

2. While two forces act on it, a particle of mass m = 3.2 kg is to move continuously
with velocity (3 ms )i − (4 ms )j. One of the forces is F1 = (2 N)i + (−6 N)j. What is the
other force? [HRW5 5-5]

Newton’s Second Law tells us that if a is the acceleration of the particle, then (as there
are only two forces acting on it) we have:

F1 + F2 = ma

But here the acceleration of the particle is zero!! (Its velocity does not change.) This tells
us that
F1 + F2 = 0 =⇒ F2 = −F1
80 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

and so the second force is

F2 = −F1 = (−2 N)i + (6 N)j
This was a simple problem just to see if you’re paying attention!

3. A 4.0 kg object has a velocity of 3.0i ms at one instant. Eight seconds later,
its velocity is (8.0i + 10.0j) ms . Assuming the object was subject to a constant net
force, find (a) the components of the force and (b) its magnitude. [Ser4 5-21]

(a) We are told that the (net) force acting on the mass was constant. Then we know that
its acceleration was also constant, and we can use the constant–acceleration results from
the previous chapter. We are given the initial and final velocities so we can compute the
components of the acceleration:

∆vx [(8.0 ms ) − (3.0 ms )]

ax = = = 0.63 sm2
∆t (8.0 s)

and
∆vy [(10.0 ms ) − (0.0 ms )]
ay = = = 1.3 sm2
∆t (8.0 s)
We have the mass of the object, so from Newton’s Second Law we get the components of
the force:
Fx = max = (4.0 kg)(0.63 sm2 ) = 2.5 N
Fy = may = (4.0 kg)(1.3 sm2 ) = 5.0 N

(b) The magnitude of the (net) force is

q q
F = Fx2 + Fy2 = (2.5 N)2 + (5.0 N)2 = 5.6 N

and its direction θ is given by

Fy 5.0
tan θ = = = 2.0 =⇒ θ = tan−1 (2.0) = 63.4◦
Fx 2.5

(The question didn’t ask for the direction but there it is anyway!)

4. Five forces pull on the 4.0 kg box in Fig. 4.1. Find the box’s acceleration (a)
in unit–vector notation and (b) as a magnitude and direction. [HRW5 5-9]

(a) Newton’s Second Law will give the box’s acceleration, but we must first find the sum of
the forces on the box. Adding the x components of the forces gives:
X
Fx = −11 N + 14 N cos 30◦ + 3.0 N
= 4.1 N
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 81

14 N

5.0 N
30o

3.0 N x
11 N

4.0 kg box

17 N

Figure 4.1: Five forces pull on a box in Example 4

(two of the forces have only y components). Adding the y components of the forces gives:
X
Fy = +5.0 N + 14 N sin 30◦ − 17 N
= −5.0 N

So the net force on the box (in unit-vector notation) is

X
F = (4.1 N)i + (−5.0 N)j .

Then we find the x and y components of the box’s acceleration using a = F/m:
P

Fx (4.1 N)
P
ax = = = 1.0 sm2
m (4.0 kg)
Fy (−5.0 N)
P
ay = = = −1.2 sm2
m (4.0 kg)

So in unit–vector form, the acceleration of the box is

a = (1.0 m
s2
)i + (−1.2 sm2 )j

(b) The acceleration found in part (a) has a magnitude of

q q
a= a2x + a2y = (1.0 sm2 )2 + (−1.2 sm2 )2 = 1.6 sm2

and to find its direction θ we calculate

ay −1.2
tan θ = = = −1.2
ax 1.0
which gives us:
θ = tan−1 (−1.2) = −50◦
Here, since ay is negative and ax is positive, this choice for θ lies in the proper quadrant.
82 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

4.2.2 Examples of Forces

5. What are the weight in newtons and the mass in kilograms of (a) a 5.0 lb bag
of sugar, (b) a 240 lb fullback, and (c) a 1.8 ton automobile? (1 ton = 2000 lb.) [HRW5
5-13]

(a) The bag of sugar has a weight of 5.0 lb. (“Pound” is a unit of force, or weight.) Then
its weight in newtons is
4.45 N
 
5.0 lb = (5.0 lb) · = 22 N
1 lb
Then from W = mg we calculate the mass of the bag,
W 22 N
m= = = 2.3 kg
g 9.80 sm2

(b) Similarly, the weight of the fullback in newtons is

4.45 N
 
240 lb = (240 lb) · = 1070 N
1 lb
and then his (her) mass is
W 1070 N
m= = = 109 kg
g 9.80 sm2
(c) The automobile’s weight is given in tons; express it in newtons:
!
2000 lb 4.45 N

1.8 ton = (1.8 ton) = 1.6 × 104 N .
1 ton 1 lb
Then its mass is
W 1.6 × 104 N
m= = = 1.6 × 103 kg
g 9.80 sm2

6. If a man weighs 875 N on Earth, what would he weigh on Jupiter, where the
free–fall acceleration is 25.9 sm2 ? [Ser4 5-12]
The weight of a mass m on the earth is W = mg where g is the free–fall acceleration on
Earth. The mass of the man is:
W 875 N
m= = = 89.3 kg
g 9.80 m
s2

His weight on Jupiter is found using gJupiter instead of g:

WJupiter = mgJupiter = (89.3 kg)(25.9 sm2 ) = 2.31 × 103 N
The man’s weight on Jupiter is 2.31 × 103 N.
(The statement of the problem is a little deceptive; Jupiter has no solid surface! The
planet will indeed pull on this man with a force of 2.31 × 103 N, but there is no “ground” to
push back!)
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 83

40o 50o 60o

T1 T2 T1

T3 T3 T2
5.0 kg 10 kg

(a) (b)

Figure 4.2: Masses suspended by strings, for Example 7.

T3

T1 T2
40o 50o

5.0 kg
T3
m1 g

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3: Force diagrams for part (a) in Example 7.

4.2.3 Applying Newton’s Laws

7. Find the tension in each cord for the systems shown in Fig. 4.2. (Neglect the
mass of the cords.) [Ser4 5-26]

(a) In this part, we solve the system shown in Fig. 4.2(a).

Think of the forces acting on the 5.0 kg mass (which we’ll call m1). Gravity pulls down-
ward with a force of magnitude mg . The vertical string pulls upward with a force of magni-
tude T3. (These forces are shown in Fig. 4.3(a).) Since the hanging mass has no acceleration,
it must be true that T3 = m1g. This gives us the value of T3 :

T3 = m1g = (5.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) = 49 N .

Next we look at the forces which act at the point where all three strings join; these are
shown in Fig. 4.3(b). The force which the strings exert all point outward from the joining
point and from simple geometry they have the directions shown
Now this point is not accelerating either, so the forces on it must all sum to zero. The
horizontal components and the vertical components of these forces separately sum to zero.
84 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

The horizontal components give:

−T1 cos 40◦ + T2 cos 50◦ = 0

This equation by itself does not let us solve for the tensions, but it does give us:
cos 40◦
T2 cos 50◦ = T1 cos 40◦ =⇒ T2 = T2 = 1.19T1
cos 50◦
The vertical forces sum to zero, and this gives us:

T1 sin 40◦ + T2 sin 50◦ − T3 = 0

We already know the value of T3. Substituting this and also the expression for T2 which we
just found, we get:
T1 sin 40◦ + (1.19T1 ) sin 50◦ − 49 N = 0
and now we can solve for T1. A little rearranging gives:

(1.56)T1 = 49 N

which gives
49 N
T1 = = 31.5 N .
(1.56)
Now with T1 in hand we get T2:

T2 = (1.19)T1 = (1.19)(31.5 N) = 37.5 N .

Summarizing, the tensions in the three strings for this part of the problem are

T1 = 31.5 N T2 = 37.5 N T3 = 49 N .

(b) Now we study the system shown in Fig. 4.2(b).

Once again, the net force on the hanging mass (which we call m2 ) must be zero. Since
gravity pulls down with a a force m2 g and the vertical string pulls upward with a force T3,
we know that we just have T3 = m2 g, so:

T3 = m2g = (10 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) = 98 N .

Now consider the forces which act at the place where all the strings meet. We do as in
part (a); the horizontal forces sum to zero, and this gives:

−T1 cos 60◦ + T2 = 0 =⇒ T2 = T1 cos 60◦

The vertical forces sum to zero, giving us:

T1 sin 60◦ − T3 = 0
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 85

But notice that since we know T3, this equation has only one unknown. We find:
T3 98 N
T1 = = = 113 N .
sin 60◦ sin 60◦
Using this is our expression for T2 gives:

T2 = T1 cos 60◦ = (113 N) cos 60◦ = 56.6 N

Summarizing, the tensions in the three strings for this part of the problem are

T1 = 113 N T2 = 56.6 N T3 = 98 N .

8. A 210 kg motorcycle accelerates from 0 to 55 mi hr

in 6.0 s. (a) What is the
magnitude of the motorcycle’s constant acceleration? (b) What is the magnitude
of the net force causing the acceleration? [HRW5 5-25]

(a) First, let’s convert some units:

!
1609 m 1 hr
 
mi mi
55 hr
= (55 hr
) = 24.6 ms
1 mi 3600 s
so that the acceleration of the motorcycle is
vx − vx0 24.6 ms − 0
a= = = 4.1 sm2
t 6.0 s

(b) Now that we know the acceleration of the motorcycle (and its mass) we know the net
horizontal force, because Newton’s Law tells us:

Fx = max = (210 kg)(4.1 sm2 ) = 8.6 × 102 N

X

The magnitude of the net force on the motorcycle is 8.6 × 102 N.

9. A rocket and its payload have a total mass of 5.0 × 104 kg. How large is the
force produced by the engine (the thrust) when (a) the rocket is “hovering” over
the launchpad just after ignition, and (b) when the rocket is accelerating upward
at 20 sm2 ? [HRW5 5-35]

(a) First thing: draw a diagram of the forces acting on the rocket! This is done in Fig. 4.4. If
the mass of the rocket is M then we know that gravity will be exerting a force Mg downward.
The engines (actually, the gas rushing out of the rocket) exerts a force of magnitude Fthrust
upward on the rocket.
If the rocket is hovering, i.e. it is motionless but off the ground then it has no acceleration;
so, here, ay =0. Newton’s Second Law then says:
X
Fy = Fthrust − Mg = May = 0
86 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

Fthrust

ts
Ro me
cke
y

Ac
Mg

Figure 4.4: Forces acting on the rocket in Example 9

30o
F
F

q
mg
60o

(a) (b)

Figure 4.5: (a) Block held in place on a smooth ramp by a horizontal force. (b) Forces acting on the block.

which gives
Fthrust = Mg = (5.0 × 104 kg)(9.80 m
s2
) = 4.9 × 105 N
The engines exert an upward force of 4.9 × 105 N on the rocket.
(b) As in part (a), gravity and thrust are the only forces acting on the rocket, but now it
has an acceleration of ay = 20 sm2 . So Newton’s Second Law now gives
X
Fy = Fthrust − Mg = May

so that the force of the engines is

Fthrust = Mg + May = M(g + ay ) = (5.0 × 104 kg)(9.80 m

s2
+ 20 sm2 ) = 1.5 × 106 N

10. A block of mass m = 2.0 kg is held in equilibrium on an incline of angle θ = 60◦

by the horizontal force F, as shown in Fig. 4.5(a). (a) Determine the value of F ,
the magnitude of F. (b) Determine the normal force exerted by the incline on
the block (ignore friction). [Ser4 5-33]
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 87

m1 m2

30o

Figure 4.6: Masses m1 and m2 are connected by a cord; m1 slides on frictionless slope.

(a) The first thing to do is to draw a diagram of the forces acting on the block, which we do
in Fig. 4.5(b). Gravity pulls downward with a force mg. The applied force, of magnitude F ,
is horizontal. The surface exerts a normal force N on the block; using a little geometry, we
see that if the angle of the incline is 60◦ , then the normal force is directed at 30◦ above the
horizontal, as shown in Fig. 4.5(b). There is no friction force from the surface, so we have
shown all the forces acting on the block.
Oftentimes for problems involving a block on a slope it is easiest to use the components
of the gravity force along the slope and perpendicular to it. For this problem, this would
not make things any easier since there is no motion along the slope.
Now, the block is in equilibrium, meaning that it has no acceleration and the forces sum
to zero. The fact that the vertical components of the forces sum to zero gives us:
mg
N sin 30◦ − mg = 0 =⇒ N=
sin 30◦
Substitute and get:
(2.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 )
N= = 39.2 N .
sin 30◦
The horizontal forces also sum to zero, giving:

F − N cos 30◦ = 0 =⇒ F = N cos 30◦ = (39.2 N) cos 30◦ = 33.9 N .

The applied force F is 33.9 N.

(b) The magnitude of the normal force was found in part (a); there we found:

N = 39.2 N .

11. A block of mass m1 = 3.70 kg on a frictionless inclined plane of angle θ = 30.0◦ is

connected by a cord over a massless, frictionless pulley to a second block of mass
m2 = 2.30 kg hanging vertically, as shown in Fig. 4.6. What are (a) the magnitude
of the acceleration of each block and (b) the direction of the acceleration of m2 ?
(c) What is the tension in the cord? [HRW5 5-58]
88 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

y
x

N T

m1g sin q
m1g cos q
m1g
o
30

Figure 4.7: The forces acting on m1

(a) Before thinking about the forces acting on these blocks, we can think about their motion.
m1 is constrained to move along the slope and m2 must move vertically. Because the two
masses are joined by a string, the distance by which m1 moves up the slope is equal to the
distance which m2 moves downward, and the amount by which m1 moves down the slope
is the amount by which m2 moves upward. The same is true of their accelerations; if it
turns out that m1 is accelerating up the slope, that will be the same as m2’s downward
acceleration.
Now we draw “free–body diagrams” and invoke Newton’s Second Law for each mass.
Consider all the forces acting on m1. These are shown in Fig. 4.7Ṫhe force of gravity, with
magnitude m1 pulls straight down. Here, looking ahead to the fact that motion can only
occur along the slope it has decomposed into its components perpendicular to the surface
(with magnitude m1 cos θ) and down the slope (with magnitude m1 sin θ). The normal force
of the surface has magnitude N and points... normal to the surface! Finally the string pulls
up with slope with a force of magnitude T , the tension in the string.
Suppose we let x be a coordinate which measures movement up the slope. (Note, we are
not saying that the block will move up the slope, this is just a choice of coordinate. Let y be
a coordinate going perpendicular to the slope. We know that there is no y acceleration so
the components of the forces in the y direction must add to zero. This gives:

N − m1g cos θ = 0 =⇒ N = m1g cos θ

which gives the normal force should we ever need it. (We won’t.) Next, the sum of the x
forces gives m1ax , which will not be zero. We get:

T − m1 g sin θ = m1ax (4.3)

Here there are two unknowns, T and ax .

The free–body diagram for mass m2 is shown in Fig. 4.8. The force of gravity, m2 g
pulls downward and the string tension T pulls upward. Suppose we use a coordinate x0
which points straight down. (This is a little unconventional, but you can see that there is a
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 89

x’

m2 g

Figure 4.8: The forces acting on m2 . Coordinate x0 points downward.

connection with the coordinate x used for the motion of m1 . Then the sum of forces in the
x0 direction gives m2 ax0 :
m 2 g − T = m 2 a x0
Now as we argued above, the accelerations are equal: ax = ax0 . This gives us:

m2 g − T = m2 ax (4.4)

At this point, the physics is done and the rest of the problem is doing the math (algebra)
to solve for ax and T . We are first interested in finding ax. We note that by adding Eqs. 4.3
and 4.4 we will eliminate T . Doing this, we get:

(T − m1 g sin θ) + (m2g − T ) = m1ax + m2ax

this gives:
m2g − m1 g sin θ = (m1 + m2 )ax
and finally:
(m2 − m1g sin θ)g
ax =
m1 + m2
Substituting the given values, we have:
(2.30 kg − 3.70 kg sin 30◦ )(9.80 sm2 )
ax =
(3.70 kg + 2.30 kg)
m
= +0.735 s2

So ax = +0.735 sm2 . What does this mean? It means that the acceleration of m1 up the slope
and m2 downwards has magnitude 0.735 sm2 . The plus sign in our result for ax is telling us
that the acceleration does go in the way we (arbitrarily) set up the coordinates. If we had
made the opposite (“wrong”) choice for the coordinates then our acceleration would have
come out with a minus sign.
(b) We’ve already found the answer to this part in our understanding of the result for part
(a). Mass m1 accelerates up the slope; mass m2 accelerates vertically downward .
90 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

Acme
Bananas

Figure 4.9: Monkey runs up the rope in Example 12.

(c) To get the tension in the string we may use either Eq. 4.3 or Eq. 4.4. Using 4.4 gives:

m2 g − T = m2 ax =⇒ T = m2 g − m2ax = m2 (g − ax)

Substituting everything,

T = (2.30 kg)(9.80 sm2 − (0.735 sm2 )) = 20.8 N

12. A 10 kg monkey climbs up a massless rope that runs over a frictionless tree
limb (!) and back down to a 15 kg package on the ground, as shown in Fig. 4.9.
(a) What is the magnitude of the least acceleration the monkey must have if
it is to lift the package off the ground? If, after the package has been lifted
the monkey stops its climb and holds onto the rope, what are (b) the monkey’s
acceleration and (c) the tension in the rope? [HRW5 5-64]

(a) Before we do anything else, let’s understand what forces are acting on the two masses
in this problem. The free–body diagrams are shown in Fig. 4.10. The monkey holds onto
the rope so it exerts an upward force of magnitude T , where T is the tension in the rope.
Gravity pulls down on the monkey with a force of magnitude mg, where m is the mass of
the monkey. These are all the forces. Note that they will not cancel since the problem talks
about the monkey having an acceleration and so the net force on the monkey will not be
zero.
The forces acting on the box are also shown. Gravity pulls downward on the box with a
force of magnitude Mg, M being the mass of the box. The rope pulls upward with a force
T , If the box is resting on the ground, the ground will be pushing upward with some force
Fground. (Here, the ground cannot pull downward.) However when the box is not touching
the ground then Fground will be zero.
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 91

T
T
Fground

Monkey
Box
mg Mg

Figure 4.10: The forces acting on the two masses in Example 12.

In the first part of the problem, the monkey is moving along the rope. It is not stuck
to any point of the rope, so there is no obvious relation between the acceleration of the
monkey and the acceleration of the box. Suppose we let ay,monkey be the vertical acceleration
of the monkey and ay,box be the vertical acceleration of the box. Then from our free–body
diagrams, Newton’s Second Law gives the acceleration of the monkey:

T − mg = may,monkey

When the box is on the ground its acceleration is zero and then T + Fgr = mg. But when
the box is off then ground then we have:

T − Mg = Mabox (Box off the ground)

In the first part of the problem we are solving for the condition that the monkey climbs
just barely fast enough for the box to be lifted off the ground. If so, then the ground would
exert no force but the net force on the box would be so small as to be virtually zero; the box
has a very, very tiny acceleration upwards. From this we know:

T − Mg = 0 =⇒ T = Mg

and substituting this result into the first equation gives

(M − m)g
Mg − mg = mamonkey =⇒ amonkey =
m
Substituting the given values,
(15 kg − 10 kg)(9.80 sm2 )
amonkey = = 4.9 sm2
10 kg
The monkey must pull himself upwards so as to give himself an acceleration of 4.9 sm2 . Any-
thing less and the box will remain on the ground.
(b) Next, suppose that after climbing for while (during which time the box has been rising
off the ground) the monkey grabs onto the rope. What new condition does this give us?
92 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

Now it is true that the distance that the monkey moves up is the same as the distance which
the box moves down. The same is true of the velocities and accelerations of the monkey and
box, so in this part of the problem (recalling that I defined both accelerations as being in
the upward sense),
amonkey = −abox .
This condition is not true in general, but here it is because we are told that the monkey is
holding fast to the rope.
If you recall the example of the Atwood machine from your textbook or lecture notes,
this is the same physical situation we are dealing with here. We expect the less massive
monkey to accelerate upwards and the more massive box to accelerate downwards. Let’s use
the symbol a for the monkey’s vertical acceleration; then the box’s vertical acceleration is
−a and our equations are:
T − mg = ma
and
T − Mg = M(−a) .
At this point the physics is done and the rest is math (algebra) to solve for the two unknowns,
T and a. Since the first of these equations gives T = mg + ma, substituting this into the
second equation gives:

mg + ma − Mg = −Ma =⇒ ma + Ma = Mg − mg

which gives:
(M − m)
(M + m)a = (M − m)g =⇒ a= g
(M + m)
Plugging in the numbers gives

(15.0 kg − 10.0 kg)

a= (9.80 sm2 ) = 2.0 sm2 .
(15.0 kg + 10.0 kg)

When the monkey is holding tight to the rope and both masses move freely, the monkey’s
acceleration is 2.0 sm2 upwards.
(c) Now that we have the acceleration a for this part of the problem, we can easily substitute
into our results in part (b) and find the tension T . From T − mg = ma we get:

T = mg + ma = m(g + a) = (10.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 + 2.0 sm2 ) = 118 N .

The tension in the rope is 118 N.

13. A mass M is held in place by an applied force F and a pulley system as shown
in Fig. 4.11. The pulleys are massless and frictionless. Find (a) the tension in
each section of rope, T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 , and (b) the magnitude of F. [Ser4 5-65]
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 93

T4

T1
T2 T3

F T5

Figure 4.11: Crudely-drawn hand supports a mass M by means of a rope and pulleys

(a) We note first that the mass M (and therefore everything else) is motionless. This simpli-
fies the problem considerably! In particular, every mass in this problem has no acceleration
and so the total force on each mass is zero.
We have five rope tensions to find here, so we’d better start writing down some equations,
fast! Actually, a few of them don’t take much work at all; we know that when we have the
(idealized) situation of massless rope passing around a frictionless massless pulley, the string
tension is the same on both sides. As shown in the figure, it is a single piece of rope that
wraps around the big upper pulley and the lower one, so the tensions T1 , T2 and T3 must be
the same:
T1 = T2 = T3
Not bad so far!
Next, think about the forces acting on mass M. This is pretty simple... the force of
gravity Mg pulls down, and the tension T5 pulls upward. That’s all the forces but they sum
to zero because M is motionless. So we must have
T5 = Mg .
Next, consider the forces which act on the small pulley. These are diagrammed in
Fig. 4.12(a). There is a downward pull of magnitude T5 from the rope which is attached
to M and also upward pulls of magnitude T2 and T3 from the long rope which is wrapped
around the pulley. These forces must sum to zero, so
T2 + T3 − T5 = 0
But we already know that T5 = Mg and that T2 = T3 so this tells us that
2T2 − Mg = 0
which gives
Mg Mg
T2 = =⇒ T3 = T2 = .
2 2
94 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

T4

T2 T3

T1 T2 T3
T5
(a) (b)

Figure 4.12: (a) Forces on the small (lower) pulley. (b) Forces on the large (upper) pulley.

We also have: T1 = T2 = Mg/2.

Next, consider the forces on the large pulley, shown in Fig. 4.12(b). Tension T4 (in the
rope attached to the ceiling) pulls upward and tensions T1 , T2 and T3 pull downward. These
forces sum to zero, so
T4 − T1 − T2 − T3 = 0 .
But T4 is the only unknown in this equation. Using our previous answers,
Mg Mg Mg 3Mg
T4 = T1 + T2 + T3 = + + =
2 2 2 2
and so the answers are:
Mg 3Mg
T1 = T2 = T3 = T4 = T5 = Mg
2 2

(b) The force F is the (downward) force of the hand on the rope. It has the same magnitude
as the force of the rope on the hand , which is T1 , and we found this to be Mg/2. So
F = Mg/2.

14. Mass m1 on a frictionless horizontal table is connected to mass m2 through

a massless pulley P1 and a massless fixed pulley P2 as shown in Fig. 4.13. (a)
If a1 and a2 are the magnitudes of the accelerations of m1 and m2 respectively,
what is the relationship between these accelerations? Find expressions for (b)
the tensions in the strings and (c) the accelerations a1 and a2 in terms of m1, m2
and g. [Ser4 5-46]

(a) Clearly, as m2 falls, m1 will move to the right, pulled by the top string. But how do the
magnitudes of the displacements, velocities and accelerations of m2 and m1 compare? They
are not necessarily the same. Indeed, they are not the same.
Possibly the best way to show the relation between a1 and a2 is to do a little math; for
a very complicated system we would have to do this anyway, and the practice won’t hurt.
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 95

P1

P2
m1

m2

Figure 4.13: System of masses and pulleys for Example 14.

To hanging mass

l
xblock
Figure 4.14: Some geometry for Example 14.
96 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

N T2
T1
T1
T2
T1
m1g
m2g

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.15: Forces on the masses (and moving pulley) in Example 14. (a) Forces on m1 . (b) Forces on
the moving (massless) pulley. (c) Forces on m2 .

Focus on the upper mass (m1) and pulley P1 , and consider the lengths labelled in Fig. 4.14.
x measures the distance from the wall to the moving pulley; clearly the position of m2 is also
measured by x. ` is the length of string from m1 to the pulley. xblock measures the distance
from the wall to m1 . Then:
xblock = x − ` .
This really ignores the bit of string that wraps around the pulley, but we can see that it
won’t matter.
Now the total length of the string is L = x + ` and it does not change with time. Since
we have ` = L − x, we can rewrite the last equation as
xblock = x − (L − x) = 2x − L
Take a couple time derivatives of this, keeping in mind that L is a constant. We get:
d2 xblock d2 x
= 2
dt2 dt2
But the left side of this equation is the acceleration of m1 and the right side is the (magnitude
of the) acceleration of m2 . The acceleration of m1 is twice that of m2:
a1 = 2a2
We can also understand this result by realizing that when m2 moves down by a distance
x, a length 2x of the string must go from the “underneath” section to the “above” section in
Fig. 4.14. Mass m1 follows the end of the string so it must move forward by a distance 2x.
Its displacement is always twice that of m2 so its acceleration is always twice that of m2 .
(b) Now we try to get some information on the forces and accelerations, and we need to draw
free–body diagrams. We do this in Fig. 4.15. Mass m1 has forces m1g acting downward, a
normal force from the table N acting upward, and the string tension T1 pulling to the right.
The vertical forces cancel since m1 has only a horizontal acceleration, a1. Newton’s Second
Law gives us:
T1 = m1 a1 (4.5)
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 97

The pulley has forces acting on it, as shown in Fig. 4.15(b). The string wrapped around
it exerts its pull (of magnitude T1 ) both at the top and bottom so we have two forces of
magnitude T1 pulling to the left. The second string, which has a tension T2, pulls to the
right with a force of magnitude T2 .
Now this is a slightly subtle point, but the forces on the pulley must add to zero because
the pulley is assumed to be massless. (A net force on it would give it an infinite acceleration!)
This condition gives us:
T2 − 2T1 = 0 (4.6)
Lastly, we come to m2. It will accelerate downward with acceleration a2. Summing the
downward forces, Newton’s Second Law gives us:

m2 g − T2 = m2 a2 (4.7)

For good measure, we repeat the result found in part (a):

a1 = 2a2 (4.8)

In these equations, the unknowns are T1, T2, a1 and a2 . . . four of them. And we have
four equations relating them, namely Eqs. 4.5 through 4.8. The physics is done. We just do
algebra to finish up the problem.
There are many ways to do the algebra, but I’ll grind through it in following way: Sub-
stitute Eq. 4.8 into Eq. 4.5 and get:

T1 = 2m1 a2

Putting this result into Eq. 4.6 gives

T2 − 2T1 = T2 − 4m1 a2 = 0 =⇒ T2 = 4m1 a2

and finally using this in Eq. 4.7 gives

m2g − 4m1a2 = m2 a2

at which point we can solve for a2 we find:

m2 g
m2g = a2 (4m1 + m2 ) =⇒ a2 = (4.9)
(4m1 + m2)

Having solved for one of the unknowns we can quickly find the rest. Eq. 4.8 gives us a1:
2m2 g
a1 = 2a2 = (4.10)
(4m1 + m2 )

Then Eq. 4.8 gives us T1:

2m1 m2 g
T1 = m1 a1 = (4.11)
(4m1 + m2)
98 CHAPTER 4. FORCES I

Finally, since Eq. 4.6 tells us that T2 = 2T1 we get

4m1 m2g
T2 = (4.12)
(4m1 + m2 )

Summarizing our results from Eqs. 4.9 through 4.12, we have:

2m1 m2g 4m1 m2 g
T1 = T2 =
(4m1 + m2) (4m1 + m2)

for the tensions in the two strings and:

(c)
2m2 g m2 g
a1 = a2 =
(4m1 + m2) (4m1 + m2)
for the accelerations of the two masses.
Chapter 3

Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

3.1 The Important Stuff

3.1.1 Position
In three dimensions, the location of a particle is specified by its location vector, r:

r = xi + yj + zk (3.1)

If during a time interval ∆t the position vector of the particle changes from r1 to r2, the
displacement ∆r for that time interval is

∆r = r1 − r2 (3.2)
= (x2 − x1)i + (y2 − y1 )j + (z2 − z1)k (3.3)

3.1.2 Velocity
If a particle moves through a displacement ∆r in a time interval ∆t then its average velocity
for that interval is
∆r ∆x ∆y ∆z
v= = i+ j+ k (3.4)
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
As before, a more interesting quantity is the instantaneous velocity v, which is the limit
of the average velocity when we shrink the time interval ∆t to zero. It is the time derivative
of the position vector r:
dr
v = (3.5)
dt
d
= (xi + yj + zk) (3.6)
dt
dx dy dz
= i+ j+ k (3.7)
dt dt dt
can be written:
v = vx i + vy j + vz k (3.8)

51
52 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

where
dx dy dz
vx = vy = vz = (3.9)
dt dt dt
The instantaneous velocity v of a particle is always tangent to the path of the particle.

3.1.3 Acceleration
If a particle’s velocity changes by ∆v in a time period ∆t, the average acceleration a for
that period is
∆v ∆vx ∆vy ∆vz
a= = i+ j+ k (3.10)
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
but a much more interesting quantity is the result of shrinking the period ∆t to zero, which
gives us the instantaneous acceleration, a. It is the time derivative of the velocity vector v:
dv
a = (3.11)
dt
d
= (vx i + vy j + vz k) (3.12)
dt
dvx dvy dvz
= i+ j+ k (3.13)
dt dt dt
which can be written:
a = ax i + ay j + az k (3.14)
where
dvx d2 x dvy d2 y dvz d2 z
ax = = 2 ay = = 2 az = = 2 (3.15)
dt dt dt dt dt dt

3.1.4 Constant Acceleration in Two Dimensions

When the acceleration a (for motion in two dimensions) is constant we have two sets of
equations to describe the x and y coordinates, each of which is similar to the equations in
Chapter 2. (Eqs. 2.6—2.9.) In the following, motion of the particle begins at t = 0; the
initial position of the particle is given by
r0 = x 0 i + y 0 j
and its initial velocity is given by
v0 = v0xi + v0y j
and the vector a = ax i + ay j is constant.

vx = v0x + ax t vy = v0y + ay t (3.16)

x = x0 + v0xt + 1
a t2
2 x
y = y0 + v0y t + 1
a t2
2 y
(3.17)
vx2 = 2
v0x + 2ax (x − x0) vy2 = 2
v0y + 2ay (y − y0 ) (3.18)
1 1
x = x0 + (v
2 0x
+ vx )t y = y0 + (v
2 0y
+ vy )t (3.19)
Though the equations in each pair have the same form they are not identical because the
components of r0 , v0 and a are not the same.
3.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 53

3.1.5 Projectile Motion

When a particle moves in a vertical plane during free–fall its acceleration is constant; the
acceleration has magnitude 9.80 sm2 and is directed downward. If its coordinates are given by
a horizontal x axis and a vertical y axis which is directed upward, then the acceleration of
the projectile is
ax = 0 ay = −9.80 sm2 = −g (3.20)
For a projectile, the horizontal acceleration ax is zero!!!
Projectile motion is a special case of constant acceleration, so we simply use Eqs. 3.16–
3.19, with the proper values of ax and ay .

3.1.6 Uniform Circular Motion

When a particle is moving in a circular path (or part of one) at constant speed we say that
the particle is in uniform circular motion. Even though the speed is not changing, the
particle is accelerating because its velocity v is changing direction.
The acceleration of the particle is directed toward the center of the circle and has mag-
nitude
v2
a= (3.21)
r
where r is the radius of the circular path and v is the (constant) speed of the particle.
Because of the direction of the acceleration (i.e. toward the center), we say that a particle
in uniform circular motion has a centripetal acceleration.
If the particle repeatedly makes a complete circular path, then it is useful to talk about
the time T that it takes for the particle to make one complete trip around the circle. This
is called the period of the motion. The period is related to the speed of the particle and
radius of the circle by:
2πr
T = (3.22)
v

3.1.7 Relative Motion

The velocity of a particle depends on who is doing the measuring; as we see later on it is
perfectly valid to consider “moving” observers who carry their own clocks and coordinate
systems with them, i.e. they make measurements according to their own reference frame;
that is to say, a set of Cartesian coordinates which may be in motion with respect to another
set of coordinates. Here we will assume that the axes in the different system remain parallel
to one another; that is, one system can move (translate) but not rotate with respect to
another one.
Suppose observers in frames A and B measure the position of a point P . Then then if
we have the definitions:

rP A = position of P as measured by A

rP B = position of P as measured by B
54 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

rBA = position of B’s origin, as measured by A

with v’s and a’s standing for the appropriate time derivatives, then we have the relations:

rP A = rP B + rBA (3.23)

vP A = vP B + vBA (3.24)
For the purposes of doing physics, it is important to consider reference frames which move
at constant velocity with respect to one another; for these cases, vBA = 0 and then we find
that point P has the same acceleration in these reference frames:

aP A = aP B

Newton’s Laws (next chapter!) apply to such a set of inertial reference frames. Observers
in each of these frames agree on the value of a particle’s acceleration.
Though the above rules for translation between reference frames seem very reasonable, it
was the great achievement of Einstein with his theory of Special Relativity to understand
the more subtle ways that we must relate measured quantities between reference frames. The
trouble comes about because time (t) is not the same absolute quantity among the different
frames.
Among other places, Eq. 3.24 is used in problems where an object like a plane or boat
has a known velocity in the frame of (with respect to) a medium like air or water which itself
is moving with respect to the stationary ground; we can then find the velocity of the plane
or boat with respect to the ground from the vector sum in Eq. 3.24.

3.2 Worked Examples

3.2.1 Velocity

1. The position of an electron is given by r = 3.0ti − 4.0t2j + 2.0k (where t is in

seconds and the coefficients have the proper units for r to be in meters). (a)
What is v(t) for the electron? (b) In unit–vector notation, what is v at t = 2.0 s?
(c) What are the magnitude and direction of v just then? [HRW5 4-9]

(a) The velocity vector v is the time–derivative of the position vector r:

dr d
v = = (3.0ti − 4.0t2j + 2.0k)
dt dt
= 3.0i − 8.0tj
m
where we mean that when t is in seconds, v is given in s
.
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 55

(b) At t = 2.00 s, the value of v is

v(t = 2.00 s) = 3.0i − (8.0)(2.0)j = 3.0i − 16.j

that is, the velocity is (3.0i − 16.j) ms .

(c) Using our answer from (b), at t = 2.00 s the magnitude of v is
q q
v= vx2 + vy2 + vz2 = (3.00 ms )2 + (−16. ms )2 + (0)2 = 16. ms

we note that the velocity vector lies in the xy plane (even though this is a three–dimensional
problem!) so that we can express its direction with a single angle, the usual angle θ measured
anti-clockwise in the xy plane from the x axis. For this angle we get:
vy
tan θ = = −5.33 =⇒ θ = tan−1 (−5.33) = −79◦ .
vx
When we take the inverse tangent, we should always check and see if we have chosen the
right quadrant for θ. In this case −79◦ is correct since vy is negative and vx is positive.

3.2.2 Acceleration

2. A particle moves so that its position as a function of time in SI units is

r = i + 4t2j + tk. Write expressions for (a) its velocity and (b) its acceleration as
functions of time. [HRW5 4-11]

(a) To clarify matters, what we mean here is that when we use the numerical value of t in
seconds, we will get the values of r in meters. Since the velocity vector is the time–derivative
of the position vector r, we have:
dr
v =
dt
d
= (i + 4t2 j + tk)
dt
= 0i + 8tj + k

That is, v = 8tj + k. Here, we mean that when we use the numerical value of t in seconds,
we will get the value of v in ms .
(b) The acceleration a is the time–derivative of v, so using our result from part (a) we have:

dv
a =
dt
d
= (8tj + k)
dt
= 8j
56 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

m
So a = 8j, where we mean that the value of a is in units of s2
. In fact, we should really
include the units here and write:  
a = 8 sm2 j

3. A particle moving with an initial velocity v = (50 ms )j undergoes an acceleration

a = [35 m/ s2 + (2 m/ s5 )t3)i + [4 m/ s2 − (1 m/ s4 )t2]j. What are the particle’s position
and velocity after 3.0 s, assuming that it starts at the origin? [FGT2 3-20]

In the problem we are given the acceleration at all times, the initial velocity and also the
initial position. We know that at t = 0, the velocity components are vx = 0 and vy = 50 ms
and the coordinates are x = 0 and y = 0.
From the acceleration a we do know something about the velocity. Since the acceleration
is the time derivative of the velocity:

dv
a= ,
dt
the velocity is the anti-derivative (or “indefinite integral”, “primitive”. . . ) of the accelera-
tion. Having learned our calculus well, we immediately write:

1 1
   
v = 35t + t4 + C1 i + 4t − t3 + C2 j
2 3
Here, for simplicity, I have omitted the units that are supposed to go with the coefficients.
(I’m not supposed to do that!) Just keep in mind that time is supposed to be in seconds,
length is in meters. . .
Of course, when we do the integration, we get constants C1 and C2 which (so far) have not
been determined. We can determine them using the rest of the information in the problem.
Since vx = 0 at t = 0 we get:

35(0) + 12 (0)4 + C1 = 0 =⇒ C1 = 0

and
4(0) − 13 (0)3 + C2 = 50 =⇒ C2 = 50
so the velocity as a function of time is

1 1
   
v = 35t + t4 i + 4t − t3 + 50 j
2 3
where t is in seconds and the result is in ms .
We can find r as a function of time in the same way. Since

dr
v=
dt
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 57

then r is the anti-derivative of v. We get:

35 2 1 1
   
r= t + t5 + C3 i + 2t2 − t4 + 50t + C4 j
2 10 12
and once again we need to solve for the constants. x = 0 at t = 0, so
35 2 1
(0) + (0)5 + C3 = 0 =⇒ C3 = 0
2 10
and y = 0 at t = 0, so
1
2(0)2 − (0)4 + 50(0) + C4 = 0 =⇒ C4 = 0
12
and so r is fully determined:
35 2 1 1
   
r= t + t5 i + 2t2 − t4 + 50t j
2 10 12
Now we can answer the questions.
We want to know the value of r (the particle’s position) at t = 3.0 s. Just plug in!
35 1
x(t = 3.0 s) = (3.0)2 + (3.0)5 = 181 m
2 10
and
1
y(t = 3.0 s) = 2(3.0)2 − (3.0)4 + 50(3.0) = 161 m .
12
The components of the velocity at t = 3.0 s are

vx (t = 3.0 s) = 35(3.0) + 12 (3.0)4 = 146 ms

and
vy (t = 3.0 s) = 4(3.0) − 13 (3.0)3 + 50 = 53 ms .
Here we have been careful to include the proper (SI) units in the final answers because
coordinates and velocities must have units.

3.2.3 Constant Acceleration in Two Dimensions

4. A fish swimming in a horizontal plane has a velocity v0 = (4.0i + 1.0j) ms at

a point in the ocean whose position vector is r0 = (10.0i − 4.0j) m relative to a
stationary rock at the shore. After the fish swims with constant acceleration
for 20.0 s, its velocity is v = (20.0i − 5.0j) ms . (a) What are the components of the
acceleration? (b) What is the direction of the acceleration with respect to the
fixed x axis? (c) Where is the fish at t = 25 s and in what direction is it moving?
[Ser4 4-7]
58 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

(a) Since we are given that the acceleration is constant, we can use Eqs. 3.16:

vx = v0x + ax t vy = v0y + ay t

to get:
vx − v0x (20.0 ms − 4.0 ms )
ax = = = 0.80 sm2
t 20.0 s
and
vy − v0y (−5.0 ms − 1.0 ms )
ay = = = −0.30 sm2
t 20.0 s
and the acceleration vector of the fish is

a = (0.80 sm2 )i − (0.30 sm2 )j .

(b) With the angle θ measured counterclockwise from the +x axis, the direction of the
acceleration a is:
ay −0.30
tan θ = = = −0.375
ax 0.80
A calculator gives us:
θ = tan−1 (−0.375) = −20.6◦
Since the y component of the acceleration is negative, this angle is in the proper quadrant.
The direction of the acceleration is given by θ = −20.6◦ . (The same as θ = 360◦ − 20.6◦ =
339.4◦ .
(c) We can use Eq. 3.17 to find the values of x and y at t = 25 s:

x = x0 + v0x + 12 axt2
= 10 m + 4.0 ms (25 s) + 12 (0.80 sm2 )(25 s)2
= 360 m

and

y = y0 + v0y + 12 ay t2
= −4.0 m + 1.0 ms (25 s) + 12 (−0.30 m
s2
)(25 s)2
= −72.8 m

At t = 25 s the velocity components of the fish are given by:

vx = v0x + ax t
= 4.0 ms + (0.80 sm2 )(25 s) = 24 ms

and

vy = v0y + ay t
= 1.0 ms + (−0.30 sm2 )(25 s) = −6.5 ms
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 59

y
x

1.9 cm

30 m

Figure 3.1: Bullet hits target 1.9 cm below the aiming point.

so that at that time the speed of the fish is

q
v = vx2 + vy2
q
= (24 ms )2 + (−6.5 ms )2 = 24.9 ms

and the direction of its motion θ is found from:

vy −6.5
tan θ = = = −0.271
vx 24
so that
θ = −15.2◦ .
Again, since vy is negative and vx is positive, this is the correct choice for θ. So the direction
of the fish’s motion is −15.2◦ from the +x axis.

3.2.4 Projectile Motion

5. A rifle is aimed horizontally at a target 30 m away. The bullet hits the target
1.9 cm below the aiming point. (a) What is the bullet’s time of flight? (b) What
is the muzzle velocity? [HRW5 4-19]

(a) First, we define our coordinates. I will use the coordinate system indicated in Fig. 3.1,
where the origin is placed at the tip of the gun. Then we have x0 = 0 and y0 = 0. We also
know the acceleration:

ax = 0 and ay = −9.80 sm2 = −g

What else do we know? The gun is fired horizontally so that v0y = 0, but we don’t know
v0x. We don’t know the time of flight but we do know that when x has the value 30 m then
y has the value −1.9 × 10−2 m. (Minus!)
60 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

Our equation for the y coordinate is

y = y0 + y0y t + 21 ay t2
= 0 + 0 + 12 (−g)t2
= − 21 gt2

We can now ask: “At what time t does y equal −1.9 × 10−2 m?” . Substitute y = −1.9 ×
10−2 m and solve:

2y 2(−1.9 × 10−2 m)
t2 = − =− = 3.9 × 10−3 s2
g 9.80 sm2

which gives:
t = 6.2 × 10−2 s
Since this is the time of impact with the target, the time of flight of the bullet is t =
6.2 × 10−2 s.
(b) The equation for x−motion is

x = x0 + v0x t + 12 axt2
= 0 + v0x t + 0
= v0xt

From part (a) we know that when t = 6.2 × 10−2 s then x = 30 m. This allows us to solve
for v0x:
x 30 m
v0x = = = 480 ms
t 6.2 × 10 s
−2

The muzzle velocity of the bullet is 480 ms .

6. In a local bar, a customer slides an empty beer mug on the counter for a
refill. The bartender does not see the mug, which slides off the counter and
strikes the floor 1.40 m from the base of the counter. If the height of the counter
is 0.860 m, (a) with what speed did the mug leave the counter and (b) what was
the direction of the mug’s velocity just before it hit the floor? [Ser4 4-11]

(a) The motion of the beer mug is shown in Fig. 3.2(a). We choose the origin of our xy
coordinate system as being at the point where the mug leaves the counter. So the mug’s
initial coordinates for its flight are x0 = 0, y0 = 0.
At the very beginning of its motion through the air, the velocity of the mug is horizontal.
(This is because its velocity was horizontal all the time it was sliding on the counter.) So we
know that v0y = 0 but we don’t know the value of v0x . (In fact, that’s what we’re trying to
figure out!)
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 61

y
vo
x

q
0.860 m

v
q
1.40 m

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2: (a) Beer mug slides off counter and strikes floor! (b) Velocity vector of the beer mug at the
time of impact.

We might begin by finding the time t at which the mug hit the floor. This is the time t at
which y = −0.860 m (recall how we chose the coordinates!), and we will need the y equation
of motion for this; since v0y = 0 and ay = −g, we get:

y = v0y t + 12 ay t2 = − 21 gt2

So we solve
−0.860 m = − 12 gt2
which gives
2(0.860 m) 2(0.860 m)
t2 = = = 0.176 s2
g (9.80 sm2 )
so then
t = 0.419 s
is the time of impact.
To find v0x we consider the x equation of motion; x0 = 0 and ax = 0, so we have

x = v0xt .

At t = 0.419 s we know that the x coordinate was equal to 1.40 m. So

1.40 m = v0x(0.419 s)

Solve for v0x:

1.40 m
v0x = = 3.34 ms
0.419 s
which tells us that the initial speed of the mug was v0 = 3.34 ms .
(b) We want to find the components of the mug’s velocity at the time of impact, that is, at
t = 0.419 s. Substitute into our expressions for vx and vy :

vx = v0x + ax t = v0x = 3.34 ms

62 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

25.0 m/s

40o

22.0 m

Figure 3.3: Ball is thrown toward wall at 40◦ above horizontal, in Example 7.

and
vy = v0y + ay t = 0 + (−9.80 sm2 )(0.419 s) = −4.11 ms .
So at the time of impact, the speed of the mug was
q q
v= vx2 + vy2 = (3.34 ms )2 + (−4.11 ms )2 = 5.29 ms

and, if as in Fig. 3.2(b) we let θ be the angle below the horizontal at which the velocity vector
is pointing, we see that
4.11
tan θ = = 1.23 =⇒ θ = tan−1 (1.23) = 50.9◦ .
3.34
At the time of impact, the velocity of the mug was directed at 50.9◦ below the horizontal.

7. You throw a ball with a speed of 25.0 ms at an angle of 40.0◦ above the horizontal
directly toward a wall, as shown in Fig. 3.3. The wall is 22.0 m from the release
point of the ball. (a) How long does the ball take to reach the wall? (b) How far
above the release point does the ball hit the wall? (c) What are the horizontal
and vertical components of its velocity as it hits the wall? (d) When it hits, has
it passed the highest point on its trajectory? [HRW5 4-28]

(a) We will use a coordinate system which has its origin at the point of firing, which we take
to be at ground level.
What is the mathematical condition which determines when the ball hits the wall? It is
when the x coordinate of the ball is equal to 22.0 m. Then let’s write out the x−equation of
motion for the ball. The ball’s initial x− velocity is

v0x = v0 cos θ0 = (25.0 ms ) cos 40.0◦ = 19.2 ms

and of course ax = 0, so that the x motion is given by

x = x0 + vox t + 21 ax t2 = 19.2 ms t
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 63

We solve for the time at which x = 22.0 m:

22.0 m
x = 19.2 ms t = 22.0 m =⇒ t= = 1.15 s
19.2 ms

The ball hits the wall 1.15 s after being thrown.

(b) We will be able to answer this question if we can find the y coordinate of the ball at the
time that it hits the wall, namely at t = 1.15 s.
We need the y equation of motion. The initial y velocity of the ball is
 
v0y = v0 sin θ0 = 25.0 ms sin 40.0◦ = 16.1 ms

and the y acceleration of the ball is ay = −g giving:

 
y = y0 + v0y t + 21 ay t2 = 16.1 ms t − 21 gt2

which we use to find the y coordinate at t = 1.15 s:

y = (16.1 ms )(1.15 s) − 12 (9.80 sm2 )(1.15 s)2 = 12.0 m

which tells us that the ball hits the wall at 12.0 m above the ground level (above the release
point).
(c) The x and y components of the balls’s velocity at the time of impact, namely at t = 1.15 s
are found from Eqs. 3.16:

vx = v0x + ax t = 19.2 ms + 0 = 19.2 ms

and
vy = v0y + ay t = 16.1 ms + (−9.80 sm2 )(1.15 s) = +4.83 ms .

(d) Has the ball already passed the highest point on its trajectory? Suppose the ball was
on its way downward when it struck the wall. Then the y component of the velocity would
be negative, since it is always decreasing and at the trajectory’s highest point it is zero. (Of
course, the x component of the velocity stays the same while the ball is in flight.) Here we
see that the y component of the ball’s velocity is still positive at the time of impact. So the
ball was still climbing when it hit the wall; it had not reached the highest point of its (free)
trajectory.

8. The launching speed of a certain projectile is five times the speed it has at its
maximum height. Calculate the elevation angle at launching. [HRW5 4-32]

We make a diagram of the projectile’s motion in Fig. 3.4. The launch it speed is v0, and
the projectile is launched at an angle θ0 upward from the horizontal.
We might start this problem by solving for the time it takes the projectile to get to maxi-
mum height, but we can note that at maximum height, there is no y velocity component, and
64 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

Speed is v0 / 5

v0

q0

Figure 3.4: Motion of projectile in Example 8.

the x velocity component is the same as it was when the projectile was launched . Therefore
at maximum height the velocity components are

vx = v0 cos θ0 and vy = 0

and so the speed of the projectile at maximum height is v0 cos θ0 .

Now, we are told that the launching speed (v0) is five times the speed at maximum height.
This gives us:
1
v0 = 5v0 cos θ0 =⇒ cos θ0 =
5
which has the solution
θ0 = 78.5◦
So the elevation angle at launching is θ0 = 78.5◦ .

9. A projectile is launched from ground level with speed v0 at an angle of θ0 above

the horizontal. Find: (a) the maximum height H attained by the projectile,
and (b) the distance from the starting point at which the projectile strikes the
ground; this is called the range R of the projectile.

Comment: This problem is worked in virtually every physics text, and it is sometimes
simply called “The Projectile Problem”. I include it in this book for the sake of completeness
and so that we can use the results if we need them later on. I do not treat it as part of the
fundamental material of this chapter because it is a very particular application of free–fall
motion. In this problem, the projectile impacts at the same height as the one from which
it started, and that is not always the case. We must think about all projectile problems
individually and not rely on simple formulae to plug numbers into!
The path of the projectile is shown in Fig. 3.5. The initial coordinates of the projectile
are
x0 = 0 and y0 = 0 ,
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 65

v0 H
y
q0
x

Figure 3.5: The common projectile problem; projectile is shot from ground level with speed v0 and angle
θ0 above the horizontal.

the components of the initial velocity are

v0x = v0 cos θ0 and v0y = v0 sin θ0
and of course the (constant) acceleration of the projectile is
ax = 0 and ay = −g = −9.80 sm2
Then our equations for x(t), vx (t), y(t) and vy (t) are
vx = v0 cos θ0
x = v0 cos θ0 t
vy = v0 sin θ0 − gt
y = v0 sin θ0 t − 12 gt2

(a) What does it mean for the projectile to get to “maximum height”? This is when it is
neither increasing in height (rising) nor decreasing in height (falling); the vertical component
of the velocity at this point is zero. At this particular time then,
vy = v0 sin θ0 − gt = 0
so solving this equation for t, the projectile reaches maximum height at
v0 sin θ0
t= .
g
How high is the projectile at this time? To answer this, substitute this value of t into
the equation for y and get:
! !2
v0 sin θ0 v0 sin θ0
y = v0 sin θ0 − 12 g
g g
2 2 2 2
v sin θ0 v0 sin θ0
= 0 −
g 2g
2 2
v sin θ0
= 0
2g
66 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

This is the maximum height attained by the projectile:

v02 sin2 θ0
H=
2g

(b) What is the mathematical condition for when the projectile strikes the ground (since that
is how we will find the range R)? We know that at this point, the projectile’s y coordinate
is zero:
y = v0 sin θ0 t − 12 gt2 = 0
We want to solve this equation for t; we can factor out t in this expression to get:

t(v0 sin θ0 − 12 gt) = 0

which has two solutions:

2v0 sin θ0
t=0 and t=
g
The first of these is just the time when the projectile was fired; yes, y was equal to zero
then, but that’s not what we want! The time at which the projectile strikes the ground is
2v0 sin θ0
t= .
g
We want to find the value of x at the time of impact. Substituting this value of t into
our equation for x(t), we find:
!
2v0 sin θ0
x = v0 cos θ0
g
2v02 sin θ0 cos θ0
=
g
This value of x is the range R of the projectile.
We can make this result a little simpler by recalling the trig relation:

sin 2θ0 = 2 sin θ0 cos θ0 .

Using this in our result for the range gives:

2v02 sin θ0 cos θ0 v 2 sin 2θ0
R= = 0
g g

10. A projectile is fired in such a way that its horizontal range is equal to three
times its maximum height. What is the angle of projection? [Ser4 4-23]

Now, this problem does deal with a projectile which starts and ends its flight at the same
height, just as we calculated in the previous example. So we can use the results for the range
R and maximum height H that we found there.
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 67

o
A 35

3.30 km

9.40 km B

Figure 3.6: Volcanic bombs away!

The problem tells us that R = 3H. Substituting the expressions for H and R that we
found in the last example (we pick the first expression we got for R), we get:

2v 2 sin θ0 cos θ0 v 2 sin2 θ0

!
R= 0 = 3H = 3 0
g 2g

Cancelling stuff, we get:

3 4
2 cos θ0 = sin θ0 =⇒ tan θ0 =
2 3
The solution is:
θ0 = tan−1 (4/3) = 53.1◦
The projectile was fired at 53.1◦ above the horizontal.

11. During volcanic eruptions, chunks of solid rock can be blasted out of a
volcano; these projectiles are called volcanic bombs. Fig. 3.6 shows a cross section
of Mt. Fuji in Japan. (a) At what initial speed would the bomb have to be
ejected, at 35◦ to the horizontal, from the vent at A in order to fall at the foot
of the volcano at B? (Ignore the effects of air on the bomb’s travel.) (b) What
would be the time of flight? [HRW5 4-42]

(a) We use a coordinate system with its origin at point A (the volcano “vent”); then for the
flight from the vent at A to point B, the initial coordinates are x0 = 0 and y0 = 0, and the
final coordinates are x = 9.40 km and y = −3.30 km. Aside from this, we don’t know the
initial speed of the rock (that’s what we’re trying to find) or the time of flight from A to B.
Of course, the acceleration of the rock is given by ax = 0, ay = −g.
We start with the x equation of motion. The initial x−velocity is

v0x = v0 cos θ
68 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

where θ = 35◦ so the function x(t) is

x = x0 + v0x t + 12 axt2
= 0 + v0 cos θt + 0
= v0 cos θ t

Now, we do know that at the time of impact x had the value x = 9.40 km so if we now let t
be the time of flight, then
(9.40 km)
(9.40 km) = v0 cos θt or t= (3.25)
v0 cos θ
Next we look at the y equation of motion. Since v0y = v0 sin θ we get:

y = y0 + v0y t + 21 ay t2
= 0 + v0 sin θt − 12 gt2
= v0 sin θ t − 21 gt2

But at the time t of impact the y coordinate had the value y = −3.30 km. If we also
substitute for t in this expression using Eq. 3.25 we get:
! !2
9.40 km 9.40 km
1
−3.30 km = v0 sin θ − 2
g
v0 cos θ v0 cos θ
g(9.40 km)2
= (9.40 km) tan θ −
2v02 cos2 θ
At this point we are done with the physics problem. The only unknown in this equation
is v0, which we can find by doing a little algebra:

g(9.40 km)2
= (9.40 km) tan θ + 3.30 km
2v02 cos2 θ
= 9.88 km

which gives:
g(9.40 km)2
v02 =
cos2 θ(9.88 km)
g(0.951 km)
=
cos2 θ
(9.80 sm2 )(951 m)
=
cos2 35◦
2
= 1.39 × 104 ms2

and finally
v0 = 118 ms
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 69

Path of projectile

v0
d
q0
f

Figure 3.7: Projectile is fired up an incline, as described in Example 12

(b) Having v0 in hand, finding t is easy. Using our result from part(a) and Eq. 3.25 we find:

(9.40 km) (9400 m)

t= = = 97.2 s
v0 cos θ (118 ms ) cos 35◦

The time of flight is 97.2 s.

12. A projectile is fired up an incline (incline angle φ) with an initial speed v0

at an angle θ0 with respect to the horizontal (θ0 > φ) as shown in Fig. 3.7. (a)
Show that the projectile travels a distance d up the incline, where

2v02 cos θ0 sin(θ0 − φ)

d=
g cos2 φ

(b) For what value of θ0 is d a maximum, and what is the maximum value? [Ser4
4-56]

(a) This is a relatively challenging problem, and of course it is completely analytic.

We can start by writing down equations for x and y as functions of time. By now we can
easily see that we have:
x = v0 cos θ0 t
y = v0 sin θ0 t − 12 gt2
We can combine these equations to get a relation between x and y for points on the trajectory;
from the first, we have t = x/(v0 cos θ0), and putting this into the second one gives:
2
x x
  
y = v0 sin θ0 − 12 g
v0 cos θ0 v0 cos θ0
g x2
= (tan θ0 )x −
2 v02 cos2 θ0
What is the condition for the time that the projectile hits the slope? Unlike the problems
where a projectile impacts with the flat ground or a wall, we don’t know the value of x or y
70 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

at impact. But since the incline has a slope of tan φ, the relation between x and y for points
on the slope is
y = (tan φ)x .
These two relations between x and y allow us to solve for the values of x and y where
the impact occurs. Substituting for y above, we find:

g x2
(tan φ)x = (tan θ0 )x −
2 v02 cos2 θ0

A little rearranging gives:

g x
2
+ (tan φ − tan θ0) = 0
2 v0 cos2 θ0

and the solution for x is:

2v02 cos2 θ0 (tan θ0 − tan φ)
x=
g
The problem has us solve for the distance d up the slope; this distance is related to the
impact value of x by:
x
d=
cos φ
and this gives us:
x 2v 2 cos2 θ0(tan θ0 − tan φ)
d= = 0 .
cos φ g cos φ
Although this is a perfectly good expression for d, it is not the one presented in the
problem. (Among other things, it has another factor of cos φ downstairs.) If we multiply
top and bottom by cos φ we find:

2v02 cos2 θ0 cos φ(tan θ0 − tan φ)

d =
g cos2 φ
2
2v0 cos θ0(cos θ0 cos φ tan θ0 − cos θ0 cos φ tan φ)
=
g cos2 φ
2
2v0 cos θ0(cos φ sin θ0 − cos θ0 sin φ)
=
g cos2 φ

And now using an angle–addition identity from trigonometry in the numerator, we arrive at

2v02 cos θ0 sin(θ0 − φ)

d=
g cos2 φ

which is the preferred expression for d.

(b) In part (a) we found the up–slope impact distance as a function of launch angle θ0 . (The
launch speed v0 and the slope angle φ are taken to be fixed.) For a certain value of theta0,
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 71

this function d(θ0 ) will take on a maximum value. To find this value, we differentiate the
function d(θ0 ) and set the derivative equal to zero. We find:
2v02 d
d0 (θ0) = [cos θ0 sin(θ0 − φ)]
g cos2 φ dθ0
2v02
= [− sin θ0 sin(θ0 − φ) + cos θ0 cos(θ0 − φ)]
g cos2 φ
2v02
= cos(2θ0 − φ)
g cos2 φ
where in the last step we used the trig identity cos α cos β − sin α sin β = cos(α + β).
Now, to satisfy d0 (θ0) = 0 we must have cos(2θ0 − φ) = 0. While this equation has
infinitely many solutions for θ0, considering the values that θ0 and φ may take on, we see
that we need only look at the case where
π
2θ0 − φ =
2
which of course, does solve the equation. This gives us:
π φ
θ0 = +
4 2
for the value of θ which makes the projectile go the farthest distance d up the slope.
To find what this value of d is, we substitute for θ0 in our function d(θ0 ). We find:
2v02
! !
π φ π φ
dmax = cos + sin + −φ
g cos2 φ 4 2! 4 2!
2v02 π φ π φ
= cos + sin −
g cos2 φ 4 2 4 2
This expression is correct but it can be simplified. We use the trig identity which states:
1
sin α cos β = 2
sin(α + β) + 12 sin(α − β)
this gives us:
! !
π φ π φ π
 
1
sin − cos + = 2
sin + 21 sin(−φ)
4 2 4 2 2
= 12 − 12 sin φ
= 12 (1 − sin φ)
which is a lot simpler. Using this result in our expression for dmax gives:
2v02 (1 − sin φ) v02(1 − sin φ) v02
dmax = = =
g cos2 φ 2 g(1 − sin2 φ) g(1 + sin φ)
which is a simple as it’s going to get!
We can check result for a couple well–known cases. If φ = 0 we are dealing with the
common projectile problem on level ground for which we know we get maximum range when
v2
θ0 = 45◦ and from our solution for that problem we get R = g0 . If φ = 90◦ we have the
problem of a projectile fired straight up; one can show that the maximum height reached is
v2
H = 2g0 which again agrees with the formula we’ve derived.
72 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

3.2.5 Uniform Circular Motion

13. In one model of the hydrogen atom, an electron orbits a proton in a circle
of radius 5.28 × 10−11 m with a speed of 2.18 × 106 ms . (a) What is the acceleration
of the electron in this model? (b) What is the period of the motion? [HRW5 4-57]

(a) The electron moves in a circle with constant speed. It is accelerating toward the center
2
of the circle and the acceleration has magnitude acent = vr . Substituting the given values,
we have:
v2 (2.18 × 106 ms )2
acent = = = 9.00 × 1022 sm2
r (5.28 × 10−11 m)
m
The acceleration has magnitude 9.00 × 1022 s2
.
(b) As the electron makes one trip around the circle of radius r, it moves a distance 2πr (the
circumference of the circle). If T is the period of the motion, then the speed of the electron
is given by the ratio of distance to time,
2πr 2πr
v= which gives... T =
T v
which shows why Eq. 3.22 is true. Substituting the given values, we get:
2π(5.28 × 10−11 m)
T = = 1.52 × 10−16 s
(2.18 × 106 ms )
The period of the electron’s motion is 1.52 × 10−16 s.

14. A rotating fan completes 1200 revolutions every minute. Consider a point
on the tip of a blade, at a radius of 0.15 m. (a) Through what distance does the
point move in one revolution? (b) What is the speed of the point? (c) What is
its acceleration? (d) What is the period of the motion? [HRW5 4-63]

(a) As the fan makes one revolution, the point in question moves through a circle of radius
0.15 m so the distance it travels is the circumference of that circle, i.e.
d = 2πr = 2π(0.15 m) = 0.94 m
The point travels 0.94 m.
(b) If in one minute (60 s) the fan makes 1200 revolutions, the time to make one revolution
must be
1 1
Time for one rev = T = · (1.00 min) = · (60.0 s) = 5.00 × 10−2 s
1200 1200
Using our answer from part (a), we know that the point travels 0.94 m in 5.000 × 10−2 s,
moving at constant speed. Therefore that speed is:
d 0.94 m
v= = = 19 ms
T 5.000 × 10 s
−2
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 73

vSW= +1.2 m/s vSW= -1.2 m/s

vWG= -0.5 m/s vWG= -0.5 m/s

(a) (b)

Figure 3.8: (a) Velocities for case where swimmer swims upstream. (b) Velocities for case where swimmer
swims downstream.

(c) The point is undergoing uniform circular motion; its acceleration is always toward the
2
center and has magnitude acent = vr . Substituting,

v2 (19 ms )2
acent = = = 2.4 × 103 m
s2
r (0.15 m)

(d) The period of the motion is the time for the fan to make one revolution. And we already
found this in part (b)! It is:
T = 5.00 × 10−2 s

3.2.6 Relative Motion

15. A river has a steady speed of 0.500 ms . A student swims upstream a distance
of 1.00 km and returns to the starting point. If the student can swim at a speed
of 1.20 ms in still water, how long does the trip take? Compare this with the time
the trip would take if the water were still. [Ser4 4-43]

What happens if the water is still? The student swims a distance of 1.00 km “upstream”
at a speed of 1.20 ms ; using the simple distance/time formula d = vt the time for the trip is

d 1.0 × 103 m
t= = = 833 s
v 1.20 ms

and the same is true for the trip back “downstream”. So the total time for the trip is

833 s + 833 s = 1.67 × 103 s = 27.8 min

Good enough, but what about the case where the water is not still? And what does
that have to do with relative velocities? In Fig. 3.8, the river is shown; it flows in the −x
74 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

direction. At all times, the velocity of the water with respect to the ground is

vWG = −0.500 ms .

When the student swims upstream, as represented in Fig. 3.8(a), his velocity with respect to
the water is
vSW = +1.20 ms .
We know this because we are given his swimming speed for still water.
Now we are interested in the student’s velocity with respect to the ground , which we will
call vSG. It is given by the sum of his velocity with respect to the water and the water’s
velocity with respect to the ground:

vSG = vSW + vWG = +1.20 ms − 0.500 ms = 0.70 ms

and so to cover a displacement of ∆x = 1.00 km (measured along the ground!) requires a

time
∆x 1.00 × 103 m
∆t = = = 1.43 × 103 s
vSG 0.70 ms
Then the student swims downstream (Fig. 3.8(b)) and his velocity with respect to the
water is
vSW = −1.20 ms
giving him a velocity with respect to the ground of

vSG = vSW + vWG = −1.20 ms − 0.500 ms = 1.70 ms

so that the time to cover a displacement of ∆x = −1.00 km is

∆x (−1.00 × 103 m)
∆t = = = 5.88 × 102 s
vSG (−1.70 ms )

The total time to swim upstream and then downstream is

tTotal = tup + tdown

= 1.43 × 103 s + 5.88 × 102 s = 2.02 × 103 s = 33.6 min .

16. A light plane attains an airspeed of 500 km/ hr. The pilot sets out for a
destination 800 km to the north but discovers that the plane must be headed
20.0◦ east of north to fly there directly. The plane arrives in 2.00 hr. What was
the wind velocity vector? [HRW5 4-83]

Whoa! What the Hell is this problem talking about???

When a plane flies in air which itself is moving (i.e. there is a wind velocity) there are
three (vector) velocities we need to think about; I will refer to them as:
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 75

N
N
vAG
vPA vPA
o
vPG 20 vPG
500 km/hr
400 km/hr

W E W E
S S
(a) (b)

Figure 3.9: (a) Vectors for the planes velocity with respect to the ground (vPG ) and with respect to the
moving air (vPA ). (b) The sum of the plane’s velocity relative to the air and the wind velocity gives the
plane’s velocity with respect to the ground, vPG .

vPA : Velocity of the plane with respect to the air. The magnitude of this vector is the
“airspeed” of the plane. (This is the only thing that a plane’s “speedometer” can really
measure.)
vAG : Velocity of the air with respect to the ground. This is the wind velocity.
vPG: Velocity of the plane with respect to the ground. This is the quantity which tells
us the rate of (ground!) travel of the plane.
These three vectors are related via:
vPG = vPA + vAG
The first thing we are given in this problem is that the magnitude of vPA is 500 km/ hr.
The plane needs to fly due north and this tells us that vPG (the real direction of motion of
the plane) points north (along the y axis). We are then told that the plane’s “heading” is
20.0◦ east of north, which tells us that the direction of vPA lies in this direction. These facts
are illustrated in Fig. 3.9(a).
Now if the plane travels 800 km in 2.00 hr then its speed (with respect to the ground!) is
800 km
vPG = = 400 km
hr
.
2.00 hr
which we note in Fig. 3.9(b). Since we now have the magnitudes and and directions of vPA
and vPG we can compute the wind velocity,
vAG = vPG − vPA
The x component of this vector is
vAG,x = 0 − 500 km
hr
sin 20.0◦ = −171 km
hr

and its y component is

vAG,y = 400 − 500 km
hr
cos 20.0◦ = −69.8 km
hr
76 CHAPTER 3. MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

So the wind velocity is

vAG = −171 km
hr
i − 69.8 km
hr
j
If we want to express the velocity as a magnitude and direction, we find:
q
vAG = (−171 km
hr
)2 + (−69.8 km
hr
)2 = 185 km
hr

so the wind speed is 185 kmhr

. The direction of the wind, measured as an angle θ counter-
clockwise from the east is found from its components:
−69.8
tan θ = = 0.408 =⇒ θ = tan−1 (0.408) = 202◦
−171
(Here we have made sure to get the angle right! Since both components are negative, θ lies
in the third quadrant!) Since 180◦ would be due West and the wind direction is 22◦ larger
than that, we can also say that the wind direction is “22◦ south of west”.
Chapter 5

Forces and Motion II

5.1 The Important Stuff

5.1.1 Friction Forces
Forces which are known collectively as “friction forces” are all around us in daily life. In
elementary physics we discuss the friction force as it occurs between two objects whose
surfaces are in contact and which slide against one another.
If in such a situation, a body is not moving while an applied force F acts on it, then
static friction forces are opposing the applied force, resulting in zero net force. Empirically,
one finds that this force can have a maximum value given by:

fsmax = µs N (5.1)

where µs is the coefficient of static friction for the two surfaces and N is the normal
(perpendicular) force between the two surfaces.
If one object is in motion relative to the other one (i.e. it is sliding on the surface) then
there is a force of kinetic friction between the two objects. The direction of this force is
such as to oppose the sliding motion and its magnitude is given by

fk = µk N (5.2)

where again N is the normal force between the two objects and µk is the coefficient of
kinetic friction for the two surfaces.

5.1.2 Uniform Circular Motion Revisited

Recall the result given in Chapter 3: When an object is in uniform circular motion, moving
in a circle of radius r with speed v, the acceleration is directed toward the center of the circle
and has magnitude

v2
acent = .
r

103
104 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

Therefore, by Newton’s Second Law of Motion, the net force on this object must also be
directed toward the center of the circle and have magnitude

mv 2
Fcent = . (5.3)
r
Such a force is called a centripetal force, as indicated in this equation.

5.1.3 Newton’s Law of Gravity (Optional for Calculus–Based)

The force of gravity is one of the fundamental forces in nature. Although in our first physics
examples we only dealt with the fact that the earth pulls downward on all masses, in fact all
masses exert an attractive gravitational force on each other, but for most objects the force
is so small that we can ignore it.
Newton’s Law of Gravity says that for two masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance
r, the magnitude of the (attractive) gravitational force is
m1 m2 N·m2
F =G where G = 6.67 × 10−11 kg2
(5.4)
r2
While the law as given really applies to point (i.e. small) masses, it can be used for spherical
masses as long as we take r to be the distance between the centers of the two masses.

5.2 Worked Examples

5.2.1 Friction Forces

1. An ice skater moving at 12 ms coasts to a halt in 95 m on an ice surface. What

is the coefficient of (kinetic) friction between ice and skates? [Ser4 5-51]

The information which we are given about the skater’s (one-dimensional) motion is shown
in Fig. 5.1(a). We know that the skater’s notion is one of constant acceleration so we can use
the results in Chapter 2. In particular we know the initial and final velocities of the skater:

v0 = 12 ms v=0

and we know the displacement for this interval:

x − x0 = 95 m

we can use 2.8 to find the (constant) acceleration a. We find:

(vx2 − v0x
2
)
vx2 = v0x
2
+ 2ax (x − x0 ) =⇒ ax =
2(x − x0)
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 105

N
x
x
v=12 m/s v=0 fk

95 m mg

(a) (b)

Figure 5.1: Skater slowed to a halt by friction in Example 1. Motion is shown in (a); forces acting on the
skater are shown in (b).

Substituting, we get:
((0 ms )2 − (12 ms )2 )
ax = = −0.76 sm2 .
2(95 m)
Next, think about the forces acting on the skater; these are shown in Fig. 5.1(b). If the
mass of the skater is m then gravity has magnitude mg and points downward; the ice exerts
a normal force N upward. It also exerts a frictional force fk in a direction opposing the
motion. Since the skater has no motion in the vertical direction, the vertical forces must
sum to zero so that N = mg. Also, since the magnitude of the force of kinetic friction is
given by fk = µk N we have:
fk = µk N = µk mg .
So the net force in the x direction is Fx = −µk mg.
Newton’s law tells us: Fx, net = max. Using the results we have found, this gives us:

−µk mg = m(−0.76 sm2 )

From which the m cancels to give:

(0.76 m
s2
) (0.76 sm2 )
µk = = = 7.7 × 10−2
g (9.80 sm2 )

The coefficient of kinetic friction between ice and skates is 7.7 × 10−2 . (Note, the coefficient
of friction is dimensionless.)
Recall that we were not given the mass of the skater. That didn’t matter, because it
cancelled out of our equations. But we did have to consider it in writing down our equations.

2. Block B in Fig. 5.2 weighs 711 N. The coefficient of static friction between
block and table is 0.25; assume that the cord between B and the knot is horizontal.
Find the maximum weight of block A for which the system will be stationary.
[HRW6 6-19]

We need to look at the forces acting at the knot (the junction of the three cables). These
are shown in Fig. 5.3(a). The vertical cord must have a tension equal to the weight of block
106 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

30o
B

Figure 5.2: Diagram for Example 2.

T2 N B
T1
fs T1
WA

WB
(a) (b)

Figure 5.3: (a) Forces acting at the knot in Example 2. (b) Forces acting on block B in Example 2.

A (which we’ll call WA ) because at its other end this cord is pulling up on A so as to support
it. Let the tensions in the other cords be T1 for the horizontal one and T2 for the one that
pulls at 30◦ above the horizontal. The knot is in equilibrium so the forces acting on it add
to zero. In particular, the vertical components of the forces add to zero, giving:

T2 sin θ − WA = 0 or T2 sin θ = WA

(where θ = 30◦ ) and the horizontal forces add to zero, giving:

−T1 + T2 cos θ = 0 or T1 = T2 cos θ .

Now look at the forces acting on the block which rests on the table; these are shown in
Fig. 5.3(b). There is the force of gravity pointing down, with magnitude WB (that is, the
weight of B, equal to mB g). There is a normal force from the table pointing upward; there
is the force from the cable pointing to the right with magnitude T1 , and there is the force of
static friction pointing to the left with magnitude fs . Since the vertical forces add to zero,
we have
N − WB = 0 or N = Wb
The horizontal forces on the block also sum to zero giving

T1 − fs = 0 or T1 = fs
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 107

m
F
Frictionless M

Figure 5.4: Diagram for Example 3.

Now, the problem states that the value of WA we’re finding is the maximum value such
that the system is stationary. This means that at the value of WA we’re finding, block B is
just about to slip, so that the friction force fs takes on its maximum value, fs = µs N. Since
we also know that N = WB from the previous equation, we get:

T1 = fs = µs N = µs WB

From before, we had T1 = T2 cos θ, so making this substitution we get

T2 cos θ = µs WB
WA
Almost done! Our very first equation gave T2 = sin θ
, so substituting for T2 gives:

WA
 
cos θ = µs WB or WA cot θ = µs WB
sin θ
Finally, we get:
WA = µs WB tan θ
Now just plug in the numbers:

WA = (0.25)(711 N) tan 30◦ = 103 N

Since we solved for WA under the condition that block B was about to slip, this is the
maximum possible value for WA so that the system is stationary.

3. The two blocks (with m = 16 kg and M = 88 kg) shown in Fig. 5.4 are not
attached. The coefficient of static friction between the blocks is µs = 0.38, but
the surface beneath M is frictionless. What is the minimum magnitude of the
horizontal force F required to hold m against M? [HRW5 6-38]

Having understood the basic set-up of the problem, we immediately begin thinking about
the the forces acting on each mass so that we can draw free–body diagrams. The forces on
mass m are: (1) The force of gravity mg which points downward. (2) The applied force F
which points to the right. (3) The normal force with which block M pushes on m. This
108 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

x Nsurf
fs

F
N
N
mg
fs Mg

(a) (b)

Figure 5.5: Free–body diagrams for the blocks described in Example 3.

force necessarily points to the left. (4) The frictional force which block M exerts on m. This
is to be a static friction force, so we have to think about its direction... in this case, it must
clearly oppose the force of gravity to keep the block m from falling. So we include a force fs
pointing up. These forces are shown in Fig. 5.5.
Next we diagram the forces acting on M. There is the force of gravity, with magnitude
Mg, pointing down; the surface beneath M exerts a normal force N pointing upward. Since
this surface is frictionless, it does not exert a horizontal force on M. The mass m will exert
forces on M and these will be equal and opposite to the forces which M exerts on m. So there
is a force N on mass M pointing to the right and a frictional force fs pointing downward.
Now that we have shown all the forces acting on all the masses we can start to discuss
the accelerations of the masses and apply Newton’s Second Law.
The problem says that mass m is not slipping downward during its motion. This must
mean that the forces of friction and gravity balance:

fs = mg .

But this does us little good until we have an expression for fs . Now, in this problem we are
being asked about a critical condition for the slippage of m. We can reasonably guess that
here the force of static friction takes on its maximum value, namely

fs = µs N ,

N being the normal force between the two surfaces. This is an important bit of information,
because combining that last two equations we get:

mg = µs N .

Let’s consider the horizontal motion of both of the masses. Now, since the masses are
always touching, their displacements, velocities and accelerations are always the same. Let
the x acceleration of both masses be a. Then for mass m, Newton’s Second Law gives us:
X
Fx = F − N = ma
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 109

m1

m2

Figure 5.6: Two blocks joined by a rod slide down a slope with friction (coefficient of friction is different
for the two blocks).

while for mass M, we get

N = Ma
Combining these last two equations gives
F
F − Ma = ma =⇒ F = (M + m)a =⇒ a=
(M + m)

which tells us the force N:

MF
N = Ma =
(M + m)
Putting this result for N into our result involving the friction force gives
MF
mg = µs N = µs
(M + m)

which lets us solve for F :

(M + m)m
F = g
Mµs
And now we can substitute the given values:

(M + m)m (16 kg + 88 kg)(16 kg)

F = g= (9.80 sm2 ) = 488 N
Mµs (88 kg)(0.38)

4. In Fig. 5.6 a box of mass m1 = 1.65 kg and a box of mass m2 = 3.30 kg slide
down an inclined plane while attached by a massless rod parallel to the plane.
The angle of incline is θ = 30◦ . The coefficient of kinetic friction between m1 and
the incline is µ1 = 0.226; that between m2 and the incline is µ2 = 0.113. Compute
(a) the tension in the rod and (b) the common acceleration of the two boxes. c)
How would the answers to (a) and (b) change if m2 trailed m1 ? [HRW6 6-26]
110 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

m1 m2
N1 fk, 2 N2
fk, 1 T

T
m1g sin q m2g sin q
m1g cos q m2g cos q

m1g m2g

(a) (b)

Figure 5.7: (a) Forces acting on block 1 in Example 4. We have assumed that the rod pushes outward; if
that is wrong, then T will turn out to be negative. The force of gravity has be split up into components.
(b) Forces acting on block 2 in Example 4.

(a) We will shortly be drawing force diagrams for the two masses, but we should first pause
and consider the force which comes from the rod joining the two masses. A “rod” differs
from a “cord” in our problems in that it can pull inward on either end or else push outward .
(Strings can only pull inward.) For the purpose of writing down our equations we need to
make some assumption about what is happening and so here I will assume that the rod is
pushing outward with a force of magnitude T , i.e. the rod is compressed. Should it arise in
our solution that we get a negative number for T , all is not lost; we will then know that the
rod is really pulling inward with a force of magnitude |T | and so the rod is being stretched.
With that in mind, we draw a diagram for the forces acting on block 1 and there are a
lot of them, as shown in Fig. 5.7(a). Rod tension T and the force of kinetic friction on block
1 (to oppose the motion) point up the slope. The “slope” component of gravity m1g sin θ
points down the slope. The normal component of gravity m1g cos θ points into the surface
and the normal force N1 from the slope points out of the surface.
As there is no acceleration perpendicular to the slope, those force components sum to
zero, giving:
N1 − m1g cos θ = 0 or N1 = m1 g cos θ
The sum of force components in the down–the–slope direction gives m1 a, where a is the
down–the–slope acceleration common to both masses. So then:

m1 g sin θ − T − fk,1 = m1a

We can substitute for fk,1 , since fk,1 = µ1 N1 = µ1 m1 g cos θ. That gives:

m1 g sin θ − T − µ1 m1g cos θ = m1a (5.5)

We have a fine equation here, but T and a are both unknown; we need another equation!
The forces acting on block 2 are shown in Fig. 5.7(b). The force of kinetic friction fk,2
points up the slope. The rod tension T and the “slope” component of gravity m2 g sin θ point
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 111

down the slope. The normal component of gravity m2g cos θ points into the surface and the
normal force of the surface on 2, N2 , points out of the slope.
Again there is no net force perpendicular to the slope, so

N2 − m2 g cos θ = 0 or N2 = m2g cos θ .

The sum of the down–the–slope forces on m2 gives m2a, so:

m2g sin θ + T − fk,2 = m2 a

We can substitute for the force of kinetic friction here, with fk,2 = µ2 N2 = µ2 m2g cos θ.
Then:
m2g sin θ + T − µ2 m2 g cos θ = m2 a (5.6)
Two equations (5.5 and 5.5) and tow unknowns (T and a). The physics is done, the rest
is math!
In solving the equations I will go for an analytic (algebraic) solution, then plug in the
numbers at the end. Aside from giving us some good practice with algebra, it will be useful
in answering part (c).
We note that if we add Eqs. 5.5 and 5.5, T will be eliminated and we can then find a.
When we do this, we get:

m1 g sin θ + m2 g sin θ − µ1 g cos θ − µ2 g cos θ = ma + m2a

Lots of factoring to do here! Pulling out some common factors, this is:

g [(m1 + m2) sin θ − cos θ(µ1 m1 + µ2 m2)] = (m1 + m2)a

and then we get a:

g [(m1 + m2 ) sin θ − cos θ(µ1 m1 + µ2 m2 )]

a= (5.7)
(m1 + m2)

But it’s really T we want in part (a). We can eliminate a by multiplying Eq. 5.5 by m2:

m1m2g sin θ − m2T − µ1 m1m2g cos θ = m1m2 a

and Eq. 5.6 by m2:

m1m2 g sin θ + m1 T − µ2 m1 m2g cos θ = m1m2a

and then subtracting the second from the first. Some terms cancel, and this gives:

−m2T − m1 T − µ1 m1m2 g cos θ + µ2 m1m2 g cos θ = 0

Factor things:
−T (m1 + m2) = m1m2 g cos θ(µ1 − µ2 )
112 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

and finally get an expression for T :

m1m2 g cos θ(µ2 − µ1 )

T = (5.8)
(m1 + m2)

Hey, that algebra wasn’t so bad, was it? Now we have general expressions for T and a.
Plugging numbers into Eq. 5.8, we get:

(1.65 kg)(3.30 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) cos 30◦ (0.113 − 0.226)

T =
(1.65 kg + 3.30 kg)
= −1.05 N

Oops! T came out negative! What we find from this is that the assumption was wrong and
the rod is really being stretched as the blocks slide down the slope, and the magnitude of
the rod’s tension is 1.05 N.
(b) To find the acceleration of the blocks, plug numbers into Eq. 5.7:

(9.80 sm2 ) [(1.65 kg + 3.30 kg) sin 30◦ − cos 30◦ ((0.226)(1.65 kg) + (0.113)(3.30 kg)]
a =
(1.65 kg + 3.30 kg)
m
= 3.62 s2

The (common) acceleration of the blocks is 3.62 sm2 .

(c) Now we ask: What would the answers to (a) and (b) be if the blocks had slid down the
slope with m1 in the lead? Would it make any difference at all? It might, since the friction
forces on the masses come from two different µ’s. In any case, with our analytic results
Eqs. 5.7 and 5.8 we can find the results of switching the labels “1” and “2”, since that is all
we would get from having the blocks switch positions.
If we switch “1” and “2” in Eq. 5.7, we can see that the result for a will not change at all
because the sums within that expression are not affected by the switch. So the connected
blocks will slide down the slope with the same acceleration, namely 3.62 sm2 for the given
values.
What about T ? From Eq. 5.8 we see that switching “1” and “2” gives an overall change in
sign because of the factor (µ2 − µ1 ). (The other factors don’t change for this switch.) So we
know that plugging in the numbers for the case where blocks 1 leads would give T = +1.05 N,
and since this is a positive number, the assumption about the rod being compressed (and as
a result pushing outward) would be correct. So for the case where m1 leads, the magnitude
of the rod’s tension is the same (1.05 N) , but now it pushing outward .

5. A 3.0 − kg block starts from rest at the top of a 30.0◦ incline and slides 2.0 m
down the incline in 1.5 s. Find (a) the magnitude of the acceleration of the block,
(b) the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the plane, (c) the
frictional force acting on the block and (d) the speed of the block after it has
slid 2.0 m. [Ser4 5-57]
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 113

y
t=0 x N
fk
x
2.0 m
v=0 mg sin q
t = 1.5 s q

30o mg cos q

mg
(a) (b)

Figure 5.8: (a) Block slides down rough slope in Example 5. (b) Forces acting on the block.

(a) The basic information about the motion of the block is summarized in Fig. 5.8(a). We
use a coordinate system where x points down the slope and y is perpendicular to the slope.
We’ll put the origin of the coordinate system at the place where the block begins its motion.
The block’s motion down the slope is one of constant acceleration. (This must be so,
since all of the forces acting on the block are constant.) Of course, this is an acceleration in
the x direction, as there is no y motion. It begins its slide starting from rest (v0x = 0) and
so the block’s motion is given by:
x = x0 + v0xt + 21 ax t2 = 12 ax t2 .
We are told that at t = 1.5 s, x = 2.0 m. Substitute and solve for ax :
2(2.0 m)
2.0 m = 21 ax (1.5 s)2 =⇒ ax = = 1.78 sm2
(1.5 s)2
The magnitude of the block’s acceleration is 1.78 sm2 .
(b) We must now think about the forces which act on the block. They are shown in
Fig. 5.8(b). Gravity pulls downward with a force mg, which we decompose into its compo-
nents along the slope and perpendicular to it. The surface exerts a normal force N. There
is also a force of kinetic friction from the slope. Since the block is moving down the slope,
the friction force must point up the slope.
The block moves only along the x axis; the forces in the y direction must sum to zero.
Referring to Fig. 5.8(b), we get:
X
Fy = N − mg cos θ = 0 =⇒ N = mg cos θ .
This gives us the normal force of the surface on the block; here, θ = 30.0◦ .
The block does have an acceleration in the x direction, which we’ve already found in part
(a). The sum of the forces in the +x direction gives max:
X
Fx = mg sin θ − fk = max
114 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

Now we use the formula for the force of kinetic friction: fk = µk N. Using our expression for
the normal force gives us:
fk = µk N = µk mg cos θ
and using this result in the last equation gives

mg sin θ − µk mg cos θ = max .

Here, the only unknown is µk , so we find it with a little algebra: First off, we can cancel the
common factor of m that appears in all terms:

g sin θ − µk g cos θ = ax

and then solve for µk :

µk g cos θ = g sin θ − ax
= (9.80 sm2 ) sin 30.0◦ − (1.78 sm2 ) = 3.12 sm2

So we get:
(3.12 sm2 )
µk = = 0.368
(9.80 sm2 )(cos 30.0◦ )

(c) As we have seen in part (b), the magnitude of the (kinetic) friction force on the mass is

fk = µk mg cos θ
= (0.368)(3.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) cos 30.0◦
= 9.4 N

The force of friction is 9.4 N.

(d) We know the acceleration of the block, its initial velocity (v0x = 0) and the time of travel
to slide 2.0 m; its final velocity is

v = v0x + ax t = 0 + (1.78 m
s2
)(1.50 s) = 2.67 ms

6. Three masses are connected on a table as shown in Fig. 5.9. The table has a
coefficient of sliding friction of 0.35. The three masses are 4.0 kg, 1.0 kg, and 2.0 kg,
respectively and the pulleys are frictionless. (a) Determine the acceleration of
each block and their directions. (b) Determine the tensions in the two cords.
[Ser4 5-59]

(a) First, a little thinking about what we expect to happen. Surely, since the larger mass is
hanging on the left side we expect the 4.0 kg mass to accelerate downward, the 1.0 [kg block
to accelerate to the right and the 2.0 kg block to accelerate upward. Also, since the masses
are connected by strings as shown in the figure, the magnitudes of all three accelerations
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 115

mk = 0.35

1.0 kg

4.0 kg 2.0 kg

Figure 5.9: System for Example 6

T2
T1 N

T2
T1

fk

m2 g m3g
m1g

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.10: Free–body diagrams for the three masses in Example 6. (a) Forces on the mass m1 = 4.0 kg.
(b) Forces on the mass m2 = 1.0 kg. (c) Forces on the mass m3 = 2.0 kg. The directions of motion assumed
for each mass are also shown.
116 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

must be the same, because in any time interval the magnitudes of their displacements will
always be the same. So each mass will have an acceleration of magnitude a with the direction
appropriate for each mass.
Now we consider the forces acting on each mass. We draw free–body diagrams! If the
tension in the left string is T1 then the forces on the 4.0 kg mass are as shown in Fig. 5.10(a).
The string tension T1 pulls upward; gravity pulls downward with a force m1g.
The forces acting on m2 are shown in Fig. 5.10(b). We have more of them to think about;
gravity pulls with a force m2g downward. The table pushes upward with a normal force N.
It also exerts a frictional force on m2 which opposes its motion. Since we think we know
which way m2 is going to go (left!), the friction force fk must point to the right. There are
also forces from the strings. There is a force T1 to the left from the tension in the first string
and a force T2 pointing to the right from the tension in the other string. (Note, since these
are two different pieces of string, they can have different tensions.)
The forces on m3 are shown in Fig. 5.10(c). There is a string tension T2 pulling up and
gravity m3 g pulling down.
All right, lets write down some equations! By Newton’s Second Law, the sum of the down-
ward forces on m1 should give m1 a. (We agreed that its acceleration would be downward.)
This gives:
m1 g − T1 = m1 a (5.9)
Moving on to mass m2, the vertical forces must cancel, giving

N = m2 g .

Newton tells us that the sum of the left–pointing forces must give m2a (we decided that its
acceleration would be of magnitude a, toward the left) and this gives:

T1 − fk − T2 = m2a

But since
fk = µk N = µk m2 g ,
this becomes
T1 − µk m2g − T2 = m2a . (5.10)
Finally, the sum of the upward forces on m3 must give m3a. So:

T2 − m3 g = m3 a (5.11)

Having done this work in writing down these wonderful equations we stand back, admire
our work and ask if we can go on to solve them. We note that there are three unknowns (a,
T1 and T2) and we have three equations. We can find a solution. The physics is done. . . only
the algebra remains.
We can do the algebra in the following way: If we just add Eqs. 5.9, 5.10 and 5.11 together
(that is, add all the left–hand–sides together and the right–hand–sides together) we find that
both T ’s cancel out. We get:

m1 g − T1 + T1 − µk m2g − T2 +2 −m3g = m1 a + m2a + m3a

5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 117

which simplifies to:

m1 g − µk m2 g − m3g = (m1 + m2 + m3)a
Now we can easily find a:
(m1 − µk m2 − m3)g
a =
(m1 + m2 + m3)
[(4.0 kg) − (0.35)(1.0 kg) − (2.0 kg)](9.80 sm2 )
=
(4.0 kg + 1.0 kg + 2.0 kg)
(1.65 kg)(9.80 sm2 )
= = 2.31 sm2
(7.0 kg)
So our complete answer to part (a) is: m1 accelerates at 2.31 sm2 downward; m2 accelerates
at 2.31 sm2 to the left; m3 accelerates at 2.31 sm2 upward.
(b) Finding the tensions in the strings is now easy; just use the equations we found in part
(a).
To get T1 , we can use Eq. 5.9, which gives us:

T1 = m1 g − m1a = m1 (g − a) = (4.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 − 2.31 sm2 ) = 30.0 N .

To get T2 we can use Eq. 5.11 which gives us:

T2 = m3 g + m3a = m3(g + a) = (2.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 + 2.31 sm2 ) = 24.2 N .

The tension in the string on the left is 30.0 N. The tension in the string on the right is
24.2 N.

7. A block is placed on a plane inclined at 35◦ relative to the horizontal. If the

block slides down the plane with an acceleration of magnitude g/3, determine
the coefficient of kinetic friction between block and plane. [Ser4 5-61]

The forces acting on the block (which has mass m) as it slides down the inclined plane are
shown in Fig. 5.11. The force of gravity has magnitude mg and points straight down; here
it is split into components normal to the slope and down the slope, which have magnitudes
mg cos θ and mg sin θ, respectively, with θ = 35◦ . The surface exerts a normal force N and
a force of kinetic friction, fk , which, since the block is moving down the slope, points up the
slope.
The block can only accelerate along the direction of the slope, so the forces perpendicular
to the slope must add to zero. This gives us:

N − mg cos θ = 0 =⇒ N = mg cos θ

The acceleration of the block down the slope was given to us as a = g/3. Then summing
the forces which point along the slope, we have

mg sin θ − fk = ma = mg/3
118 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

N
fk
Dir. of motion

mg sin q

mg cos q

350 mg

Figure 5.11: Forces on the block in Example 7.

The force of kinetic friction is equal to µk N, and using our expression for N we have

fk = µk N = µk mg cos θ

and putting this into the previous equation gives:

mg sin θ − µk mg cos θ = mg/3 .

Fortunately, the mass m cancels from this equation; we get:

g sin θ − µk g cos θ = g/3

And now the only unknown is µk which we solve for:

g
µk g cos θ = g sin θ − = g(sin θ − 31 )
3
Here we see that g also cancels, although we always knew the value of g! We then get:
(sin θ − 13 ) (sin 35◦ − 13 )
µk = = = 0.293
cos θ cos 35◦
So the coefficient of kinetic friction between block and slope is 0.293.

8. A 2.0 kg block is placed on top of a 5.0 kg as shown in Fig. 5.12. The coefficient
of kinetic friction between the 5.0 kg block and the surface is 0.20. A horizontal
force F is applied to the 5.0 kg block. (a) Draw a free–body diagram for each
block. What force accelerates the 2.0 kg block? (b) Calculate the magnitude of
the force necessary to pull both blocks to the right with an acceleration of 3.0 sm2 .
(c) find the minimum coefficient of static friction between the blocks such that
the 2.0 kg block does not slip under an acceleration of 3.0 sm2 . [Ser4 5-73]

(a) What forces act on each block?

On the big block (with mass M = 5.0 kg, let’s say) we have the applied force F which
pulls to the right. There is the force of gravity, Mg downward. The surface exerts a normal
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 119

2.0 kg
mk = 0.20
F
5.0 kg

Figure 5.12: Figure for Example 8.

M m N2
N1

fs
F fs

fk

N2
Mg mg

(a) (b)

Figure 5.13: (a) Forces acting on the large block, M = 5.0 kg. (b) Forces acting on the small block,
m = 2.0 kg.

force N1 upward. There is a friction force from the surface, which is directed to the left. The
small mass will also exert forces on mass M; it exerts a normal force N2 which is directed
downward ; we know this because M is pushing upward on m. Now, M is exerting a force
of static friction fs on m which goes to the right; so m must exert a friction force fs on M
which points to the left.
These forces are diagrammed in Fig. 5.13(a).
On the small block we have the force of gravity, mg downward. Mass M exerts an upward
normal force N2 on it, and also a force of static friction fs on it, pointing to the right. It
is this force which accelerates m as it moves along with M (without slipping). These forces
are diagrammed in Fig. 5.13(b).
Notice how the forces between M and m, namely N2 (normal) and fs , have the same
magnitude but opposite directions, in accordance with Newton’s Third Law. They are so–
called “action–reaction pairs”.
(b) The blocks will have a horizontal acceleration but no vertical motion, so that allows us
to solve for some of the forces explained in part (a). The vertical forces on m must sum to
zero, giving us:

N2 − mg = 0 =⇒ N2 = mg = (2.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) = 19.6 N

120 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

and the vertical forces on M must sum to zero, giving us:

N1 − N2 − Mg = 0 =⇒ N1 = N2 + Mg = 19.6 N + (5.0 kg)(9.80 m

s2
) = 68.6 N

We are given that the acceleration of both blocks is 3.0 sm2 . Applying Newton’s Second
Law to mass m we find:

Fx = fs = max = (2.0 kg)(3.0 sm2 ) = 6.0 N

X

While applying it to M gives

Fx = F − fk − fs = Max = (5.0 kg)(3.0 sm2 ) = 15.0 N

X

We found fs above; we do know the force of kinetic friction (from M’s sliding on the surface)
because we know the coefficient of kinetic friction and the normal force N1:

fk = µk N1 = (0.20)(68.6 N) = 13.7 N

Now we can solve for F :

F = 15.0 N + fk + fs
= 15.0 N + 13.7 N + 6.0 N
= 34.7 N

To pull the blocks together to the right with an acceleration 3.0 sm2 we need an applied force
of 34.7 N.
(c) As we’ve seen, mass m accelerates because of the friction force fs (from M’s surface)
which acts on it. Forces of static friction have a maximum value; here we know that we must
have
fs ≤ µs N2
in order for m not to slip on M. Here, we have fs = 6.0 N and N2 = 19.6 N. So the critical
value of µs for our example is
f2
µs = = 0.306
N2
If µs is less than this value, static friction cannot supply the force needed to accelerate m
at 3.0 sm2 . So µs = 0.306 is the minimum value of the coefficient of static friction so that the
upper block does not slip.

5.2.2 Uniform Circular Motion Revisited

9. A toy car moving at constant speed completes one lap around a circular track
(a distance of 200 m) in 25.0 s. (a) What is the average speed? (b) If the mass of
the car is 1.50 kg, what is the magnitude of the central force that keeps it in a
circle? [Ser4 6-1]
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 121

r
m

Figure 5.14: Mass m moves; mass M hangs!

(a) If a lap around the circular track is of length 200 m then the (average) speed of the car
is
d 200 m
v= = = 8.00 ms
t 25.0 s

(b) The car undergoes uniform circular motion, moving in a circle of radius r with speed v.
The net force on the car points toward the center of the circle and has magnitude

mv 2
Fcent =
r
Actually, we haven’t found r yet. We are given the circumference of the circle, and from
C = 2πr we find
C 200 m
r= = = 31.8 m
2π 2π
So the net force on the car has magnitude

mv 2 (1.50 kg)(8.00 ms )2
Fcent = = = 3.02 N
r (31.8 m)

The net force on the car has magnitude 3.02 N; its direction is always inward, keeping the
car on a circular path.

10. A mass M on a frictionless table is attached to a hanging mass M by a cord

through a hole in the table, as shown in Fig. 5.14. Find the speed with which
m must move in order for M to stay at rest. [HRW5 6-57]

Taking mass M to be at rest, we see that mass m must be moving in a circle of constant
radius r. It is moving at (constant) speed v; so mass m undergoes uniform circular motion.
So the net force on m points toward the center of the circle and has magnitude Fcent = mv 2/r.
The free–body diagram for m is shown in Fig. 5.15(a). The only force on m is the string
122 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

T
T
acent

Mg
(a) (b)

Figure 5.15: (a) Force on mass m and the direction of its acceleration. (There are also vertical forces,
gravity and the table’s normal force, which cancel; these are not shown.) (b) Forces acting on hanging mass
M.

tension (pointing toward the center of the circle). This gives us:

mv 2
T =
r
Next consider the forces acting on M and its motion. The force diagram for M is shown
in Fig. 5.15(b). Since mass M is at rest, the net force on it is zero, which gives:

T = Mg

Combining these two results, we get:

mv 2
= Mg
r
Solving for v, we get: s
Mgr Mgr
v2 = =⇒ v=
m m

11. A stuntman drives a car over the top of a hill, the cross section of which can
be approximated by a circle of radius 250 m, as in Fig. 5.16. What is the greatest
speed at which he can drive without the car leaving the road at the top of the
hill? [HRW5 6-58]

We begin by thinking about the forces acting on the car and its acceleration when it is
at the top of the hill.
At the top of the hill, the car is moving in a circular path of radius r = 250 m with some
speed v. Then the car has a centripetal acceleration of magnitude v 2/r which is directed
downward. (For all we know, it may also have a tangential acceleration as well, but the
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 123

250 m

Figure 5.16: Car drives over the top of a hill in Example 11.

mg

Figure 5.17: Forces acting on the car in Example 11 when it is at the top of the hill.

problem gives no information on it, and it won’t be relevant for the problem.) By Newton’s
Second Law, the net (vertical) force on the car must have magnitude mv 2/r and must be
directed downward .
The forces acting on the car are shown in Fig. 5.17. Then the force of gravity is mg
downward. The road exerts a normal force of magnitude N upward. One may ask how we
know the road’s force goes upward. This is because there is no physical way in which a road
can pull downward on a car driving over it. But it can push up.
We combine the results from the last two paragraphs. The net downward force must
equal mv 2/r. This gives us:
mv 2
mg − N = .
r
however without knowing anything more, we can’t solve for v in this equation because we
don’t know N (or, for that matter, m).
We have not yet used the condition that the car is on the verge of leaving the road at
the top of the hill. What does this condition give us? If we use the last equation to find the
normal force:
mv 2
N = mg −
r
we see that if we increase v there comes a point at which N must be negative in order for
the car to stay on the road moving on its circular arc. But as discussed above, N can’t be
negative. But it can be zero, and it is for this speed that the car is on the verge of leaving
the road at the top of the hill. The critical case has N = 0, and this gives us:

mv 2 mv 2
0 = mg − =⇒ = mg .
r r
124 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

v
r
a

Figure 5.18: Coin moves with a rotating turntable

Toward center
N

fs

mg

Figure 5.19: Forces acting on the coin in Example 12

Note that the mass m cancels out of this equation so we don’t need to know m. We get:
m2
v 2 = rg = (250 m)(9.80 sm2 ) = 2.45 × 103 s2

and finally
v = 49.5 ms .
The car may be driven as fast as 49.5 ms and it will stay on the road.

12. A coin placed 30.0 cm from the center of a rotating, horizontal turntable slips
when its speed is 50.0 cm
s
. (a) What provides the central force when the coin is
stationary relative to the turntable? (b) What is the coefficient of static friction
between the coin and turntable? [Ser4 6-13]

(a) See Fig. 5.18 for a fine illustration of the problem.

As the coin executes uniform circular motion (before it slips) it is accelerating toward
the center of the turntable! So there must be a force (or forces) on the coin causing it to
do this. This force can only come from its contact interaction with the turntable, i.e. from
friction. Here, since we are dealing with the case where the coin is not sliding with respect
to the surface, it is the force of static friction. Furthermore, the force of static friction is
directed toward the center of the turntable.
(b) A view of the forces acting on the coin is given in Fig. 5.19. If the mass of the coin is
m then gravity exerts a force mg downward, the turntable exerts a normal force N upward
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 125

and there is a force of static friction, which as we discussed in part (a) must point toward
the center of the turntable.
The acceleration of the coin points toward the center of the circle and has magnitude v 2/r,
(r being the distance of the coin from the center). So the vertical forces must cancel, giving
us N = mg. The net force points inward and has magnitude mv 2/r, so that fs = mv 2/r.
Now for the conditions at which the coin starts to slip, the force of static friction has
reached its maximum value, i.e.
fs = µs N
but here we can use our results to substitute for fs and for N. This give us:
mv 2
= µs mg
r
which lets us solve for µ:
v2 (50.0 cm
s
)2 (0.500 ms )2
µs = = m = m = 8.50 × 10
−2
rg (30.0 cm)(9.80 s2 ) (0.300 m)(9.80 s2 )

So the coefficient of static friction for the turntable and coin is µs = 8.50 × 10−2 .
We were never given the mass of the coin, but we did not need it because it cancelled
out of our equations just before the final answer.

13. A Ferris wheel rotates four times each minute; it has a diameter of 18.0 m.
(a) What is the centripetal acceleration of a rider? What force does the seat
exert on a 40.0 − kg rider (b) at the lowest point of the ride and (c) at the highest
point of the ride? (d) What force (magnitude and direction) does the seat exert
on a rider when the rider is halfway between top and bottom? [Ser4 6-51]

(a) First, calculate some numbers which we know are important for circular motion! The
wheel turns around 4 times in one minute, so the time for one turn must be
1.0 min 60.0 s
T = = = 15 s .
4 4
Also, since the radius of the wheel is R = D/2 = 18.0 m/2 = 9.0 m, the circumference of the
wheel is
C = 2πR = 2π(9.0 m) = 57 m
and then the speed of a rider is
C 57 m
v= = = 3.8 ms .
T 15 s
The rider moves at constant speed in a circular path of radius R. So the rider’s acceleration
is always directed toward the center of the circle and it has magnitude
v2 (3.8 ms )2
acent = = = 1.6 sm2
R (9.0 m)
126 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

Fseat
Fseat
a

Mg Mg

(a) (b)

Figure 5.20: Forces acting on the Ferris wheel rider (a) at the lowest point of the ride and (b) at the
highest point of the ride.

The centripetal acceleration of the rider is 1.6 sm2 .

(b) Consider what is happening when rider is at the lowest point of the ride. His acceleration
is upward (toward the center of the circle!) and has magnitude 1.6 sm2 .
What are the forces acting on the rider (who has mass M, let’s say) at this point? These
are shown in Fig. 5.20(a). Gravity pulls down on the rider with a force of magnitude Mg, and
the seat pushes upward on the rider with a force Fseat. (Usually seats can’t pull downward;
also, the force of the seat can’t have any sideways component because here the net force
must point upward ). Since the net force points upward and has magnitude Fcent = Mv 2 /R,
Newton’s Second Law gives us:
Mv 2
Fseat − Mg =
R
Since M = 40.0 kg, we get:

Mv 2 m (40.0 kg)(3.8 ms )2
Fseat = Mg + = (40.0 kg)(9.80 s2 ) + = 460 N
R (9.0 m)
The seat pushes upward on the rider with a force of magnitude 460 N. We might say that
when the rider at the lowest point, the rider has an apparent weight of 460 N, since that is
the force of the surface on which the rider rests. Here, the apparent weight is greater than
the true weight Mg of the rider.
(c) When the rider is at the highest point of the wheel, his acceleration is downward . The
forces acting on the rider are shown in Fig. 5.20(b); these are the same forces as in part (a)
but now the net force points downward and has magnitude Fcent = Mv 2/R. Adding up the
downward forces, Newton’s Second Law now gives us:
Mv 2
Mg − Fseat =
R
which now gives us

Mv 2 (40.0 kg)(3.8 ms )2
Fseat = Mg − = (40.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) − = 330 N .
R (9.0 m)
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 127

Fseat

Mg

Figure 5.21: Forces on the rider when he is halfway between top and bottom.

The seat pushes upward on the rider with a force of magnitude 330 N. We would say that at
the top of the ride, the apparent weight of the rider is 330 N. This time the apparent weight
is less than the true weight of the rider.
(d) When the rider is halfway between top and bottom, the net force on him still points
toward the center of the circle (and has magnitude Mv 2/R), but in this case the direction
is horizontal, as indicated in Fig. 5.21. (In this picture the rider is on the right side of the
Ferris wheel, as we look at it face–on.) The forces acting on the rider are also shown in this
picture. The force of gravity, Mg can only pull downward. The only other force on the rider,
namely that of the seat does not push straight upward in this case. We know that it can’t,
because the sum of the two forces must point horizontally (to the right). The force of the
seat must also have a horizontal component; it must point as shown in Fig. 5.21.
Without being overly formal about the mathematics we can see that the vertical com-
ponent of Fseat must be Mg so as to cancel the force of gravity. The vertical component of
Fseat must have magnitude
Fseat, vert = Mg = (40.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) = 392 N
The horizontal component of Fseat must equal Mv 2 /R since as we’ve seen, that is the net
force on the rider. So:
Mv 2 (40.0 kg)(3.8 ms )2
Fseat, horiz = = = 64 N
R (9.0 m)
Now we can find the magnitude of the force of the seat:
q
Fseat = Fseat, vert2 + Fseat, horiz2
q
= (392 N)2 + (64 N)2
= 397 N
and this force is directed at an angle θ above the horizontal, where θ is given by
!
Fseat, vert 392 N
 
θ = tan −1
= tan−1 = 81◦
Fseat, horiz 64 N
The force of the seat has magnitude 397 N and is directed at 81◦ above the horizontal.
128 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II

r
R
R

r=2R

Figure 5.22: Satellite orbits the Earth in Example 14.

5.2.3 Newton’s Law of Gravity (Optional for Calculus–Based)

14. A satellite of mass 300 kg is in a circular orbit around the Earth at an altitude
equal to the Earth’s mean radius (See Fig. 5.22.) Find (a) the satellite’s orbital
speed, (b) the period of its revolution, and (c) the gravitational force acting on
it. Use: REarth = 6.37 × 106 m and MEarth = 5.98 × 1024 kg. [Ser4 6-6]

(a) (Comment: This was the way the problem was originally stated. I will find the answers
in a different order!)
We are told that the height of satellite above the surface of the Earth is equal to the
Earth’s radius. This means that the radius of the satellite’s orbit is equal to twice the radius
of the Earth. Since the mean radius of the Earth is R = 6.37 × 106 m, then the orbit radius
is
r = 2R = 2(6.37 × 106 m) = 1.27 × 107 m .
The satellite is always at this distance from the center of the Earth; Newton’s law of gravi-
tation tells us the force which the Earth exerts on the satellite:
msat MEarth
Fgrav = G
r2

N·m2
 (300 kg)(5.98 × 1024 kg)
= 6.67 × 10−11 kg2 (1.27 × 107 m)2
= 7.42 × 102 N

This force is always directed toward the center of the Earth. Since this is the only force
which acts on the satellite, it is also the (net) centripetal force on it:

mv 2
Fcent = = 7.42 × 102 N
r
We can now find the speed of the satellite. It is:

rFcent (1.27 × 107 m)(7.42 × 102 N) m2

v2 = = = 3.14 × 107 s2
m (300 kg)
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 129

which gives
v = 5.60 × 103 m
s
.
m
So the satellite’s orbital speed is 5.60 × 103 s
.
(b) Recall that the speed of an object in uniform circular motion is related to the period
and radius by:
2πr
v=
T
From this we get the period of the satellite’s orbit:
2πr
T =
v
2π(1.27 × 107 m)
=
(5.60 × 103 ms )
= 1.42 × 104 s = 3.96 hr

The period of the satellite is 3.96 hr.

(c) The answer to this part has been found already! The gravitational force acting on the
satellite is 7.42 × 102 N.
130 CHAPTER 5. FORCES AND MOTION II
Chapter 6

Work, Kinetic Energy and Potential

Energy

6.1 The Important Stuff

6.1.1 Kinetic Energy
For an object with mass m and speed v, the kinetic energy is defined as

K = 21 mv 2 (6.1)

Kinetic energy is a scalar (it has magnitude but no direction); it is always a positive
number; and it has SI units of kg · m2/ s2 . This new combination of the basic SI units is
known as the joule:
2
1 joule = 1 J = 1 kg·m
s2
(6.2)
As we will see, the joule is also the unit of work W and potential energy U. Other energy
units often seen are:
2
1 erg = 1 g·cm
s2
= 10−7 J 1 eV = 1.60 × 10−19 J

6.1.2 Work
When an object moves while a force is being exerted on it, then work is being done on the
object by the force.
If an object moves through a displacement d while a constant force F is acting on it, the
force does an amount of work equal to

W = F · d = F d cos φ (6.3)

where φ is the angle between d and F.

Work is also a scalar and has units of 1 N · m. But we can see that this is the same as
the joule, defined in Eq. 6.2.

127
128 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

Work can be negative; this happens when the angle between force and displacement is
larger than 90◦ . It can also be zero; this happens if φ = 90◦ . To do work, the force must
have a component along (or opposite to) the direction of the motion.
If several different (constant) forces act on a mass while it moves though a displacement
d, then we can talk about the net work done by the forces,

Wnet = F1 · d + F1 · d + F1 · d + . . . (6.4)
X 
= F ·d (6.5)
= Fnet · d (6.6)

If the force which acts on the object is not constant while the object moves then we must
perform an integral (a sum) to find the work done.
Suppose the object moves along a straight line (say, along the x axis, from xi to xf ) while
a force whose x component is Fx(x) acts on it. (That is, we know the force Fx as a function
of x.) Then the work done is Z xf
W = Fx(x) dx (6.7)
xi

Finally, we can give the most general expression for the work done by a force. If an object
moves from ri = xi i + yi j + zi k to rf = xf i + yf j + zf k while a force F(r) acts on it the work
done is: Z xf Z yf Z zf
W = Fx(r) dx + Fy (r) dy + Fz (r) dz (6.8)
xi yi zi

where the integrals are calculated along the path of the object’s motion. This expression
can be abbreviated as Z rf
W = F · dr . (6.9)
ri

This is rather abstract! But most of the problems where we need to calculate the work done
by a force will just involve Eqs. 6.3 or 6.7
We’re familiar with the force of gravity; gravity does work on objects which move ver-
tically. One can show that if the height of an object has changed by an amount ∆y then
gravity has done an amount of work equal to

Wgrav = −mg∆y (6.10)

regardless of the horizontal displacement. Note the minus sign here; if the object increases
in height it has moved oppositely to the force of gravity.

6.1.3 Spring Force

The most famous example of a force whose value depends on position is the spring force,
which describes the force exerted on an object by the end of an ideal spring. An ideal
spring will pull inward on the object attached to its end with a force proportional to the
amount by which it is stretched; it will push outward on the object attached to its with a
force proportional to amount by which it is compressed.
6.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 129

If we describe the motion of the end of the spring with the coordinate x and put the
origin of the x axis at the place where the spring exerts no force (the equilibrium position)
then the spring force is given by
Fx = −kx (6.11)
Here k is force constant, a number which is different for each ideal spring and is a measure
of its “stiffness”. It has units of N/ m = kg/ s2 . This equation is usually referred to as
Hooke’s law. It gives a decent description of the behavior of real springs, just as long as
they can oscillate about their equilibrium positions and they are not stretched by too much!
When we calculate the work done by a spring on the object attached to its end as the
object moves from xi to xf we get:

Wspring = 12 kx2i − 12 kx2f (6.12)

6.1.4 The Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem

One can show that as a particle moves from point ri to rf , the change in kinetic energy of
the object is equal to the net work done on it:

∆K = Kf − Ki = Wnet (6.13)

6.1.5 Power
In certain applications we are interested in the rate at which work is done by a force. If an
amount of work W is done in a time ∆t, then we say that the average power P due to the
force is
W
P = (6.14)
∆t
In the limit in which both W and ∆t are very small then we have the instantaneous power
P , written as:
dW
P = (6.15)
dt
The unit of power is the watt, defined by:
2
1 watt = 1 W = 1 Js = 1 kg·m
s3
(6.16)

The watt is related to a quaint old unit of power called the horsepower:

1 horsepower = 1 hp = 550 ft·lb

s
= 746 W

One can show that if a force F acts on a particle moving with velocity v then the
instantaneous rate at which work is being done on the particle is

P = F · v = F v cos φ (6.17)

where φ is the angle between the directions of F and v.

130 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

6.1.6 Conservative Forces

The work done on an object by the force of gravity does not depend on the path taken to
get from one position to another. The same is true for the spring force. In both cases we
just need to know the initial and final coordinates to be able to find W , the work done by
that force.
This situation also occurs with the general law for the force of gravity (Eq. 5.4.) as well
as with the electrical force which we learn about in the second semester!
This is a different situation from the friction forces studied in Chapter 5. Friction forces
do work on moving masses, but to figure out how much work, we need to know how the
mass got from one place to another.
If the net work done by a force does not depend on the path taken between two points,
we say that the force is a conservative force. For such forces it is also true that the net
work done on a particle moving on around any closed path is zero.

6.1.7 Potential Energy

For a conservative force it is possible to find a function of position called the potential
energy, which we will write as U(r), from which we can find the work done by the force.
Suppose a particle moves from ri to rf . Then the work done on the particle by a conser-
vative force is related to the corresponding potential energy function by:

Wri →rf = −∆U = U(ri ) − U(rf ) (6.18)

The potential energy U(r) also has units of joules in the SI system.
When our physics problems involve forces for which we can have a potential energy
function, we usually think about the change in potential energy of the objects rather than the
work done by these forces. However for non–conservative forces, we must directly calculate
their work (or else deduce it from the data given in our problems).

We have encountered two conservative forces so far in our study. The simplest is the
force of gravity near the surface of the earth, namely −mgj for a mass m, where the y axis
points upward. For this force we can show that the potential energy function is

Ugrav = mgy (6.19)

In using this equation, it is arbitrary where we put the origin of the y axis (i.e. what we call
“zero height”). But once we make the choice for the origin we must stick with it.
The other conservative force is the spring force. A spring of force constant k which is
extended from its equilibrium position by an amount x has a potential energy given by

Uspring = 21 kx2 (6.20)

6.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 131

6.1.8 Conservation of Mechanical Energy

If we separate the forces in the world into conservative and non-conservative forces, then the
work–kinetic energy theorem says

W = Wcons + Wnon−cons = ∆K

But from Eq. 6.18, the work done by conservative forces can be written as a change in
potential energy as:
Wcons = −∆U
where U is the sum of all types of potential energy. With this replacement, we find:

−∆U + Wnon−cons = ∆K

Rearranging this gives the general theorem of the Conservation of Mechanical Energy:

∆K + ∆U = Wnon−cons (6.21)

We define the total energy E of the system as the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies of all the objects:
E =K +U (6.22)
Then Eq. 6.21 can be written

∆E = ∆K + ∆U = Wnon−cons (6.23)

In words, this equation says that the total mechanical energy changes by the amount of work
done by the non–conservative forces.
Many of our physics problems are about situations where all the forces acting on the
moving objects are conservative; loosely speaking, this means that there is no friction, or
else there is negligible friction.
If so, then the work done by non–conservative forces is zero, and Eq. 6.23 takes on a
simpler form:
∆E = ∆K + ∆U = 0 (6.24)
We can write this equation as:

Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf or Ei = Ef

In other words, for those cases where we can ignore friction–type forces, if we add up all
the kinds of energy for the particle’s initial position, it is equal to the sum of all the kinds
of energy for the particle’s final position. In such a case, the amount of mechanical energy
stays the same. . . it is conserved.
Energy conservation is useful in problems where we only need to know about positions
or speeds but not time for the motion.
132 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

6.1.9 Work Done by Non–Conservative Forces

When the system does have friction forces then we must go back to Eq. 6.23. The change in
total mechanical energy equals the work done by the non–conservative forces:

∆E = Ef − Ei = Wnon−cons

(In the case of sliding friction with the rule fk = µk N it is possible to compute the work
done by the non–conservative force.)

6.1.10 Relationship Between Conservative Forces and Potential

Energy (Optional?)
Eqs. 6.9 (the general expression for work W ) and 6.18 give us a relation between the force F
on a particle (as a function of position, r) and the change in potential energy as the particle
moves from ri to rf : Zrf
F · dr = −∆U (6.25)
ri

Very loosely speaking, potential energy is the (negative) of the integral of F(r). Eq. 6.25
can be rewritten to show that (loosely speaking!) the force F(r) is the (minus) derivative of
U(r). More precisely, the components of F can be gotten by taking partial derivatives of U
with respect to the Cartesian coordinates:

∂U ∂U ∂U
Fx = − Fy = − Fz = − (6.26)
∂x ∂y ∂z

In case you haven’t come across partial derivatives in your mathematics education yet:
They come up when we have functions of several variables (like a function of x, y and z); if
we are taking a partial derivative with respect to x, we treat y and z as constants.
As you may have already learned, the three parts of Eq. 6.26 can be compactly written
as
F = −∇U
which can be expressed in words as “F is the negative gradient of U”.

6.1.11 Other Kinds of Energy

This chapter covers the mechanical energy of particles; later, we consider extended objects
which can rotate, and they will also have rotational kinetic energy. Real objects also have
temperature so that they have thermal energy. When we take into account all types of
energy we find that total energy is completely conserved. . . we never lose any! But here we
are counting only the mechanical energy and if (in real objects!) friction is present some of
it can be lost to become thermal energy.
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 133

6.2 Worked Examples

6.2.1 Kinetic Energy

1. If a Saturn V rocket with an Apollo spacecraft attached has a combined mass

of 2.9 × 105 kg and is to reach a speed of 11.2 km
s
, how much kinetic energy will it
then have? [HRW5 7-1]

(Convert some units first.) The speed of the rocket will be

103 m
!
v = (11.2 km
s
) = 1.12 × 104 m
s
.
1 km
We know its mass: m = 2.9 × 105 kg. Using the definition of kinetic energy, we have
K = 21 mv 2 = 12 (2.9 × 105 kg)(1.12 × 104 m 2
s
) = 1.8 × 1013 J
The rocket will have 1.8 × 1013 J of kinetic energy.

2. If an electron (mass m = 9.11 × 10−31 kg) in copper near the lowest possible
temperature has a kinetic energy of 6.7×10−19 J, what is the speed of the electron?
[HRW5 7-2]

Use the definition of kinetic energy, K = 21 mv 2 and the given values of K and m, and
solve for v. We find:
2K 2(6.7 × 10−19 J) m2
v2 = = = 1.47 × 1012 s2
m (9.11 × 10−31 kg)
which gives:
v = 1.21 × 106 m
s
m
The speed of the electron is 1.21 × 106 s
.

6.2.2 Work

3. A floating ice block is pushed through a displacement of d = (15 m)i − (12 m)j
along a straight embankment by rushing water, which exerts a force F = (210 N)i−
(150 N)j on the block. How much work does the force do on the block during the
displacement? [HRW5 7-11]

Here we have the simple case of a straight–line displacement d and a constant force F.
Then the work done by the force is W = F · d. We are given all the components, so we can
compute the dot product using the components of F and d:
W = F · d = Fxdx + Fy dy = (210 N)((15 m) + (−150 N)(−12 m) = 4950 J
134 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

4.00

3.00

Fx, N
2.00

1.00

0.00
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
x, m

Figure 6.1: Force Fx, which depends on position x; see Example 4.

The force does 4950 J of work.

4. A particle is subject to a force Fx that varies with position as in Fig. 6.1. Find
the work done by the force on the body as it moves (a) from x = 0 to x = 5.0 m,
(b) from x = 5.0 m to x = 10 m and (c) from x = 10 m to x = 15 m. (d) What is the
total work done by the force over the distance x = 0 to x = 15 m? [Ser4 7-23]

(a) Here the force is not the same all through the object’s motion, so we can’t use the
simple formula W = Fx x. We must use the more general expression for the work done when
a particle moves along a straight line,
Z xf
W = Fx dx .
xi

Of course, this is just the “area under the curve” of Fx vs. x from xi to xf .
In part (a) we want this “area” evaluated from x = 0 to x = 5.0 m. From the figure, we
see that this is just half of a rectangle of base 5.0 m and height 3.0 N. So the work done is
W = 12 (3.0 N)(5.0 m) = 7.5 J .
(Of course, when we evaluate the “area”, we just keep the units which go along with the
base and the height; here they were meters and newtons, the product of which is a joule.)
So the work done by the force for this displacement is 7.5 J.
(b) The region under the curve from x = 5.0 m to x = 10.0 m is a full rectangle of base
5.0 m and height 3.0 N. The work done for this movement of the particle is
W = (3.0 N)(5.0 m) = 15. J

(c) For the movement from x = 10.0 m to x = 15.0 m the region under the curve is a half
rectangle of base 5.0 m and height 3.0 N. The work done is
W = 12 (3.0 N)(5.0 m) = 7.5 J .
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 135

(d) The total work done over the distance x = 0 to x = 15.0 m is the sum of the three
separate “areas”,
Wtotal = 7.5 J + 15. J + 7.5 J = 30. J

5. What work is done by a force F = (2x N)i + (3 N)j, with x in meters, that moves
a particle from a position ri = (2 m)i + (3 m)j to a position rf = −(4 m)i − (3 m)j ?
[HRW5 7-31]

We use the general definition of work (for a two–dimensional problem),

Z xf Z yf
W = Fx (r) dx + Fy (r) dy
xi yi

With Fx = 2x and Fy = 3 [we mean that F in newtons when x is in meters; work W will
come out with units of joules!], we find:
Z −4 m Z −3 m
W = 2x dx + 3 dy
2m 3m
2 −4 m −3 m
= x + 3x
2m 3m
= [(16) − (4)] J + [(−9) − (9)] J
= −6 J

6.2.3 Spring Force

6. An archer pulls her bow string back 0.400 m by exerting a force that increases
from zero to 230 N. (a) What is the equivalent spring constant of the bow? (b)
How much work is done in pulling the bow? [Ser4 7-25]

(a) While a bow string is not literally spring, it may behave like one in that it exerts a force
on the thing attached to it (like a hand!) that is proportional to the distance of pull from
the equilibrium position. The correspondence is illustrated in Fig. 6.2.
We are told that when the string has been pulled back by 0.400 m, the string exerts a
restoring force of 230 N. The magnitude of the string’s force is equal to the force constant k
times the magnitude of the displacement; this gives us:

|Fstring| = 230 N = k(0.400 m)

Solving for k,
(230 N) N
k= = 575 m
(0.400 m)
N
The (equivalent) spring constant of the bow is 575 m .
136 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

F
F x
x
x=0
x=0
(a) (b)

Figure 6.2: The force of a bow string (a) on the object pulling it back can be modelled as as ideal spring
(b) exerting a restoring force on the mass attached to its end.

(b) Still treating the bow string as if it were an ideal spring, we note that in pulling the
string from a displacement of x = 0 to x = 0.400 m the string does as amount of work on
the hand given by Eq. 6.12:

Wstring = 1
2
kx2i − 21 kx2f
= 0 − 12 (575 mN
)(0.400 m)2
= −46.0 J

Is this answer to the question? Not quite. . . we were really asked for the work done by the
hand on the bow string. But at all times during the pulling, the hand exerted an equal and
opposite force on the string. The force had the opposite direction, so the work that it did
has the opposite sign. The work done (by the hand) in pulling the bow is +46.0 J.

6.2.4 The Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem

7. A 40 kg box initially at rest is pushed 5.0 m along a rough horizontal floor with
a constant applied horizontal force of 130 N. If the coefficient of friction between
the box and floor is 0.30, find (a) the work done by the applied force, (b) the
energy lost due to friction, (c) the change in kinetic energy of the box, and (d)
the final speed of the box. [Ser4 7-37]

(a) The motion of the box and the forces which do work on it are shown in Fig. 6.3(a). The
(constant) applied force points in the same direction as the displacement. Our formula for
the work done by a constant force gives

Wapp = F d cos φ = (130 N)(5.0 m) cos 0◦ = 6.5 × 102 J

The applied force does 6.5 × 102 J of work.

(b) Fig. 6.3(b) shows all the forces acting on the box.
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 137

d N

ffric ffric
Fapp Fapp

mg
(a) (b)

Figure 6.3: (a) Applied force and friction force both do work on the box. (b) Diagram showing all the
forces acting on the box.

The vertical forces acting on the box are gravity (mg, downward) and the floor’s normal
force (N, upward). It follows that N = mg and so the magnitude of the friction force is

ffric = µN = µmg = (0.30)(40 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) = 1.2 × 102 N

The friction force is directed opposite the direction of motion (φ = 180◦ ) and so the work
that it does is

Wfric = F d cos φ
= ffric d cos 180◦ = (1.2 × 102 N)(5.0 m)(−1) = −5.9 × 102 J

or we might say that 5.9 × 102 J is lost to friction.

(c) Since the normal force and gravity do no work on the box as it moves, the net work done
is
Wnet = Wapp + Wfric = 6.5 × 102 J − 5.9 × 102 J = 62 J .
By the work–Kinetic Energy Theorem, this is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the
box:
∆K = Kf − Ki = Wnet = 62 J .

(d) Here, the initial kinetic energy Ki was zero because the box was initially at rest. So we
have Kf = 62 J. From the definition of kinetic energy, K = 12 mv 2, we get the final speed of
the box:
2Kf 2(62 J) 2
vf2 = = = 3.1 ms2
m (40 kg)
so that
vf = 1.8 ms

8. A crate of mass 10.0 kg is pulled up a rough incline with an initial speed of

1.50 ms . The pulling force is 100 N parallel to the incline, which makes an angle of
20.0◦ with the horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.400, and the crate
138 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

0m
5.0 f = 110o
o
70

20o 20
o F

(a) (b)

Figure 6.4: (a) Block moves 5.00 m up plane while acted upon by gravity, friction and an applied force.
(b) Directions of the displacement and the force of gravity.

is pulled 5.00 m. (a) How much work is done by gravity? (b) How much energy
is lost due to friction? (c) How much work is done by the 100 N force? (d) What
is the change in kinetic energy of the crate? (e) What is the speed of the crate
after being pulled 5.00 m? [Ser4 7-47]

(a) We can calculate the work done by gravity in two ways. First, we can use the definition:
W = F · d. The magnitude of the gravity force is

Fgrav = mg = (10.0 kg(9.80 sm2 ) = 98.0 N

and the displacement has magnitude 5.00 m. We see from geometry (see Fig. 6.4(b)) that the
angle between the force and displacement vectors is 110◦ . Then the work done by gravity is

Wgrav = F d cos φ = (98.0 N)(5.00 m) cos 110◦ = −168 J .

Another way to work the problem is to plug the right values into Eq. 6.10. From simple
geometry we see that the change in height of the crate was

∆y = (5.00 m) sin 20◦ = +1.71 m

Then the work done by gravity was

Wgrav = −mg∆y = −(10.0 kg)(9.80 m

s2
)(1.71 m) = −168 J

(b) To find the work done by friction, we need to know the force of friction. The forces
on the block are shown in Fig. 6.5(a). As we have seen before, the normal force between
the slope and the block is mg cos θ (with θ = 20◦ ) so as to cancel the normal component of
the force of gravity. Then the force of kinetic friction on the block points down the slope
(opposite the motion) and has magnitude

fk = µk N = µmg cos θ
= (0.400)(10.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) cos 20◦ = 36.8 N
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 139

Fappl
fk

mg cos q
q = 20o 20o
mg

(a) (b)

Figure 6.5: (a) Gravity and friction forces which act on the block. (b) The applied force of 100 N is along
the direction of the motion.

This force points exactly opposite the direction of the displacement d, so the work done by
friction is
Wfric = fk d cos 180◦ = (36.8 N)(5.00 m)(−1) = −184 J
(c) The 100 N applied force pulls in the direction up the slope, which is along the direction
of the displacement d. So the work that is does is
Wappl = F d cos 0◦ = (100 N)(5.00 m)(1) = 500. J

(d) We have now found the work done by each of the forces acting on the crate as it moved:
Gravity, friction and the applied force. (We should note the the normal force of the surface
also acted on the crate, but being perpendicular to the motion, it did no work.) The net
work done was:
Wnet = Wgrav + Wfric + Wappl
= −168 J − 184 J + 500. J = 148 J
From the work–energy theorem, this is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the box:
∆K = Wnet = 148 J.
(e) The initial kinetic energy of the crate was
Ki = 1
2
(10.0 kg)(1.50 ms )2 = 11.2 J
If the final speed of the crate is v, then the change in kinetic energy was:
∆K = Kf − Ki = 21 mv 2 − 11.2 J .
Using our answer from part (d), we get:
2(159 J)
∆K = 12 mv 2 − 11.2 J = 148 J =⇒ v2 =
m
So then:
2(159 J) 2
v2 = = 31.8 ms2 =⇒ v = 5.64 ms .
(10.0 kg)
The final speed of the crate is 5.64 ms .
140 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

10.0 m
W= 700 N

Figure 6.6: Marine climbs rope in Example 9. You don’t like my drawing? Tell it to the Marines!

6.2.5 Power

9. A 700 N marine in basic training climbs a 10.0 m vertical rope at a constant

speed of 8.00 s. What is his power output? [Ser4 7-53]

Marine is shown in Fig. 6.6. The speed of the marine up the rope is
d 10.0 m
v= = = 1.25 ms
t 8.00 s
The forces acting on the marine are gravity (700 N, downward) and the force of the rope
which must be 700 N upward since he moves at constant velocity. Since he moves in the
same direction as the rope’s force, the rope does work on the marine at a rate equal to
dW
P = = F · v = F v = (700 N)(1.25 ms ) = 875 W .
dt
(It may be hard to think of a stationary rope doing work on anybody, but that is what is
happening here.)
This number represents a rate of change in the potential energy of the marine; the energy
comes from someplace. He is losing (chemical) energy at a rate of 875 W.

10. Water flows over a section of Niagara Falls at a rate of 1.2 × 106 kg/ s and falls
50 m. How many 60 W bulbs can be lit with this power? [Ser4 7-54]

Whoa! Waterfalls? Bulbs? What’s going on here??

If a certain mass m of water drops by a height h (that is, ∆y = −h), then from Eq. 6.10,
gravity does an amount of work equal to mgh. If this change in height occurs over a time
interval ∆t then the rate at which gravity does work is mgh/∆t.
For Niagara Falls, if we consider the amount of water that falls in one second, then a
mass m = 1.2 × 106 kg falls through 50 m and the work done by gravity is
Wgrav = mgh = (1.2 × 106 kg)(9.80 sm2 )(50 m) = 5.88 × 108 J .
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 141

v
vy=0 (Max height)

v0= 20 m/s h

34o

Figure 6.7: Snowball is launched at angle of 34◦ in Example 11.

This occurs every second, so gravity does work at a rate of

mgh 5.88 × 108 J

Pgrav = = = 5.88 × 108 W
∆t 1s
As we see later, this is also the rate at which the water loses potential energy. This energy
can be converted to other forms, such as the electrical energy to make a light bulb function.
In this highly idealistic example, all of the energy is converted to electrical energy.
A 60 W light bulb uses energy at a rate of 60 Js = 60 W. We see that Niagara Falls
puts out energy at a rate much bigger than this! Assuming all of it goes to the bulbs, then
dividing the total energy consumption rate by the rate for one bulb tells us that

5.88 × 108 W
N= = 9.8 × 106
60 W
bulbs can be lit.

6.2.6 Conservation of Mechanical Energy

11. A 1.50 kg snowball is shot upward at an angle of 34.0◦ to the horizontal with
an initial speed of 20.0 ms . (a) What is its initial kinetic energy? (b) By how much
does the gravitational potential energy of the snowball–Earth system change as
the snowball moves from the launch point to the point of maximum height? (c)
What is that maximum height? [HRW5 8-31]

(a) Since the initial speed of the snowball is 20.0 ms , we have its initial kinetic energy:

Ki = 12 mv02 = 12 (1.50 kg)(20.0 ms )2 = 300. J

(b) We need to remember that since this projectile was not fired straight up, it will still
have some kinetic energy when it gets to maximum height! That means we have to think a
little harder before applying energy principles to answer this question.
142 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

At maximum height, we know that the y component of the snowball’s velocity is zero.
The x component is not zero.
But we do know that since a projectile has no horizontal acceleration, the x component
will remain constant; it will keep its initial value of

v0x = v0 cos θ0 = (20.0 ms ) cos 34◦ = 16.6 ms

so the speed of the snowball at maximum height is 16.6 ms . At maximum height, (the final
position) the kinetic energy is

Kf = 12 mvf2 = 12 (1.50 kg)(16.6 ms )2 = 206. J

In this problem there are only conservative forces (namely, gravity). The mechanical
energy is conserved:
Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
We already found the initial kinetic energy of the snowball: Ki = 300. J. Using Ugrav = mgy
(with y = 0 at ground level), the initial potential energy is Ui = 0. Then we can find the
final potential energy of the snowball:

Uf = Ki + Ui − Kf
= 300. J + 0 − 206. J
= 94. J

The final gravitational potential energy of the snowball–earth system (a long–winded way
of saying what U is!) is then 94. J. (Since its original value was zero, this is the answer to
part (b).)
(c) If we call the maximum height of the snowball h, then we have

Uf = mgh

Solve for h:
Uf (94. J)
h= = = 6.38 m
mg (1.5 kg)(9.80 sm2 )
The maximum height of the snowball is 6.38 m.

12. A pendulum consists of a 2.0 kg stone on a 4.0 m string of negligible mass. The
stone has a speed of 8.0 ms when it passes its lowest point. (a) What is the speed
when the string is at 60◦ to the vertical? (b) What is the greatest angle with the
vertical that the string will reach during the stone’s motion? (c) If the potential
energy of the pendulum–Earth system is taken to be zero at the stone’s lowest
point, what is the total mechanical energy of the system? [HRW5 8-32]

(a) The condition of the pendulum when the stone passes the lowest point is shown in
Fig. 6.8(a). Throughout the problem we will measure the height y of the stone from the
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 143

60o

4.0 m

v= ?
2.0 kg

8.0 m/s

(a) (b)

Figure 6.8: (a) Pendulum in Example 12 swings through lowest point. (b) Pendulum has swung 60◦ past
lowest point.

bottom of its swing. Then at the bottom of the swing the stone has zero potential energy,
while its kinetic energy is

Ki = 12 mv02 = 12 (2.0 kg)(8.0 ms )2 = 64 J

When the stone has swung up by 60◦ (as in Fig. 6.8(b)) it has some potential energy. To
figure out how much, we need to calculate the height of the stone above the lowest point of
the swing. By simple geometry, the stone’s position is

(4.0 m) cos 60◦ = 2.0 m

down from the top of the string, so it must be

4.0 m − 2.0 m = 2.0 m

up from the lowest point. So its potential energy at this point is

Uf = mgy = (2.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 )(2.0 m) = 39.2 J

It will also have a kinetic energy Kf = 21 mvf2 , where vf is the final speed.
Now in this system there are only a conservative force acting on the particle of interest,
i.e. the stone. (We should note that the string tension also acts on the stone, but since
it always pulls perpendicularly to the motion of the stone, it does no work.) So the total
mechanical energy of the stone is conserved:

Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf

We can substitute the values found above to get:

64.0 J + 0 = 21 (2.0 kg)vf2 + 39.2 J

which we can solve for vf :

2
(1.0 kg)vf2 = 64.0 J − 39.2 J = 24.8 J =⇒ vf2 = 24.8 ms2
144 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

4.0 m

4.0 m

Figure 6.9: Stone reaches its highest position in the swing, which we specify by some angle θ measured
above the horizontal.

and then:
vf = 5.0 ms
The speed of the stone at the 60◦ position will be 5.0 ms .
(b) Clearly, since the stone is still in motion at an angle of 60◦ , it will keep moving to greater
angles and larger heights above the bottom position. For all we know, it may keep rising
until it gets to some angle θ above the position where the string is horizontal, as shown
in Fig. 6.9. We do assume that the string will stay straight until this point, but that is a
reasonable assumption.
Now at this point of maximum height, the speed of the mass is instantaneously zero. So
in this final position, the kinetic energy is Kf = 0. Its height above the starting position is

y = 4.0 m + (4.0 m) sin θ = (4.0 m)(1 + sin θ) (6.27)

so that its potential energy there is

Uf = mgyf = (2.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 )(4.0 m)(1 + sin θ) = (78.4 J)(1 + sin θ)

We use the conservation of mechanical energy (from the position at the bottom of the swing)
to find θ: Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf , so:

Uf = Ki + Ui − Kf =⇒ (78.4 J)(1 + sin θ) = 64 J + 0 − 0

This gives us:

78.4 J
1 + sin θ = = 1.225 =⇒ sin θ = 0.225
64 J
and finally
θ = 13◦
We do get a sensible answer of θ so we were right in writing down Eq. 6.27. Actually this
equation would also have been correct if θ were negative and the pendulum reached its
highest point with the string below the horizontal.
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 145

h
R

Figure 6.10: Bead slides on track in Example 13.

13. A bead slides without friction on a loop–the–loop track (see Fig. 6.10). If
the bead is released from a height h = 3.50R, what is its speed at point A? How
large is the normal force on it if its mass is 5.00 g? [Ser4 8-11]

In this problem, there are no friction forces acting on the particle (the bead). Gravity acts
on it and gravity is a conservative force. The track will exert a normal forces on the bead,
but this force does no work. So the total energy of the bead —kinetic plus (gravitational)
potential energy— will be conserved.
At the initial position, when the bead is released, the bead has no speed; Ki = 0. But
it is at a height h above the bottom of the track. If we agree to measure height from the
bottom of the track, then the initial potential energy of the bead is

Ui = mgh

where m = 5.00 g is the mass of the bead.

At the final position (A), the bead has both kinetic and potential energy. If the bead’s
speed at A is v, then its final kinetic energy is Kf = 12 mv 2. At position A its height is 2R
(it is a full diameter above the “ground level” of the track) so its potential energy is

Uf = mg(2R) = 2mgR .

The total energy of the bead is conserved: Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf . This gives us:

0 + mgh = 12 mv 2 + 2mgR ,

where we want to solve for v (the speed at A). The mass m cancels out, giving:

gh = 21 v 2 = 2gR =⇒ 1 2
2
v = gh − 2gR = g(h − 2R)

and then
146 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

N
mg
R
Dir. of
accel.

Figure 6.11: Forces acting on the bead when it is at point A (the top of the loop).

v 2 = 2g(h − 2R) = 2g(3.50R − 2R) = 2g(1.5R) = 3.0 gR (6.28)

and finally q
v= 3.0 gR .
Since we don’t have a numerical value for R, that’s as far as we can go.
In the next part of the problem, we think about the forces acting on the bead at point A.
These are diagrammed in Fig. 6.11. Gravity pulls down on the bead with a force mg. There
is also a normal force from the track which I have drawn as having a downward component
N. But it is possible for the track to be pushing upward on the bead; if we get a negative
value for N we’ll know that the track was pushing up.
At the top of the track the bead is moving on a circular path of radius R, with speed v.
So it is accelerating toward the center of the circle, namely downward. We know that the
downward forces must add up to give the centripetal force mv 2/R:

mv 2 mv 2 v2
!
mg + N = =⇒ n= − mg = m −g .
R R R

But we can use our result from Eq. 6.28 to substitute for v 2. This gives:
3.0 gR
 
N =m − g = m(2g) = 2mg
R
Plug in the numbers:

N = 2(5.00 × 10−3 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) = 9.80 × 10−2 N

At point A the track is pushing downward with a force of 9.80 × 10−2 N.

14. Two children are playing a game in which they try to hit a small box on the
floor with a marble fired from a spring –loaded gun that is mounted on the table.
The target box is 2.20 m horizontally from the edge of the table; see Fig. 6.12.
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 147

2.20 m

Figure 6.12: Spring propels marble off table and hits (or misses) box on the floor.

1.10 cm
v

(a) (b)
Figure 6.13: Marble propelled by the spring–gun: (a) Spring is compressed, and system has potential
energy. (b) Spring is released and system has kinetic energy of the marble.

Bobby compresses the spring 1.10 cm, but the center of the marble falls 27.0 cm
short of the center of the box. How far should Rhoda compress the spring to
score a direct hit? [HRW5 8-36]

Let’s put the origin of our coordinate system (for the motion of the marble) at the edge
of the table. With this choice of coordinates, the object of the game is to insure that the x
coordinate of the marble is 2.20 m when it reaches the level of the floor.
There are many things we are not told in this problem! We don’t know the spring
constant for the gun, or the mass of the marble. We don’t know the height of the table
above the floor, either!
When the gun propels the marble, the spring is initially compressed and the marble is
motionless (see Fig. 6.13(a).) The energy of the system here is the energy stored in the spring,
Ei = 21 kx2 , where k is the force constant of the spring and x is the amount of compression
of the spring.) When the spring has returned to its natural length and has given the marble
a speed v, then the energy of the system is Ef = 21 mv 2. If we can neglect friction then
mechanical energy is conserved during the firing, so that Ef = Ei , which gives us:
s s
k 2 k
1
2
mv 2 = 1
2
kx2 =⇒ v= x =x
m m
148 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

We will let x and v be the compression and initial marble speed for Bobby’s attempt. Then
we have: s
k
v = (1.10 × 10−2 m) (6.29)
m
The marble’s trip from the edge of the table to the floor is (by now!) a fairly simple
kinematics problem. If the time the marble spends in the air is t and the height of the table
is h then the equation for vertical motion tells us:
h = 12 gt2 .
(This is true because the marble’s initial velocity is all horizontal. We do know that on
Bobby’s try, the marble’s x coordinate at impact was
x = 2.20 m − 0.27 m = 1.93 m
and since the horizontal velocity of the marble is v, we have:
vt = 1.93 m . (6.30)
There are too many unknowns to solve for k, v, h and t. . . but let’s go on.
Let’s suppose that Rhoda compresses the spring by an amount x0 so that the marble is
given a speed v 0. As before, we have
1 2 2
2
mv 0 = 12 kx0
(it’s the same spring and marble so that k and m are the same) and this gives:
s
k
v 0 = x0
. (6.31)
m
Now when Rhoda’s shot goes off the table and through the air, then if its time of flight is t0
then the equation for vertical motion gives us:
2
h = 21 gt0 .
This is the same equation as for t, so that the times of flight for both shots is the same:
t0 = t. Since the x coordinate of the marble for Rhoda’s shot will be x = 2.20 m, the equation
for horizontal motion gives us
v 0t = 2.20 m (6.32)
What can we do with these equations? If we divide Eq. 6.32 by Eq. 6.30 we get:
v 0t v0 2.20
= = = 1.14
vt v 1.93
If we divide Eq. 6.31 by Eq. 6.29 we get:
q
k
v 0 x0m x0
= q = .
v k
(1.10 × 10−2 m) m (1.10 × 10−2 m)
With these last two results, we can solve for x0 . Combining these equations gives:
x0
1.14 = =⇒ x0 = 1.14(1.10 × 10−2 m) = 1.25 cm
(1.10 × 10−2 m)
Rhoda should compress the spring by 1.25 cm in order to score a direct hit.
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 149

mk = 0.40
m= 3.0 kg

M= 5.0 kg

Figure 6.14: Moving masses in Example 15. There is friction between the surface and the 3.0 kg mass.

N d

fk

T
d

mg
(a) (b)

Figure 6.15: (a) Forces acting on m. (b) Masses m and M travel a distance d = 1.5 m as they increase in
speed from 0 to v.

6.2.7 Work Done by Non–Conservative Forces

15. The coefficient of friction between the 3.0 kg mass and surface in Fig. 6.14 is
0.40. The system starts from rest. What is the speed of the 5.0 kg mass when it
has fallen 1.5 m? [Ser4 8-25]

When the system starts to move, both masses accelerate; because the masses are con-
nected by a string, they always have the same speed . The block (m) slides on the rough
surface, and friction does work on it. Since its height does not change, its potential energy
does not change, but its kinetic energy increases. The hanging mass (M) drops freely; its
potential energy decreases but its kinetic energy increases.
We want to use energy principles to work this problem; since there is friction present,
we need to calculate the work done by friction.
The forces acting on m are shown in Fig. 6.15(a). The normal force N must be equal to
mg, so the force of kinetic friction on m has magnitude µk N = µk mg. This force opposes
150 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

the motion as m moves a distance d = 1.5 m, so the work done by friction is

Wfric = fk d cos φ = (µk mg)(d)(−1) = −(0.40)(3.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 )(1.5 m) = −17.6 J .

Mass m’s initial speed is zero, and its final speed is v. So its change in kinetic energy is

∆K = 12 (3.0 kg)v 2 − 0 = (1.5 kg)v 2

As we noted, m has no change in potential energy during the motion.

Mass M’s change in kinetic energy is

∆K = 12 (5.0 kg)v 2 − 0 = (2.5 kg)v 2

and since it has a change in height given by −d, its change in (gravitational) potential energy
is
∆U = Mg∆y = (5.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 )(−1.5 m) = −73.5 J
Adding up the changes for both masses, the total change in mechanical energy of this system
is

∆E = (1.5 kg)v 2 + (2.5 kg)v 2 − 73.5 J

= (4.0 kg)v 2 − 73.5 J

Now use ∆E = Wfric and get:

(4.0 kg)v 2 − 73.5 J = −17.6 J

Solve for v:
55.9 J 2
(4.0 kg)v 2 = 55.9 J =⇒ v2 = = 14.0 ms2
4.0 kg
which gives
v = 3.74 ms
The final speed of the 5.0 kg mass (in fact of both masses) is 3.74 ms .

16. A 10.0 kg block is released from point A in Fig. 6.16. The track is friction-
less except for the portion BC, of length 6.00 m. The block travels down the
track, hits a spring of force constant k = 2250 N/ m, and compresses it 0.300 m
from its equilibrium position before coming to rest momentarily. Determine the
coefficient of kinetic friction between surface BC and block. [Ser4 8-35]

We know that we must use energy methods to solve this problem, since the path of the
sliding mass is curvy.
The forces which act on the mass as it descends and goes on to squish the spring are:
gravity, the spring force and the force of kinetic friction as it slides over the rough part.
Gravity and the spring force are conservative forces, so we will keep track of them with the
potential energy associated with these forces. Friction is a non-conservative force, but in
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 151

A 10.0 kg

3.00 m
k
B C

6.00 m

Figure 6.16: System for Example 16

0.300 m

Equil. pos.
of spring v=0

Figure 6.17: After sliding down the slope and going over the rough part, the mass has maximally squished
the spring by an amount x = 0.300 m.

this case we can calculate the work that it does. Then, we can use the energy conservation
principle,
∆K + ∆U = Wnon−cons (6.33)
to find the unknown quantity in this problem, namely µk for the rough surface. We can
get the answer from this equation because we have numbers for all the quantities except for
Wnon−cons = Wfriction which depends on the coefficient of friction.
The block is released at point A so its initial speed (and hence, kinetic energy) is zero:
Ki = 0. If we measure height upwards from the level part of the track, then the initial
potential energy for the mass (all of it gravitational) is

Ui = mgh = (10.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 )(3.00 m) = 2.94 × 102 J

Next, for the “final” position of the mass, consider the time at which it has maximally
compressed the spring and it is (instantaneously) at rest. (This is shown in Fig. 6.17.) We
don’t need to think about what the mass was doing in between these two points; we don’t
care about the speed of the mass during its slide.
At this final point, the mass is again at rest, so its kinetic energy is zero: Kf = 0. Being
at zero height, it has no gravitational potential energy but now since there is a compressed
152 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

spring, there is stored (potential) energy in the spring. This energy is given by:

Uspring = 21 kx2 = 12 (2250 m

N
)(0.300 m)2 = 1.01 × 102 J

so the final potential energy of the system is Uf = 1.01 × 102 J.

The total mechanical energy of the system changes because there is a non–conservative
force (friction) which does work. As the mass (m) slides over the rough part, the vertical
forces are gravity (mg, downward) and the upward normal force of the surface, N. As there
is no vertical motion, N = mg. The magnitude of the force of kinetic friction is

fk = µk N = µk mg = µk (10.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) = µk (98.0 N)

As the block moves 6.00 m this force points opposite (180◦ from ) the direction of motion.
So the work done by friction is

Wfric = fk d cos φ = µk (98.0 N)(6.00 m) cos 180◦ = −µk (5.88 × 102 J)

We now have everything we need to substitute into the energy balance condition, Eq. 6.33.
We get:
(0 − 0) + (1.01 × 102 J − 2.94 × 102 J) = −µk (5.88 × 102 J) .
The physics is done. We do algebra to solve for µk :

−1.93 × 102 J = −µk (5.88 × 102 J) =⇒ µk = 0.328

The coefficient of kinetic friction for the rough surface and block is 0.328.

6.2.8 Relationship Between Conservative Forces and Potential En-

ergy (Optional?)

17. A potential energy function for a two–dimensional force is of the form U =

3x3 y − 7x. Find the force that acts at the point (x, y). [Ser4 8-39]

(We presume that the expression for U will give us U in joules when x and y are in
meters!)
We use Eq. 6.26 to get Fx and Fy :

∂U
Fx = −
∂x
∂
= − (3x3 y − 7x)
∂x
= −(9x2 y − 7) = −9x2 y + 7
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 153

and:
∂U
Fy = −
∂y
∂
= − (3x3 y − 7x)
∂y
= −(3x3 ) = −3x3

Then in unit vector form, F is:

F = (−9x2y + 7)i + (−3x3)j

where, if x and y are in meters then F is in newtons. Got to watch those units!
154 CHAPTER 6. WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY
Chapter 7

Linear Momentum and Collisions

7.1 The Important Stuff

7.1.1 Linear Momentum
The linear momentum of a particle with mass m moving with velocity v is defined as
p = mv (7.1)

Linear momentum is a vector . When giving the linear momentum of a particle you must
specify its magnitude and direction. We can see from the definition that its units must be
kg·m
s
. Oddly enough, this combination of SI units does not have a commonly–used named so
we leave it as kg·m
s
!
The momentum of a particle is related to the net force on that particle in a simple way;
since the mass of a particle remains constant, if we take the time derivative of a particle’s
momentum we find
dp dv
=m = ma = Fnet
dt dt
so that
dp
Fnet = (7.2)
dt

7.1.2 Impulse, Average Force

When a particle moves freely then interacts with another system for a (brief) period and
then moves freely again, it has a definite change in momentum; we define this change as the
impulse I of the interaction forces:
I = pf − pi = ∆p

Impulse is a vector and has the same units as momentum.

When we integrate Eq. 7.2 we can show:
Z tf
I= F dt = ∆p
ti

155
156 CHAPTER 7. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

We can now define the average force which acts on a particle during a time interval
∆t. It is:
∆p I
F= =
∆t ∆t
The value of the average force depends on the time interval chosen.

7.1.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum

Linear momentum is a useful quantity for cases where we have a few particles (objects)
which interact with each other but not with the rest of the world. Such a system is called
an isolated system.
We often have reason to study systems where a few particles interact with each other very
briefly, with forces that are strong compared to the other forces in the world that they may
experience. In those situations, and for that brief period of time, we can treat the particles
as if they were isolated.
We can show that when two particles interact only with each other (i.e. they are isolated)
then their total momentum remains constant:

p1i + p2i = p1f + p2f (7.3)

or, in terms of the masses and velocities,

m1 v1i + m2v2i = m1 v1f + m2v2f (7.4)

Or, abbreviating p1 + p2 = P (total momentum), this is: Pi = Pf .

It is important to understand that Eq. 7.3 is a vector equation; it tells us that the total
x component of the momentum is conserved, and the total y component of the momentum
is conserved.

7.1.4 Collisions
When we talk about a collision in physics (between two particles, say) we mean that two
particles are moving freely through space until they get close to one another; then, for a
short period of time they exert strong forces on each other until they move apart and are
again moving freely.
For such an event, the two particles have well-defined momenta p1i and p2i before the
collision event and p1f and p2f afterwards. But the sum of the momenta before and after
the collision is conserved, as written in Eq. 7.3.
While the total momentum is conserved for a system of isolated colliding particles, the
mechanical energy may or may not be conserved. If the mechanical energy (usually meaning
the total kinetic energy) is the same before and after a collision, we say that the collision is
elastic. Otherwise we say the collision is inelastic.
If two objects collide, stick together, and move off as a combined mass, we call this a
perfectly inelastic collision. One can show that in such a collision more kinetic energy is
lost than if the objects were to bounce off one another and move off separately.
7.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 157

When two particles undergo an elastic collision then we also know that
1
m v2
2 1 1i
2
+ 21 m2v2i 2
= 12 m1v1f 2
+ 21 m2v2f .

In the special case of a one-dimensional elastic collision between masses m1 and m2 we

can relate the final velocities to the initial velocities. The result is
m1 − m2 2m2
   
v1f = v1i + v2i (7.5)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
2m1 m2 − m1
   
v2f = v1i + v2i (7.6)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

This result can be useful in solving a problem where such a collision occurs, but it is not a
fundamental equation. So don’t memorize it.

7.1.5 The Center of Mass

For a system of particles (that is, lots of ’em) there is a special point in space known as the
center of mass which is of great importance in describing the overall motion of the system.
This point is a weighted average of the positions of all the mass points.
If the particles in the system have masses m1, m2 , . . . mN , with total mass
N
X
mi = m1 + m2 + · · · + mN ≡ M
i

and respective positions r1 , r2 , . . . ,rN, then the center of mass rCM is:
N
1 X
rCM = m i ri (7.7)
M i

which means that the x, y and z coordinates of the center of mass are
N N N
1 X 1 X 1 X
xCM = mi xi yCM = m i yi zCM = mi zi (7.8)
M i M i M i

For an extended object (i.e. a continuous distribution of mass) the definition of rCM is
given by an integral over the mass elements of the object:

1
Z
rCM = r dm (7.9)
M
which means that the x, y and z coordinates of the center of mass are now:

1 1 1
Z Z Z
xCM = x dm yCM = y dm zCM = z dm (7.10)
M M M
158 CHAPTER 7. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

When the particles of a system are in motion then in general their center of mass is also
in motion. The velocity of the center of mass is a similar weighted average of the individual
velocities:
N
drCM 1 X
vCM = = mi vi (7.11)
dt M i
In general the center of mass will accelerate; its acceleration is given by
N
dvCM 1 X
aCM = = mi ai (7.12)
dt M i

If P is the total momentum of the system and M is the total mass of the system, then
the motion of the center of mass is related to P by:
P 1 dP
vCM = and aCM =
M M dt

7.1.6 The Motion of a System of Particles

A system of many particles (or an extended object) in general has a motion for which the
description is very complicated, but it is possible to make a simple statement about the
motion of its center of mass. Each of the particles in the system may feel forces from the
other particles in the system, but it may also experience a net force from the (external)
environment; we will denote this force by Fext. We find that when we add up all the external
forces acting on all the particles in a system, it gives the acceleration of the center of mass
according to:
N
X dP
Fext, i = MaCM = (7.13)
i dt
Here, M is the total mass of the system; Fext, i is the external force acting on particle i.
In words, we can express this result in the following way: For a system of particles, the
center of mass moves as if it were a single particle of mass M moving under the influence of
the sum of the external forces.

7.2 Worked Examples

7.2.1 Linear Momentum

1. A 3.00 kg particle has a velocity of (3.0i − 4.0j) ms . Find its x and y components
of momentum and the magnitude of its total momentum.

Using the definition of momentum and the given values of m and v we have:

p = mv = (3.00 kg)(3.0i − 4.0j) ms = (9.0i − 12.j) kg·m

s
7.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 159

10 m/s
3.0 kg

10 m/s y

x
60o 60o
Figure 7.1: Ball bounces off wall in Example 3.

So the particle has momentum components

px = +9.0 kg·m
s
and py = −12. kg·m
s
.

The magnitude of its momentum is

q q
kg·m
p= p2x + p2y = (9.0)2 + (−12.)2 s
= 15. kg·m
s

7.2.2 Impulse, Average Force

2. A child bounces a superball on the sidewalk. The linear impulse delivered by

1
the sidewalk is 2.00 N · s during the 800 s of contact. What is the magnitude of the
average force exerted on the ball by the sidewalk.

The magnitude of the change in momentum of (impulse delivered to) the ball is |∆p| =
|I| = 2.00 N · s. (The direction of the impulse is upward, since the initial momentum of the
ball was downward and the final momentum is upward.)
Since the time over which the force was acting was
1
∆t = 800
s = 1.25 × 10−3 s

then from the definition of average force we get:

|I| 2.00 N · s
|F| = = = 1.60 × 103 N
∆t 1.25 × 10−3 s

3. A 3.0 kg steel ball strikes a wall with a speed of 10 ms at an angle of 60◦ with
the surface. It bounces off with the same speed and angle, as shown in Fig. 7.1.
If the ball is in contact with the wall for 0.20 s, what is the average force exerted
on the wall by the ball?
160 CHAPTER 7. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

750 m/s

m m m m
m = 35 g

Figure 7.2: Simplified picture of a machine gun spewing out bullets. An external force is necessary to hold
the gun in place!

The average force is defined as F = ∆p/∆t, so first find the change in momentum of
the ball. Since the ball has the same speed before and after bouncing from the wall, it is
clear that its x velocity (see the coordinate system in Fig. 7.1) stays the same and so the x
momentum stays the same. But the y momentum does change. The initial y velocity is

viy = −(10 ms ) sin 60◦ = −8.7 ms

and the final y velocity is
vf y = +(10 ms ) sin 60◦ = +8.7 ms
so the change in y momentum is

∆py = mvf y − mviy = m(vf y − viy ) = (3.0 kg)(8.7 ms − (−8.7 ms )) = 52 kg·m

s

The average y force on the ball is

∆py Iy (52 kg·m )

Fy = = = s
= 2.6 × 102 N
∆t ∆t (0.20 s)
Since F has no x component, the average force has magnitude 2.6 × 102 N and points in the
y direction (away from the wall).

4. A machine gun fires 35.0 g bullets at a speed of 750.0 ms . If the gun can fire
200 bullets/ min, what is the average force the shooter must exert to keep the gun
from moving?

Whoa! Lots of things happening here. Let’s draw a diagram and try to sort things out.
Such a picture is given in Fig. 7.2.
The gun interacts with the bullets; it exerts a brief, strong force on each of the bullets
which in turn exerts an “equal and opposite” force on the gun. The gun’s force changes the
bullet’s momentum from zero (as they are initially at rest) to the final value of
pf = mv = (0.0350 kg)(750 ms ) = 26.2 kg·m
s
.
7.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 161

so this is also the change in momentum for each bullet.

Now, since 200 bullets are fired every minute (60 s), we should count the interaction time
as the time to fire one bullet,
60 s
∆t = = 0.30 s
200
because every 0.30 s, a firing occurs again, and the average force that we compute will be
valid for a length of time for which many bullets are fired. So the average force of the gun
on the bullets is
∆px 26.2 kg·m
s
Fx = = = 87.5 N
∆t 0.30 s
From Newton’s Third Law, there must an average backwards force of the bullets on the
gun of magnitude 87.5 N. If there were no other forces acting on the gun, it would accelerate
backward! To keep the gun in place, the shooter (or the gun’s mechanical support) must
exert a force of 87.5 N in the forward direction.
We can also work with the numbers as follows: In one minute, 200 bullets were fired, and
a total momentum of
P = (200)(26.2 kg·m
s
) = 5.24 × 103 kg·m
s

was imparted to them. So during this time period (60 seconds!) the average force on the
whole set of bullets was
kg·m
∆P 5.24 × 103 s
Fx = = = 87.5 N .
∆t 60.0 s
As before, this is also the average backwards force of the bullets on the gun and the force
required to keep the gun in place.

7.2.3 Collisions

5. A 10.0 g bullet is stopped in a block of wood (m = 5.00 kg). The speed of the
bullet–plus–wood combination immediately after the collision is 0.600 ms . What
was the original speed of the bullet?

A picture of the collision just before and after the bullet (quickly) embeds itself in the
wood is given in Fig. 7.3. The bullet has some initial speed v0 (we don’t know what it is.)
The collision (and embedding of the bullet) takes place very rapidly; for that brief time
the bullet and block essentially form an isolated system because any external forces (say,
from friction from the surface) will be of no importance compared to the enormous forces
between the bullet and the block. So the total momentum of the system will be conserved;
it is the same before and after the collision.
In this problem there is only motion along the x axis, so we only need the condition that
the total x momentum (Px ) is conserved.
162 CHAPTER 7. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

m = 10.0 g 0.600 m/s

v0
5.00 kg
m

(a) (b)

Figure 7.3: Collision in Example 5. (a) Just before the collision. (b) Just after.

v M v/2

Figure 7.4: Bullet passes through a pendulum bob and emerges with half its original speed; the bob barely
swings through a complete circle!

Just before the collision, only the bullet (with mass m) is in motion and its x velocity is
v0. So the initial momentum is

Pi,x = mv0 = (10.0 × 10−3 kg)v0

Just after the collision, the bullet–block combination, with its mass of M + m has an x
velocity of 0.600 ms . So the final momentum is

Pf,x = (M + m)v = (5.00 kg + 10.0 × 10−3 kg)(0.600 ms ) = 3.01 kg·m

s

Since Pi,x = Pf,x , we get:

(10.0 × 10−3 kg)v0 = 3.01 kg·m

s
=⇒ v0 = 301 ms

The initial speed of the bullet was 301 ms .

6. As shown in Fig. 7.4, a bullet of mass m and speed v passes completely

through a pendulum bob of mass M. The bullet emerges with a speed v/2. The
pendulum bob is suspended by a stiff rod of length ` and negligible mass. What
7.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 163

v/2
v
v'

(a) (b)

Figure 7.5: Collision of the bullet with the pendulum bob. (a) Just before the collision. (b) Just after.
The bullet has gone through the bob, which has acquired a velocity v0 .

is the minimum value of v such that the pendulum bob will barely swing through
a complete vertical circle?

Whoa! There’s a hell of a lot of things going on in this problem. Let’s try to sort them
out.
We break things down into a sequence of events: First, the bullet has a very rapid, very
strong interaction with the pendulum bob, where is quickly passes through, imparting a
velocity to the bob which at first will have a horizontal motion. Secondly, the bob swings
upward and, as we are told, will get up to the top of the vertical circle.
We show the collision in Fig. 7.5. In this rapid interaction there are no net external
forces acting on the system that we need to worry about. So its total momentum will be
conserved. The total horizontal momentum before the collision is
Pi,x = mv + 0 = mv
If after the collision the bob has velocity v 0, then the total momentum is
v
 
Pf,x = m + Mv 0
2
Conservation of momentum, Pi,x = Pf,x gives
v v
   
mv = m + Mv 0 =⇒ Mv 0 = m
2 2
and so:
1 mv mv
v0 == (7.14)
M 2 2M
Now consider the trip of the pendulum bob up to the top of the circle (it must get to the
top, by assumption). There are no friction–type forces acting on the system as M moves, so
mechanical energy is conserved .
If we measure height from the bottom of the swing, then the initial potential energy is
zero while the initial kinetic energy is
2
Ki = 12 M (v 0) .
164 CHAPTER 7. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

T
vtop

Mg

Figure 7.6: Forces acting on pendulum bob M at the top of the swing.

Now suppose at the top of the swing mass M has speed vtop. Its height is 2` and its potential
energy is Mg(2`) so that its final energy is
2
Ef = 21 Mvtop + 2Mg`

so that conservation of energy gives:

1 2 2
2
M (v 0) = 12 Mvtop + 2Mg` (7.15)

What do we know about vtop? A drawing of the forces acting on M at the top of the
swing is shown in Fig. 7.6. Gravity pulls down with a force Mg. There may be a force
from the suspending rod; here, I’ve happened to draw it pointing upward. Can this force
point upward? Yes it can. . . we need to read the problem carefully. It said the bob was
suspended by a stiff rod and such an object can exert a force (still called the tension T )
inward or outward along its length. (A string can only pull inward.) The bob is moving on
a circular path with (instantaneous) speed vtop so the net force on it points downward and
2
has magnitude Mvtop /`:
2
Mvtop
Mg − T = .
`
Since T can be positive or negative, vtop can take on any value. It could be zero. What
condition are we looking for which corresponds to the smallest value of the bullet speed v?
We note that as v gets bigger, so does v 0 (the bob’s initial speed). As v 0 increases, so
does vtop, as we see from conservation of energy. But it is entirely possible for vtop to be
zero, and that will give the smallest possible value of v. That would correspond to the case
where M picked up enough speed to just barely make it to the top of the swing. (And when
the bob goes past the top point then gravity moves it along through the full swing.)
So with vtop = 0 then Eq. 7.15 gives us
1 2 2
2
M (v 0) = 2Mg` =⇒ v 0 = 4g`

and: q
v0 = 4g`
7.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 165

A m1

5.00 m
m2

B C

Figure 7.7: Frictionless track, for Example 7. Mass m1 is released and collides elastically with mass m2 .

and putting this result back into Eq. 7.15, we have

q 1 mv mv
4g` = = .
M 2 2M
Finally, solve for v: √
2M q 4M g`
v= 4g` =
m m
√
The minimum value of v required to do the job is v = 4M g`/m.

7. Consider a frictionless track ABC as shown in Fig. 7.7. A block of mass

m1 = 5.001 kg is released from A. It makes a head–on elastic collision with a block
of mass m2 = 10.0 kg at B, initially at rest. Calculate the maximum height to
which m1 rises after the collision.

Whoa! What is this problem talking about??

We release mass m1 ; it slides down to the slope, picking up speed, until it reaches B.
At B it makes a collision with mass m2 , and we are told it is an elastic collison. The last
sentence in the problem implies that in this collision m1 will reverse its direction of motion
and head back up the slope to some maximum height. We would also guess that m2 will be
given a forward velocity.
This sequence is shown in Fig. 7.8. First we think about the instant of time just before
the collision. Mass m1 has velocity v1i and mass m2 is still stationary. How can we find v1i?
We can use the fact that energy is conserved as m1 slides down the smooth (frictionless)
slope. At the top of the slope m1 had some potential energy, U = m1gh (with h = 5.00 m)
which is changed to kinetic energy, K = 21 m1v1i
2
when it reaches the bottom. Conservation
of energy gives us:
2 2 2
m1gh = 21 mv1i =⇒ v1i = 2gh = 2(9.80 sm2 )(5.00 m) = 98.0 ms2

so that
v1i = +9.90 ms
166 CHAPTER 7. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

v2i = 0 v2f
v1i v1f
m1 m2 m2
m1

(a) (b)
Figure 7.8: (a) Just before the collision; m1 has acquired a velocity of v1i from sliding down the slope. (b)
Just after the collision; mass m1 has velocity v1f and mass m2 has velocity v2f .

h
Dir. of motion

v1f
(a) (b)

Figure 7.9: (a) After the collision, m1 goes to the left and will move back up the slope. (b) After moving
back up the slope, m1 reaches some maximum height h.

We chose the positive value here since m1 is obviously moving forward at the bottom of the
slope. So m1 ’s velocity just before striking m2 is +9.90 ms .
Now m1 makes an elastic (one–dimensional) collision with m2 . What are the final veloc-
ities of the masses? For this we can use the result given in Eqs. 7.5 and 7.6, using v2i = 0.
We get: !
m1 − m2 5.001 kg − 10.0 kg
 
v1f = v1i = (+9.90 ms ) = −3.30 ms
m1 + m2 5.001 kg + 10.0 kg
!
2m1 2(5.001 kg)
 
v2f = v1i = (+9.90 ms ) = +6.60 ms
m1 + m2 5.001 kg + 10.0 kg
So after the collision, m1 has a velocity of −3.30 ms ; that is, it has speed 3.30 ms and it is now
moving to the left. After the collision, m2 has velocity +6.60 ms , so that it is moving to the
right with speed 6.60 ms .
Since m1 is now moving to the left, it will head back up the slope. (See Fig. 7.9.) How
high will it go? Once again, we can use energy conservation to give us the answer. For the
trip back up the slope, the initial energy (all kinetic) is

Ei = Ki = 12 m(3.30 ms )2
7.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 167

v=? v=0 v=?

(a) (b)

Figure 7.10: (a) Cat leaps from left sled to the right sled. What is new velocity of left sled? (b) Cat has
landed on the right sled. What is its velocity now?

and when it reaches maximum height (h) its speed is zero, so its energy is the potential
energy,
Ef = Uf = mgh
Conservation of energy, Ei = Ef gives us:

(3.30 ms )2
1
2
m(3.30 ms )2 = mgh =⇒ h= = 0.556 m
2g
Mass m1 will travel back up the slope to a height of 0.556 m.

8. Two 22.7 kg ice sleds are placed a short distance apart, one directly behind
the other, as shown in Fig. 7.10 (a). A 3.63 kg cat, standing on one sled, jumps
across to the other and immediately back to the first. Both jumps are made at
a speed on 3.05 ms relative to the ice. Find the final speeds of the two sleds.

We will let the x axis point to the right. In the initial picture (not shown) the cat is
sitting on the left sled and both are motionless. Taking our system of interacting “particles”
to be the cat and the left sled, the initial momentum of the system is P = 0.
After the cat has made its first jump, the velocity of this sled will be vL,x, and the (final)
total momentum of the system will be

Pf = (22.7 kg)vL,x + (3.63 kg)(+3.05 ms )

Note, we are using velocities with respect to the ice, and that is how we were given the
velocity of the cat. Now as there are no net external forces, the momentum of this system
is conserved. This gives us:

0 = (22.7 kg)vL,x + (3.63 kg)(+3.05 ms )

with which we easily solve for vL,x:

(3.63 kg)(+3.05 ms )
vL,x = − = −0.488 ms
(22.7 kg)

so that the left sled moves at a speed of 0.488 ms to the left after the cat’s first jump.
168 CHAPTER 7. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

v=? v=?

(a) (b)
Figure 7.11: (a) Cat leaps from right sled back to left sled. What is new velocity of right sled? (b) Cat
has landed back on left sled. What is its velocity now? Note that this is basically the mirror image of the
previous figure, so I only had to draw it once! Hah!

The cat lands on the right sled and after landing it moves with the same velocity as
that sled; the collision here is completely inelastic. For this part of the problem, the system
of “interacting particles” we consider is the cat and the right sled . (The left sled does not
interact with this system.) The initial momentum of this system is just that of the cat,

Pi = (3.63 kg)(+3.05 ms ) = 11.1 kg·m

s

If the final velocity of both cat and sled is vR,x then the final momentum is

Pf = (22.7 kg + 3.63 kg)vR,x = (26.3 kg)vR,x

(The cat and sled move as one mass, so we can just add their individual masses.) Conserva-
tion of momentum of this system, Pi = Pf gives

11.1 kg·m
s
= (26.3 kg)vR,x

so  
11.1 kg·m
s
vR,x = = 0.422 ms
(26.3 kg)
Now we have the velocities of both sleds as they are pictured in Fig. 7.10 (b).
And now the cat makes a jump back to the left sled, as shown in Fig. 7.11 (a). Again,
we take the system to be the cat and the right sled. Its initial momentum is

Pi = (22.7 kg + 3.63 kg)(0.422 ms ) = 11.1 kg·m

s

Now after the cat leaps, the velocity of the cat (with respect to the ice) is −3.05 ms , as
0
specified in the problem. If the velocity of the right sled after the leap is vR,x then the final
momentum of the system is

Pf = (3.63 kg)(−3.05 ms ) + (22.7 kg)vR,x

0

Conservation of momentum for the system, Pi = Pf , gives

11.1 kg·m
s
= (3.63 kg)(−3.05 ms ) + (22.7 kg)vR,x
0
7.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 169

so that we can solve for vR,x

0
:

(11.1 kg·m + 11.1 kg·m )

0
vR,x = s s
= 0.975 ms
(22.7 kg)

so during its second leap the cat makes the right sled go faster!
Finally, for the cat’s landing on the left sled we consider the (isolated) system of the cat
and the left sled. We already have the velocities of the cat and sled at this time; its initial
momentum is

Pi = (22.7 kg)(−0.488 ms ) + (3.63 kg)(−3.05 ms ) = −22.1 kg·m

s
.

After the cat has landed on the sled, it is moving with the same velocity as the sled, which
we will call vL,x
0
. Then the final momentum of the system is
0 0
Pf = (22.7 kg + 3.63 kg)vL,x = (26.3 kg)vL,x

And momentum conservation for this collision gives

−22.1 kg·m
s
0
= (26.3 kg)vL,x

and then
(−22.1 kg·m )
0
vL,x = s
= −0.842 ms
(26.3 kg)
Summing up, the final velocities of the sleds (after the cat is done jumping) are:

Left Sled: 0
vL,x = −0.842 ms

Right Sled: 0
vr,x = +0.975 ms

7.2.4 Two–Dimensional Collisions

9. An unstable nucleus of mass 17 × 10−27 kg initially at rest disintegrates into

three particles. One of the particles, of mass 5.0 × 10−27 kg, moves along the y axis
with a speed of 6.0 × 106 ms . Another particle of mass 8.4 × 10−27 kg, moves along
the x axis with a speed of 4.0 × 106 ms . Find (a) the velocity of the third particle
and (b) the total energy given off in the process.

(a) First, draw a picture of what is happening! Such a picture is given in Fig. 7.12. In
the most general sense of the word, this is indeed a “collision”, since it involves the rapid
interaction of a few isolated particles.
The are no external forces acting on the particles involved in the disintegration; the total
momentum of the system is conserved. The parent nucleus is at rest, so that the total
momentum was (and remains) zero: Pi = 0.
170 CHAPTER 7. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

y y
8
6.0 x 10 m/s

-27
5.0 x 10 kg -27
8.4 x 10 kg

8 x
x 4.0 x 10 m/s

(vx, vy)

(a) (b)

Figure 7.12: Nucleus disintegrates in Example 9. (a) Before the split; nucleus is at rest. (b) Afterwards;
three pieces fly off in different directions.

Afterwards, the system consists of three particles; for two of these particles, we are given
the masses and velocities. We are not given the mass of the third piece, but since we were
given the mass of the parent nucleus, we might think that we can use the fact that the masses
must sum up to the same value before and after the reaction to find it. In fact relativity tells
us that masses don’t really add in this way and when nuclei break up there is a measurable
mass difference, but it is small enough that we can safely ignore it in this problem. So we
would say that mass is conserved, and if m is the mass of the unknown fragment, we get:

17 × 10−27 kg = 5.0 × 10−27 kg + 8.4 × 10−27 kg + m

so that
m = 3.6 × 10−27 kg .
We will let the velocity components of the third fragment be vx and vy . Then the total
x momentum after the collision is

Pf,x = (8.4 × 10−27 kg)(4.0 × 106 m

s
) + (3.6 × 10−27 kg)vx

Using Pi,x = 0 = Pf,x , we find:

(8.4 × 10−27 kg)(4.0 × 106 m

s
) + (3.6 × 10−27 kg)vx = 0

which easily gives:

vx = −9.33 × 106 m
s

Similarly, the total y momentum after the collision is:

Pf,y = (5.0 × 10−27 kg)(6.0 × 106 m

s
) + (3.6 × 10−27 kg)vy

and using Pi,y = 0 = Pf,y , we have:

(5.0 × 10−27 kg)(6.0 × 106 m

s
) + (3.6 × 10−27 kg)vy = 0
7.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 171

which gives
vy = −8.33 × 106 m
s

This really does specify the velocity of the third fragment (as requested), but it is also
useful to express it as a magnitude and direction. The speed of the third fragment is
q
v= (−9.33 × 106 m 2
s
) + (−8.33 × 106 m 2
s
) = 1.25 × 107 m
s

and its direction θ (measured counterclockwise from the x axis) is given by

−8.33
 
tan θ = = 0.893
−9.33
Realizing that θ must lie in the third quadrant, we find:

θ = tan−1 (0.893) − 180◦ = −138◦ .

(b) What is the gain in energy by the system for this disintegration? By this we mean the
gain in kinetic energy. Initially, the system has no kinetic energy. After the breakup, the
kinetic energy is the sum of 12 mv 2 for all the particles, namely

Kf = 1
2
× 10−27 kg)(6.0 × 106 ms )2 + 12 (8.4 × 10−27 kg)(4.0 × 106
(5.0 m 2
s
)
+ 21 (3.6 × 10−27 kg)(1.25 × 107 ms )2
= 4.38 × 10−13 J

We might say that the process gives off 4.38 × 10−13 J of energy.

10. A billiard ball moving at 5.00 ms strikes a stationary ball of the same mass.
After the collision, the first ball moves at 4.33 ms at an angle of 30.0◦ with respect
to the original line of motion. Assuming an elastic collision (and ignoring friction
and rotational motion), find the struck ball’s velocity.

The collision is diagrammed in Fig. 7.13. We don’t know the final speed of the struck
ball; we will call it v, as in Fig. 7.13(b). We don’t know the final direction of motion of
the struck ball; we will let it be some angle θ, measured below the x axis, also as shown in
Fig. 7.13(b).
Since we are dealing with a “collision” between the two objects, we know that the total
momentum of the system is conserved. So the x and y components of the total momentum
is the same before and after the collision.
Suppose we let the x and y components of the struck ball’s final velocity be vx and vy ,
respectively. Then the condition that the total x momentum be conserved gives us:

m(5.00 ms ) + 0 = m(4.33 ms ) cos 30.0◦ + mvx

(The struck ball has no momentum initially; after the collision, the incident ball has an x
velocity of (4.33 ms ) cos 30.0◦ .)
172 CHAPTER 7. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

y y
3 m/s
4.3
5.00 m/s
30o
x q x
m m
(vx, vy)

v
(a) (b)
Figure 7.13: Collision in Example 10. (a) Before the collision. (b) After the collision.

Luckily, the m’s cancel out of this equation and we can solve for vx :

(5.00 ms ) = (4.33 ms ) cos 30.0◦ + vx

and then:
vx = (5.00 ms ) − (4.33 ms ) cos 30.0◦ = 1.25 ms
We can similarly find vy by using the condition that the total y momentum be conserved
in the collision. This gives us:

0 + 0 = m(4.33 ms ) sin 30.0◦ + mvy

which gives
vy = −(4.33 ms ) sin 30.0◦ = −2.16 ms
Now that we have the components of the final velocity we can find the speed and direction
of motion. The speed is:
q q
v= vx2 + vy2 = (1.25 ms )2 + (−2.16 ms )2 = 2.50 ms

and the direction is found from

vy −2.16 ms
tan θ = = = −1.73 =⇒ θ = tan−1 (−1.73) = −60◦
vx 1.25 ms

So the struck ball moves off with a speed of 2.50 ms at an angle of 60◦ downward from the x
axis.
This really completes the problem but we notice something strange here: We were given
more information about the collision than we used. We were also told that the collision was
elastic, meaning that the total kinetic energy of the system was the same before and after
the collision. Since we now have all of the speeds, we can check this.
7.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 173

3.00 kg x, m
4.00 kg

Figure 7.14: Masses and positions for Example 11.

The total kinetic energy before the collision was

2
Ki = 12 m(5.00 ms )2 = m(12.5 ms2 ) .

The total kinetic energy after the collision was

2
Kf = 12 m(4.33 ms )2 + 12 m(2.50 ms )2 = m(12.5 ms2 )

so that Ki is the same as Kf ; the statement that the collision is elastic is consistent with
the other data; but in this case we were given too much information in the problem!

7.2.5 The Center of Mass

11. A 3.00 kg particle is located on the x axis at x = −5.00 m and a 4.00 kg particle
is on the x axis at x = 3.00 m. Find the center of mass of this two–particle system.

The masses are shown in Fig. 7.14. There is only one coordinate (x) and two mass points
to consider here; using the definition of xCM , we find:
m1 x1 + m2 x2
xCM =
m1 + m2
(3.00 kg)(−5.00 m) + (4.00 kg)(3.00 m)
=
(3.00 kg + 4.00 kg)
= −0.429 m

The center of mass is located at x = −0.429 m.

12. An old Chrysler with mass 2400 kg is moving along a straight stretch of road
at 80 km/h. It is followed by a Ford with mass 1600 kg moving at 60 km/h. How
fast is the center of mass of the two cars moving?

The cars here have 1–dimensional motion along (say) the x axis.
From Eq. 7.11 we see that the velocity of their center of mass is given by:
N
1 X m1v1x + m2v2x
vCM, x = mi vi, x =
M i m1 + m2
174 CHAPTER 7. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

Plugging in the masses and velocities of the two cars, we find

   
(2400 kg) 80 km
h
+ (1600 kg) 60 km
h
vCM, x = = 72 km
h
(2400 kg + 1600 kg)
m
In units of s
this is
103 m
! !
km 1h
72 h
= 20 ms
1 km 3600 s

7.2.6 The Motion of a System of Particles

13. A 2.0 kg particle has a velocity of v1 = (2.0i − 3.0j) ms , and a 3.0 kg particle has
a velocity (1.0i + 6.0j) ms . Find (a) the velocity of the center of mass and (b) the
total momentum of the system.

(a) We are given the masses and velocity components for the two particles. Then writing
out the x and y components of Eq. 7.11 we find:

(m1v1x + m2 v2x)
vCM,x =
(m1 + m2 )
(2.0 kg)(2.0 ms ) + (3.0 kg)(1.0 ms )
=
(2.0 kg + 3.0 kg)
m
= 1.4 s

(m1v1y + m2v2y )
vCM,y =
(m1 + m2)
(2.0 kg)(−3.0 ms ) + (3.0 kg)(6.0 ms )
=
(2.0 kg + 3.0 kg)
m
= 2.4 s

The velocity of the center of mass of the two–particle system is

vCM = (1.4i + 2.4j) ms

(b) The total momentum of a system of particles is related to the velocity of the center of
mass by P = MvCM so we can use the answer from part (a) to get:

P = MvCM = (2.0 kg + 3.0 kg)((1.4i + 2.4j) ms )

= (7.00i + 12.0j) kg·m
s
Appendix A: Useful Numbers

Conversion Factors:
Length cm meter km in ft mi
1 cm = 1 10−2 10−5 0.3937 3.281 × 10−2 6.214 × 10−6
1m = 100 1 10−3 39.37 3.281 6.214 × 10−4
1 km = 105 1000 1 3.937 × 104 3281 06214
1 in = 2.540 2.540 × 10−2 2.540 × 10−5 1 8.333 × 10−2 1.578 × 10−5
1 ft = 30.48 0.3048 3.048 × 10−4 12 1 1.894 × 10−4
1 mi = 1.609 × 105 1609 1.609 6.336 × 104 5280 1

Mass g kg slug u
1g = 1 0.001 6.852 × 10−2 6.022 × 1026
1 kg = 1000 1 6.852 × 10−5 6.022 × 1023
1 slug = 1.459 × 104 14.59 1 8.786 × 1027
1u = 1.661 × 10−24 1.661 × 10−27 1.138 × 10−28 1

An object with a weight of 1 lb has a mass of 0.4536 kg.

Earth Data
Mass 5.97 × 1024 kg
Mean Radius 6.37 × 106 m
Orbital Period 3.16 × 107 s
Mean Distance from Sun 1.50 × 1011 m
Mean Density 5.5 × 103 kg/m3
Surface gravity 9.81 sm2

Sun
Mass 1.99 × 1030 kg
Mean Radius 6.96 × 108 m
Mean Distance from Galactic Center 2.6 × 1020 m
Mean Density 1.4 × 103 kg/m3
Surface Temperature 5.8 × 103 K

175
Chapter 1

Rotation of an Object About a Fixed

Axis

1.1 The Important Stuff

1.1.1 Rigid Bodies; Rotation
So far in our study of physics we have (with few exceptions) dealt with particles, objects
whose spatial dimensions were unimportant for the questions we were asking. We now deal
with the (elementary!) aspects of the motion of extended objects, objects whose dimensions
are important.
The objects that we deal with are those which maintain a rigid shape (the mass points
maintain their relative positions) but which can change their orientation in space. They
can have translational motion, in which their center of mass moves but also rotational
motion, in which we can observe the changes in direction of a set of axes that is “glued to”
the object. Such an object is known as a rigid body. We need only a small set of angles
to describe the rotation of a rigid body. Still, the general motion of such an object can be
quite complicated.
Since this is such a complicated subject, we specialize further to the case where a line
of points of the object is fixed and the object spins about a rotation axis fixed in space.
When this happens, every individual point of the object will have a circular path, although
the radius of that circle will depend on which mass point we are talking about. And the
orientation of the object is completely specified by one variable, an angle θ which we can
take to be the angle between some reference line “painted” on the object and the x axis
(measured counter-clockwise, as usual).
Because of the nice mathematical properties of expressing the measure of an angle in
radians, we will usually express angles in radians all through our study of rotations; on
occasion, though, we may have to convert to or from degrees or revolutions. Revolutions,
degrees and radians are related by:

1 revolution = 360 degrees = 2π radians

1
2 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

r s
q

Figure 1.1: A point on the rotating object is located a distance r from the axis; as the object
rotates through an angle θ it moves a distance s.

[Later, because of its importance, we will deal with the motion of a (round) object which
rolls along a surface without slipping. This motion involves rotation and translation, but it
is not much more complicated than rotation about a fixed axis.]

1.1.2 Angular Displacement

As a rotating object moves through an angle θ from the starting position, a mass point on
the object at radius r will move a distance s; s length of arc of a circle of radius r, subtended
by the angle θ.
When θ is in radians, these are related by
s
θ= θ in radians (1.1)
r
If we think about the consistency of the units in this equation, we see that since s and
r both have units of length, θ is really dimensionless; but since we are assuming radian
measure, we will often write “rad” next to our angles to keep this in mind.

1.1.3 Angular Velocity

The angular position of a rotating changes with time; as with linear motion, we study the
rate of change of θ with time t. If in a time period ∆t the object has rotated through an
angular displacement ∆θ then we define the average angular velocity for that period as
∆θ
ω= (1.2)
∆t
A more interesting quantity is found as we let the time period ∆t be vanishingly small.
This gives us the instantaneous angular velocity, ω:
∆θ dθ
ω = lim = (1.3)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
rad 1
Angular velocity has units of s
, or equivalently, s
or s−1 .
1.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 3

In more advanced studies of rotational motion, the angular velocity of a rotating object
is defined in such a way that it is a vector quantity. For an object rotating counterclockwise
about a fixed axis, this vector has magnitude ω and points outward along the axis of rotation.
For our purposes, though, we will treat ω as a number which can be positive or negative,
depending on the direction of rotation.

1.1.4 Angular Acceleration; Constant Angular Acceleration

The rate at which the angular velocity changes is the angular acceleration of the object. If
the object’s (instantaneous) angular velocity changes by ∆ω within a time period ∆t, then
the average angular acceleration for this period is
∆ω
α= (1.4)
∆t
But as you might expect, much more interesting is the instantaneous angular accelera-
tion, defined as
∆ω dω
α = lim = (1.5)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
We can derive simple equations for rotational motion if we know that α is constant.
(Later we will see that this happens if the “torque” on the object is constant.) Then, if θ0
is the initial angular displacement, ω0 is the initial angular velocity and α is the constant
angular acceleration, then we find:

ω = ω0 + αt (1.6)
θ = θ0 + ω0 t + 21 αt2 (1.7)
ω2 = ω02 + 2α(θ − θ0) (1.8)
θ = θ0 + 12 (ω0 + ω)t (1.9)

where θ and ω are the angular displacements and velocity at time t. θ0 and ω0 are the values
of the angle and angular velocity at t = 0.
These equations have exactly the same form as the equations for one–dimensional linear
motion given in Chapter 2 of Vol. 1. The correspondences of the variables are:

x↔θ v↔ω a↔α.

It is almost always simplest to set θ0 = 0 in these equations, so you will often see
Eqs. 1.6—1.9 written with this substitution already made.

1.1.5 Relationship Between Angular and Linear Quantities

As we wrote in Eq. 1.1, when a rotating object has an angular displacement ∆θ, then a point
on the object at a radius r travels a distance s = rθ. This is a relation between the angular
motion of the point and the “linear” motion of the point (though here “linear” is a bit of a
misnomer because the point has a circular path). The distance of the point from the axis
4 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

does not change, so taking the time derivative of this relation give the instantaneous speed
of the particle as:
ds dθ
v= = r = rω (1.10)
dt dt
which we similarly call the point’s linear speed (or, tangential speed), vT ) to distinguish
it from the angular speed. Note, all points on the rotating object have the same angular
speed but their linear speeds depend on their distances from the axis.
Similarly, the time derivative of the Eq. 1.10 gives the linear acceleration of the point:

dv dω
aT = =r = rα (1.11)
dt dt

Here it is essential to distinguish the tangential acceleration from the centripetal acceleration
that we recall from our study of uniform circular motion. It is still true that a point on the
wheel at radius r will have a centripetal acceleration given by:

v2 (rω)2
ac = = = rω 2 (1.12)
r r

These two components specify the acceleration vector of a point on a rotating object. (Of
course, if α is zero, then aT = 0 and there is only a centripetal component.)

1.1.6 Rotational Kinetic Energy

Because a rotating object is made of many mass points in motion, it has kinetic energy; but
since each mass point has a different speed v our formula from translational particle motion,
K = 21 mv 2 no longer applies. If we label the mass points of the rotating object as mi, having
individual (different!) linear speeds vi , then the total kinetic energy of the rotating object is

1
m v2 1
mi vi2
X X
Krot = 2 i i
= 2
i I

If ri is the distance of the ith mass point form the axis, then vi = ri ω and we then have:
!
2
1 1
(miri2 )ω 2 1
mi ri2 ω2 .
X X X
Krot = 2
mi(ri ω) = 2
= 2
i i i

The sum i mi ri2 is called the moment of inertia for the rotating object (which we discuss
P

further in the next section), and usually denoted I. (It is also called the rotational inertia
in some books.) It has units of kg · m2 in the SI system. With this simplification, our last
equation becomes
Krot = 21 Iω 2 (1.13)
1.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 5

1.1.7 The Moment of Inertia; The Parallel Axis Theorem

For a rotating object composed of many mass points, the moment of inertia I is given by

miri2
X
I= (1.14)
i

I has units of kg · m2 in the SI system, and as we use it in elementary physics, it is a scalar

1
(i.e. a single number which in fact is always positive). More frequently we deal with a
rotating object which is a continuous distribution of mass, and for this case we have the
more general expression Z
I= r2 dm (1.15)

Here, the integral is performed over the volume of the object and at each point we evaluate
r2 , where r is the distance measured perpendicularly from the rotation axis.
The evaluation of this integral for various of cases of interest is a common exercise in
multi-variable calculus. In most of our problems we will only be using a few basic geometrical
shapes, and the moments of inertia for these are given in Figure 1.2 and in Figure 1.3.
Suppose the moment of inertia for an object of mass M with the rotation axis passing
through the center of mass is ICM . Now suppose we displace the axis parallel to itself by a
distance D. This situation is shown in Fig. 1.4. The moment of inertia of the object about
the new axis will have a new value I, given by

I = ICM + MD2 (1.16)

Eq. 1.16 is known as the Parallel Axis Theorem and is sometimes handy for computing
moments of inertia if we already have a listing for a moment of inertia through the object’s
center of mass.

1.1.8 Torque
We can impart an acceleration to a rotating object by exerting a force on it at a particular
point. But it turns out that the force is not the simplest quantity to use in studying rotations;
rather it is the torque imparted by the force.
Suppose the force F (whose direction lies in the plane of rotation) is applied at a point
r (relative to the rotation axis which is at the origin O). Suppose that the (smallest) angle
between r and F is φ. Then the magnitude of the torque exerted on the object by this force
is
|τ | = rF sin φ (1.17)
By some very simple regrouping, this equation can be written as

τ = r(F sin φ) = rFt

1
In advanced mechanics it is treated as a matrix , but we don’t need to make things that complicated!
6 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

R
R1
R2

(a) (b)
1 2 2
M(R +R )
MR2 2 1 2

R R

(c) (d)
1
2 MR2 1 1
MR2 + 12 ML
2
4

L L
(e) (f)
1 ML2
12 1
3 ML2

Figure 1.2: Formulae for the moment of inertia I for simple shapes about the axes, as shown. In each case,
the mass of the object is M . (a) Hoop about symmetry axis. (b) Annular cylinder about symmetry axis. (c)
Solid cylinder (disk) about symmetry axis. (d) Solid cylinder (disk) about axis through CM, perpendicular
to symmetry axis. (e) Thin rod about axis through CM, perpendicular to length. (f) Thin rod about axis
through one end, perpendicular to length.
1.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 7

R R

(a) (b)
2
5 MR2 2
3 MR2

(c) a (d)

1
2 MR2 1 2 2
12 M(a +b
)

Figure 1.3: More formulae for moment of inertia I for simple shapes about the axes, as shown. (a) Solid
sphere; axis is through a diameter. (b) Spherical shell; axis is through a diameter. (c) Hoop; axis is through
a diameter. (d) Rectangular slab; axis is perpendicular, through the center.

D
M

CM CM

(a) (b)

Figure 1.4: (a) Moment of inertia about an axis through the center of mass of an object is ICM . (b) We
displace the axis so that it is parallel and a distance D away. New moment of inertia is given by the Parallel
Axis Theorem. This object looks like some kind of potato, but the theorem will work for any vegetable.
8 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

Ft
F F F

f f
P P r P
f
r r
O r
O O

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.5: (a) Rigid body rotates about point O. A force F is exerted at point P . (b) Torque τ can be
viewed as the product of the distance r and the tangential component of the force, Ft . (c) Torque τ can also
be viewed as the product of the force F and the distance r⊥ (often called the moment arm, or lever arm).

where Ft = F sin φ is the component of the force perpendicular to r, or as

τ = (r sin φ)F = r⊥ F

where r⊥ = r sin φ is the distance between the axis and the line which we get by “extending”
the force vector into a line often called the line of action. The distance r⊥ is called the
moment arm of the force F. These different ways of thinking about the terms in Eq. 1.17
are illustrated in Fig. 1.5.
Formula 1.17 gives us the magnitude of the torque; strictly speaking, torque is a vector
and in more advanced studies of rotations, it must be treated as such. The (vector) torque
due a force F is defined as
τ = r×F
so we see that Eq. 1.17 gives the magnitude of this vector . For now we will treat torque as
a number which is positive if the force gives a counterclockwise rotation and negative if the
force gives a clockwise rotation. What we are calling τ here is really the component of the
torque vector along the rotation axis.
To repeat, τ is positive or negative depending on whether the rotation which the force
(acting alone) induces is counter-clockwise or clockwise. (However — on occasion we may
want to choose the other convention.)
When a number of individual forces act on a rotating object, we can compute the net
torque: X
τnet = τi

1.1.9 Torque and Angular Acceleration (Newton’s Second Law for

Rotations)
The angular acceleration of a rotating object is proportional to the net torque on the object;
they are related by:
τnet = Iα (1.18)
1.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 9

Linear Quantity Angular Quantity

x θ
v ω
a α
m I
F τ
p L

Table 1.1: Correspondences between linear and angular quantities

where I is the moment of inertia of the object.

This equation looks a lot like Newton’s Second Law for one–dimensional motion, Fx =
max.

1.1.10 Work, Energy and Power in Rotational Motion

As with the (abbreviated) formula for the work done by a force for a small displacement,
linear motion, W = Fxdx, we have a formula for the work done by a torque for a small
angular displacement dθ:
W = τ dθ
For a finite angular displacement from θi to θf , the work done is
Z θf
W = τ dθ
θi

1.1.11 The New Equations Look Like the Old Equations

Although the rotational motion we have begun to study in this chapter is really quite a
different thing from the linear motion we have studied up to now, it is of great help in
using (or at least remembering) the equations by drawing correspondences between the new
rotational quantities and the old linear quantities. These are summarized in Table 1.1. For
completeness, we include the quantity angular momentum, L, which will be discussed in the
next chapter.
The basic relations between the old linear quantities and the corresponding relations
between the new angular quantities are summarized in Table 1.2. Of course, the first three
pairs of equations deal with the special case of constant linear or angular acceleration.

A few pointers for solving problems which involve rotations:

• The objects which rotate are (obviously) all extended objects, that is, they have dimensions
(width, height. . . ) which can’t be ignored. In some problems the center of mass of the rigid
body does move and we may need to understand how the gravitational potential energy of
the object changes. The basic answer is that we compute the gravitational potential energy
by treating all the mass of the object as being located at its center of mass.
10 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

Linear Relation Angular Relation

v = v0 + at ω = ω0 + αt
x = x0 + v0 t + 21 at2 θ = θ0 + ω0 t + 21 αt2
v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 ) ω 2 = ω02 + 2α(θ − θ0)
K = 12 mv 2 K = 12 Iω 2
F = ma τ = Iα
p = mv L = Iω

Table 1.2: Correspondences between basic equations for linear and angular motion.

• Some problems involve a pulley which turns because a string is tightly wrapped around it
or because a string passes over the pulley and does not slip against it. In those cases the
string exerts a force on the pulley which is tangential, and we use this fact in computing the
torque on the pulley. But see the next point. . .
• When a string does pass over a real pulley (i.e. it has mass even though we might still
ignore friction in the bearings) and exerts forces on the pulley, the string tension will not be
the same on both sides of the place where it is in contact. This differs from the problems in
the chapter on forces where pulleys were involved; there, we used the idealization of massless
pulleys, and the tension was the same on both sides.

1.2 Worked Examples

1.2.1 Angular Displacement

1. (a) What angle in radians is subtended by an arc that has length 1.80 m and is
part of a circle of radius 1.20 m? (b) Express the same angle in degrees. (c) The
angle between two radii of a circle is 0.620 rad. What arc length is subtended if
the radius is 2.40 m? [HRW5 11-1]
(a) Eq. 1.1 relates arclength, radius and subtended angle. We find:
s 1.80 m
θ= = = 1.50 rad
r 1.20 m
The subtended angle is 1.50 radians.
(b) To express this angle in degrees use the relation: 360 deg = 2π rad (or, 180 deg = π rad).
Then we have: !
180 deg
1.50 rad = (1.50 rad) = 85.9◦
π rad
(c) We can find the arc length subtended by an angle θ by the relation: s = θr. Then for
an angle of 0.620 rad and radius 2.40 m, the arclength is
s = θr = (0.620)(2.40 m) = 1.49 m .
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 11

1.2.2 Angular Velocity

2. What is the angular speed in radians per second of (a) the Earth in its orbit
about the Sun and (b) the Moon in its orbit about the Earth? [Ser4 10-3]

(a) The Earth goes around in a (nearly!) circular path with a period of one year. In seconds,
this is: ! !
365.25 day 24 hr 3600 s

1 yr = (1 yr) = 3.156 × 107 s
1 yr 1 day 1 hr
In one year its angular displacement is 2π radians (all the way around) so its angular
speed is
∆θ 2π
ω= = = 1.99 × 10−7 rad
s
∆t (3.156 × 107 s)

(b) How long does it take the moon to go around the earth? That’s a number we need to
look up. You ought to know that it is about a month, but any good reference source will
tell you that it is 27.3 days, officially called the sidereal period of the moon.. (Things get
confusing because of the motion of the earth; full moons occur every 29.5 days, a period
which is called the synodic period .) Converting to seconds, we have:
!
24 hr 3600 s

P = 27.3 days = (27.3 days) = 2.36 × 106 s
1 day 1 hr

In that length of time the angular displacement of the moon is 2π so its angular speed is
∆θ 2π rad
ω= = = 2.66 × 10−6 s
∆t (2.36 × 106 s)

1.2.3 Angular Acceleration; Constant Angular Acceleration

3. The angular position of a point on the rim of a rotating wheel is given by

θ = 4.0t − 3.0t2 + t3, where θ is in radians if t is given in seconds. (a) What are
the angular velocities at t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s? (b) What is the average angular
acceleration for the time interval that begins at t = 2.0 s and ends at t = 4.0 s?
(c) What are the instantaneous angular accelerations at the beginning and end
of this time interval? [HRW5 11-5]

(a) In the problem we are given the angular position θ as a function of time. To find the
(instantaneous) angular velocity at any time, use Eq. 1.3 and find:

dθ d  
ω(t) = = 4.0t − 3.0t2 + t3
dt dt
= 4.0 − 6.0t + 3.0t2
12 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

where, if t is given in seconds, ω is given in rad

s
.
The angular velocities at the given times are then

ω(2.0 s) = 4.0 − 6.0(2.0) + 3.0(2.0)2 = 4.0 rad

s

ω(4.0 s) = 4.0 − 6.0(4.0) + 3.0(4.0)2 = 28.0 rad

s

(b) Since we have the values of ω and t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s, Eq. 1.4 gives the average
angular acceleration for the interval:

∆ω (28.0 rad
s
− 4.0 rad
s
)
α = =
∆t (4.0 s − 2.0 s)
rad
= 12.0 s2

The average angular acceleration is 12.0 rad

s2
.
(c) We find the instantaneous angular acceleration from Eq. 1.5:
dω d  
α(t) = = 4.0 − 6.0t + 3.0t2
dt dt
= −6.0 + 6.0t

where, if t is given in seconds, α is given in rad

s2
.
Then at the beginning and end of our time interval the angular accelerations are:

α(2.0 s) = −6.0 + 6.0(2.0) = 6.0 rad

s2

α(4.0 s) = −6.0 + 6.0(4.0) = 18.0 rad

s2

4. An electric motor rotating a grinding wheel at 100 rev/min is switched off.

Assuming constant negative angular acceleration of magnitude 2.00 rad
s2
, (a) how
long does it take the wheel to stop? (b) Through how many radians does it turn
during the time found in (a)? [Ser4 10-5]

(a) Convert the initial rotation rate to radians per second:

!
2π rad 1 min
  
rev rev
100 min
= 100 min
= 10.5 rad
s
1 rev 60 s
When the wheel has stopped then of course its angular velocity is zero. Since we know ω0 ,
ω and α we can use Eq. 1.6 to get the elapsed time:
(ω − ω0 )
ω = ω0 + αt =⇒ t=
α
and we get:
(0 − 10.5 rad
s
)
t= rad = 5.24 s
(−2.00 s2 )
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 13

The wheel takes 5.24 s to stop.

(b) We want to find the angular displacement θ during the time of stopping. Since we know
that the angular acceleration is constant we can use Eq 1.9, and it might be simplest to do
so. then we have:

θ = 21 (ω0 + ω)t = 12 (10.5 rad

s
+ 0)(5.24 s) = 27.5 rad .

The wheel turns through 27.5 radians in coming to a halt.

5. A phonograph turntable rotating at 33 31 rev/ min slows down and stops in 30 s

after the motor is turned off. (a) Find its (uniform) angular acceleration in units
of rev/ min2 . (b) How many revolutions did it make in this time? [HRW5 11-12]

(a) Here we are given the initial angular velocity of the turntable and its final angular velocity
(namely zero, when it stops) and the time interval between them. We can use Eq. 1.6 to
find α, which we are told is constant. We have:
ω − ω0
α=
t
We don’t need to convert the units of the data to radians and seconds; if we watch our
units, we can use revolutions and minutes. Noting that the time for the turntable to stop is
rev
t = 30 s = 0.50 min, and with ω0 = 33.3 min and ω = 0 we find:
rev
0 − 33.3 min rev
α= = −66.7 min2
0.50 min
rev
The angular acceleration of the turntable during the time of stopping was −66.7 min 2 . (The

minus sign indicates a deceleration, that is, an angular acceleration opposite to the sense of
the angular velocity.)
(b) Here we want to find the value of θ at t = 0.50 min. To get this, we can use either
Eq. 1.7 or Eq. 1.9. With θ0 = 0, Eq. 1.9 gives us:

θ = θ0 + 12 (ω0 + ω)t
= 21 (33.3 min
rev
+ 0)(0.50 min)
= 8.33 rev

The turntable makes 8.33 revolutions as it slows to a halt.

6. A disk, initially rotating at 120 rad

s
, is slowed down with a constant angular
rad
acceleration of magnitude 4.0 s2 . (a) How much time elapses before the disk
stops? (b) Through what angle does the disk rotate in coming to rest? [HRW5 11-13]
14 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

(a) We are given the initial angular velocity of the disk, ω0 = 120 rad
s
. (We let the positive
sense of rotation be the same as that of the initial motion.) We are given the magnitude of
the disk’s angular acceleration as it slows, but then we must write

α = −4.0 rad
s2
.

The final angular velocity (when the disk has stopped!) is ω = 0. Then from Eq. 1.6 we can
solve for the time t:
ω − ω0
ω = ω0 + αt =⇒ t=
α
and we get:
(0 − 120 rad
s
)
t= rad
= 30.0 s
(−4.0 s2 )

(b) We’ll let the initial angle be θ0 = 0. We can now use any of the constant–α equations
containing θ to solve for it; let’s choose Eq. 1.8, which gives us:

2 (ω 2 − ω02 )
ω = ω02 + 2α(θ) =⇒ θ=
2α
and we get:
(02 − (120 rads
)2 )
θ= = 1800 rad
2(−4.0 rad
s 2 )
The disk turns through an angle of 1800 radians before coming to rest.

7. A wheel, starting from rest, rotates with a constant angular acceleration of

2.00 rad
s2
. During a certain 3.00 s interval, it turns through 90.0 rad. (a) How long
had the wheel been turning before the start of the 3.00 s interval? (b) What was
the angular velocity of the wheel at the start of the 3.00 s interval? [HRW5 11-19]

(a) We are told that some time after the wheel starts from rest we measure the angular
displacement for some 3.00 s interval and it is 9.00 rad. Suppose we start measuring time at
the beginning of this interval; since this time measurement isn’t from the beginning of the
wheel’s motion, we’ll call it t0. Now, with the usual choice θ0 = 0 we know that at t0 = 3.00 s
we have θ = 90.0 rad. Also α = 2.00 rads2
. Using Eq. 1.7 get:

90.0 rad = ω0 (3.00 s) + 12 (2.00 rad

s2
)(3.00 s)2

which we can use to solve for ω0 :

ω0 (3.00 s) = 90.0 rad − 21 (2.00 rad

s2
)(3.00 s)2 = 81.0 rad

so that
ω0 = 27.0 rad
s

(Looking ahead, we can see that we’ve already answered part (b)!)
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 15

Now suppose we measure time from the beginning of the wheel’s motion with the variable
t. We want to find the length of time required for ω to get up to the value 27.0 rad
s
. For this
period the initial angular velocity is ω0 = 0 and the final angular velocity is 27.0 rad
s
. Since
we have α we can use Eq. 1.6 to get t:
ω − ω0
ω = ω0 + αt =⇒ t=
α
which gives
(27.0 rad
s
− 0 rad
s
)
t= rad
= 13.5 s
2.00 s2
This tells us that the wheel had been turning for 13.5 s before the start of the 3.00 s interval.
(b) In part (a) we found that at the beginning of the 3.00 s interval the angular velocity was
27.0 rad
s
.

1.2.4 Relationship Between Angular and Linear Quantities

8. What is the angular speed of a car travelling at 50 km

hr
and rounding a circular
turn of radius 110 m? [HRW5 11-27]

To work consistently in SI units, convert the speed of the car:

103 m
! !
km km 1 hr
v = 50 hr
= (50 hr
) = 13.9 ms
1 km 3600 s
The relation between the car’s “linear” speed v and its angular speed ω as it goes around
the track is v = rω. This gives:
v 13.9 ms
ω= = = 0.126 rad
s
r 110 m

9. An astronaut is being tested in a centrifuge. The centrifuge has a radius of

10 m and, in starting, rotates according to θ = 0.30t2 , where t in seconds gives θ in
radians. When t = 5.0 s, what are the astronaut’s (a) angular velocity, (b) linear
speed, (c) tangential acceleration (magnitude only) and (d) radial acceleration
(magnitude only)? [HRW5 11-32]

(a) We are given θ as a function of time. We get the angular velocity from its definition,
Eq. 1.3,
dθ d
ω= = (0.30t2 ) = 0.60t
dt dt
where we mean that when t is in seconds, ω is given in rad
s
. When t = 5.0 s this is

ω = (0.60)(5.0) ms = 3.0 rad

s
16 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

(b) The linear speed of the astronaut is found from Eq. 1.10 (the linear or tangential speed
of a mass point):
v = Rω = (10 m)(0.60t) = 6.0t
m
where we mean that when t is given in seconds, v is given in s
. When t = 5.0 s this is

v = (6.0)(5.0) ms = 30.0 ms

(c) The (magnitude of the) tangential acceleration of a mass point is given by Eq. 1.11. We
will need the angular acceleration α, which is
dω d
α= = (0.60t) = 0.60
dt dt
so that
aT = Rα = (10 m)(0.60) = 6.0 sm2 .
Here, since aT is constant we have written in the appropriate units, which are mpss. (Since
aT is constant, the answer is the same at t = 5.0 s as at any other time.)
(d) The radial acceleration of the astronaut is our old friend (?) the centripetal acceleration.
From Eq. 1.12 we can get the magnitude of ac from:

ac = Rω 2 = (10 m)(0.60t)2 = 3.6t2

where we mean that if t is given in seconds, ac is given in mpss. When t = 5.0 s this is

ac = (3.6)(5.0)2 m
s2
= 90 sm2

1.2.5 Rotational Kinetic Energy

10. Calculate the rotational inertia of a wheel that has a kinetic energy of 24, 400 J
when rotating at 602 rev/min. [HRW5 11-45]
rad
Find the angular speed ω of the wheel, in s
:
!
2π rad 1 min

rev
ω = 602 min
= 63.0 rad
s
1 rev 60 s
We have ω and the kinetic energy of rotation, Krot , so we can find the rotational kinetic
energy from
2Krot
Krot = 21 Iω 2 =⇒ I=
ω2
We get:
2(24, 400 J)
I= = 12.3 kg · m2
(63.0 rad
s
) 2

The moment of inertia of the wheel is 12.3 kg · m2 .

1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 17

20 40 60 80

CM

Figure 1.6: Rotating system for Example 11.

1.2.6 The Moment of Inertia (and More Rotational Kinetic En-

ergy)

11. Calculate the rotational inertia of a meter stick with mass 0.56 kg, about an
axis perpendicular to the stick and located at the 20 cm mark. [HRW5 11-53]

A picture of this rotating system is given in Fig. 1.6. The stick is one meter long (being
a meter stick and all that) and we take it to be uniform so that its center of mass is at the
50 cm mark. But the axis of rotation goes through the 20 cm mark.
Now if the axis did pass through the center of mass (perpendicular to the stick), we
would know how to find the rotational inertia; from Figure 1.2 we see that it would be

ICM = 1
12
ML2 = 1
12
(0.56 kg)(1.00 m)2 = 4.7 × 10−2 kg · m2

The rotational inertia about our axis will not be the same.
We note that our axis is displaced from the one through the CM by 30 cm. Then the
Parallel Axis Theorem (Eq. 1.16) tells us that the moment of inertia about our axis is given
by
I = ICM + MD2
where ICM = 4.7 × 10−2 kg · m2, as we’ve already found, M is the mass of the rod and D is
the distance the axis is displaced (parallel to itself), namely 30 cm. We get:

I = 4.7 × 10−2 kg · m2 + (0.56 kg)(0.30 m)2 = 9.7 × 10−2 kg · m2

So the rotational inertia of the stick about the given axis is 0.097 kg · m2.

12. Two masses M and m are connected by a rigid rod of length L and negligible
mass as in Fig. 1.7. For an axis perpendicular to the rod, show that the system
has the minimum moment of inertia when the axis passes through the center of
mass. Show that this moment of inertia is I = µL2 , where µ = mM/(m + M). [Ser4
10-21]
18 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

M m

x L-x

Figure 1.7: Rotating system for Example 12.

As noted in the figure, let the distance of the axis from the mass M be x; then its distance
from mass m must be L − x. The definition of the moment of inertia tells us that for this
system

mi ri2
X
I =
i
= Mx2 + m(L − x)2 = Mx2 + m(L2 − 2Lx + x2 )
= (M + m)x2 − 2mLx + mL2
The final expression shows that as a function of x, I is quadratic with a positive coefficient
in front of the x2 term. The graph of this function is a parabola which faces up, and it has
a minimum at the value of x for which dI/dx = 0. Solving for this value, we get:
dI mL
= 2(M + m)x − 2mL = 0 =⇒ x=
dx (M + m)
(Note, since (Mm+m)
is a number between zero and 1 this is a point between the two masses.)
Now, taking the origin to be at mass M, the coordinate of the center of mass of this
system is located at
(M · 0 + m · L) mL
xCM = =
(m + M) (m + M)
so the axis of minimum I does indeed pass through the center of mass.
Substituting this value of x into the expression for I we find:
!2 !2
mL mL
Imin = M +m L−
(M + m) (M + m)
!2
Mm2L2 L(M + m) − mL
= 2
+m
(M + m) (M + m)
!2
Mm2L2 ML
= 2
+m
(M + m) (M + m)
2 2 2 2
Mm L + mM L mM(m + M) 2
= 2
= L
(M + m) (M + m)2
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 19

30o
1.25 m

0.75 kg
30o
mg
(a) (b)

Figure 1.8: The pendulum of Example 13, at a position of 30◦ from the vertical. The second picture shows
the forces acting on the ball at the end of the rod.

mM
= L2
(M + m)

Now if we let µ = mM/(M + m) we can write this as

Imin = µL2 .

1.2.7 Torque

13. A small 0.75 kg ball is attached to one end of a 1.25 m long massless rod, and
the other end of the rod is hung from a pivot. When the resulting pendulum is
30◦ from the vertical, what is the magnitude of the torque about the pivot? [HRW5
11-61]

Draw a picture of the system! In Fig. 1.8 we show the basic geometry and also the forces
which are acting on the ball at the end of the rod. (The rod is massless so no external forces
act on it; we only need to worry about the torque produced by the forces acting on the ball.)
To calculate the torques due to each force, we need the magnitude of the force, the
distance at which it acts from the pivot (here, it is 1.25 m) and the angle between the force
and the lever arm (that is, the line joining the pivot to the place where the force acts).
You might think we would want to find the tension T in the rod before calculating the
torques, but it is not necessary. The force of the rod on the ball points along the vector r.
So φ = 0 and there is no torque.
The force of gravity makes an angle of 30◦ from the vector r and since it has magnitude
mg, the magnitude of its torque is

τ = rF sin φ = (1.25 m)(0.75 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) sin 30◦ = 4.6 N · m

The net torque has magnitude 4.6 N · m.

20 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

FA

C 135o
FC O A
o
160
90o
FB
B

Figure 1.9: Forces acting on a rotating body in Example 14.

14. The body in Fig. 1.9 is pivoted at O. Three forces act on it in the directions
shown on the figure: FA = 10 N at point A, 8.0 m from O; FB = 16 N at point B,
4.0 m from O; and FC = 19 N at point C, 3.0 m from O. What is the net torque
about O? [HRW5 11-64]

Start with the force applied at point A. Here rA = 8.0 m and for our purposes φA can be
taken as 135◦ or 45◦ . The magnitude of the torque imparted by FA is
|τA | = |rA FA sin φA | = |(8.0 m)(10.0 N) sin(135◦ )| = 56.6 N · m
Clearly FA is a force which gives a torque in the counterclockwise (positive, usually) sense,
so we write:
τA = +56.6 N · m
Next, the force applied at B. With rB = 4.0 m and φB = 90◦ we find:
|τB | = |rB FB sin φB | = |(4.0 m)(16.0 N) sin(90◦ )| = 64.0 N · m
but FB is clearly a force which gives a clockwise (i.e. negative) torque, and so
τB = −64.0 N · m
And finally, the force applied at C. With rC = 3.0 m and φC = 160◦ , we have
|τC | = |rC FC sin φC | = |(3.0 m)(19.0 N) sin(160◦ )| = 19.5 N · m .
One can see that FC gives a counterclockwise torque and so
τC = +19.5 N · m
Now find the total torque!
X
τnet = τi = (56.6 N · m) + (−64.0 N · m) + (19.5 N · m) = 12.1 N · m
The net (counterclockwise) torque on the object is 12.1 N · m.
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 21

1.2.8 Torque and Angular Acceleration (Newton’s Second Law for

Rotations)

15. When a torque of 32.0 N · m is applied to a certain wheel, the wheel acquires
an angular acceleration of 25.0 rad
s2
. What is the rotational inertia of the wheel?
[HRW5 11-65]

Torque, angular acceleration and the moment of inertia are related by τ = Iα. Solving
for I, we find:
τ 32.0 N · m 2
I= = rad = 1.28 kg · m
α 25.0 s2

16. A thin spherical shell has a radius of 1.90 m. An applied torque of 960 N · m
imparts to the shell an angular acceleration equal to 6.20 rad
s2
about an axis through
the center of the shell. (a) What is the rotational inertia of the shell about the
axis of rotation? (b) Calculate the mass of the shell. [HRW5 11-69]

(a) From the relation between (net) torque, moment of inertia and angular acceleration,
τ = Iα we have
τ
I=
α
Using the given torque on the shell and its angular acceleration we find that the rotational
inertia of the shell is
(960 N · m)
I= rad = 155 kg · m2 .
(6.20 s2 )

(b) From Figure 1.3 the moment of inertia for a spherical shell of mass M and radius R
rotating about any diameter is
I = 23 MR2
We know I and R so we can solve for the mass of the shell:
3I 3(155 kg · m2)
M= = = 64.4 kg
2R2 2(1.90 m)2

17. A wheel of radius 0.20 M is mounted on a frictionless horizontal axis. A

massless cord is wrapped around the wheel and attached to a 2.0 kg object that
slides on a frictionless surface inclined at 20◦ with the horizontal, as shown in
Fig. 1.10. The object accelerates down the incline at 2.0 sm2 . What is the rotational
inertia of the wheel about its axis of rotation? [HRW5 11-72]

As in most problems of this type, we will find a solution by diagramming the forces
which act on each mass and then using Newton’s laws to set up equations. Here there are
two masses we need to isolate: The block and the pulley.
22 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

kg
2.0

20o

Figure 1.10: Sliding mass on string and pulley, as described in Example 17.

N T
T R
mg sin q

mg cos q
mg

(a) (b)
Figure 1.11: (a) Forces on the sliding mass in Example 17. (b) Force (and its position of application on
the pulley) in Example 17.
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 23

We start with the sliding mass; the forces acting on it are shown in Fig. 1.11(a). There
is the downward force of gravity mg on the mass, which we separate into its components:
mg sin θ down the slope and mg cos θ into the plane. There is the normal force N of the
surface (outward and perpendicular to the slope) and the tension of the string T which points
up the slope. Since in this problem we take the surface to be frictionless, that’s all.
The block can only move along the slope so the forces perpendicular to the slope must
cancel. This gives N = mg cos θ, which we don’t really need! If the acceleration down the
slope is a, then adding up the “down–the–slope” forces and using Newton’s 2nd law gives:

mg sin θ − T = ma (1.19)

Now consider the pulley. With the string wrapped around it at a radius R, the action of
the string on the wheel is that of a tangential force of magnitude T applied at a distance R,
shown in Fig. 1.11(b). The force is perpendicular to the line joining the axle and the point of
application so that it gives a (counterclockwise) torque of magnitude rF sin φ = RT . Then
the relation between torque and angular acceleration gives:

τ = RT = Iα

where I is the moment of inertia of the wheel.

Now if the string is wrapped around the wheel then as it rolls off the edge of the wheel
it must be true that the linear acceleration of any piece of the string is the same as the
tangential acceleration of the wheel’s edge, and this is also the same as the acceleration
of the mass down the slope. Since the tangential acceleration of the edge of the wheel is
at = Rα, we have a = Rα, or α = a/R. Putting this into the last equation gives
a Ia
RT = I or T =
R R2
and this gives an expression for T that we can put into Eq. 1.19. Doing this, we get
Ia
mg sin θ − = ma
R2
Solving for I we find
(g sin θ − a)
Ia/R2 = m(g sin θ − a) =⇒ I = mR2
a
Now we can plug in the numbers and we get:
((9.80 sm2 ) sin 20◦ − 2.0 sm2 )
I = (2.0 kg)(0.20 m)2 = 5.4 × 10−2 kg · m2
(2.0 sm2 )

The rotational inertia of the wheel is 0.054 kg · m2.

18. A block of mass m1 and one of mass m2 are connected by a massless string
over a pulley that is in the shape of a disk having radius R and mass M. In
24 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

M, R
m1

m
2

q
Figure 1.12: Masses joined by string and moving on wedge; pulley (a disk) has mass!

addition, the blocks are allowed to move on a fixed block–wedge of angle θ as in

Fig. 1.12. The coefficient of kinetic friction for the motion of either mass on the
wedge surface is µk . Determine the acceleration of the two blocks. [Ser4 10-29]

This problem is similar to ones you may have seen in the chapter on force problems. We
will solve it in the same way, by drawing a free–body diagram for each mass, writing out
Newton’s 2nd Law for each mass and solving the equations. The difference comes from the
fact that one of the mass elements in this problem (the pulley!) undergoes rotational motion
because of the torques that are exerted on it. It will undergo an angular acceleration which
will be related to the common linear acceleration of the two blocks.
We start by noting that for a problem where a string passes over a pulley which has mass
there will be a different tension for each section of the string. (This differs from the case of
the “ideal massless” pulley where the string tension was the same on both sides.) We will
see better why this has to be true when we look at the torques acting on the pulley. The
part of the string which is connected to m1 will have a tension T1 and the part of the string
connected to m2 will have a tension T2 .
Then we think about how the blocks are going to move in this situation. As they are
connected by a string, the magnitudes of their accelerations will be the same; we can call it
a. We know that regardless of the values of the masses, m1 must move to the right and m2
must move down the slope. (This assumes that friction is not so strong as to prohibit any
motion!) And the pulley will be turning clockwise.
Now we can draw the force diagrams for the two blocks; we get the diagrams given in
Fig. 1.13. On m1 we have the downward force of gravity m1g and the upward normal force
N1 of the surface; the string pulls to the right with a force of magnitude T1 while there
is a leftward friction force on the block which we denote fk,1 . We know that m1 has an
acceleration to right of magnitude a.
The vertical forces on m1 must cancel out, giving N1 = m1g. The kinetic friction force
is then
fk,1 = µk N1 = µk m1 g
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 25

N2
T2
N1
m1 fk,2 m2
fk,1 T1

q
m1g

m2g

Figure 1.13: Free–body diagrams for the masses m1 and m2 .

Applying Newton’s 2nd law for the horizontal forces gives

T1 − fk,1 = T1 − µk m1 g = m1 a

giving us our first “take–home” equation,

T1 − µk m1 g = m1a (1.20)

We move on to m2. On this mass we have the downward force of gravity, m2g, (which
we show as the sum of its components along the slope and perpendicular to the slope) the
normal force from the surface, N2, the force from the string (magnitude T2, directed up the
slope) and the force of kinetic friction, which has magnitude fk,2 and is directed up the slope
because we know that block m2 is moving down the slope.
The forces (that is, their components) perpendicular to the slope must cancel out, and
from our experience with similar problems we can see that this will give

N2 = m2 g cos θ .

This gives the magnitude of the force of kinetic friction on m2,

fk,2 = µk N2 = µk m2 g cos θ

Now look at the force components on m2 in the “down–the–slope” direction. By Newton’s

2nd law they sum to give m2a, and so we write:

m2g sin θ − T2 − fk,2 = m2 a

We substitute for fk,2 and get our next “take–home” equation,

m2g sin θ − T2 − µk m2g cos θ = m2a (1.21)

The two equations we have found have three unknowns: T1, T2 and a. We will never solve
the problem if we don’t get a third equation, and it is the equation of (rotational) motion
for the pulley that gives us the last equation.
26 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

T1

M
T2

Figure 1.14: Forces acting on the pulley in Example 18.

The force diagram for the pulley is given in Fig. 1.14. When the string is wrapped over
the pulley and does not slip, it acts to exert a tangential force T2 at the rim of the disk in
one direction and a tangential force T1 in the other direction, as shown.
These forces act at a distance R from the pivot point (the pulley’s axle) and each is
perpendicular to the line joining the pivot and the point of application. If we take the
clockwise torque as being positive, then the net torque on the disk is

τnet = T2R − T1R = (T2 − T1 )R .

From the rotational form of the second law, we then have

τnet = (T2 − T1 )R = Iα

where I is the moment of inertia of the pulley and α is its angular acceleration in the clockwise
sense, since that is how we defined positive torque τ . We can use a couple other facts before
finishing with this equation; we assume the pulley is a uniform disk, and so I is given by

I = 12 MR2 .

Also, we know that the linear tangential acceleration of the rim of the disk must be the same
as the linear acceleration of the string and also the masses m1 and m2 . This gives us:

αR = a =⇒ α = a/R

Putting both of these relations into the τ = Iα equation, we get

a
 
(T2 − T1 )R = Iα = 12 MR2 = 12 MRa
R
and so if we cancel a factor of R we have a third equation relating the three unknowns,

(T2 − T1) = 21 Ma (1.22)

Interestingly enough, the radius R does not appear. Our final answers will not depend on it!
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 27

M w
R R M

m
50 cm
m

Figure 1.15: Before and after pictures for a mass–pulley system which starts from rest. Take the pulley
to be a uniform disk.

At this point, we have three equations for three unknowns (Eqs. 1.20, 1.21 and 1.22.)
The physics part of the problem is done. What remains is the algebra involved in solving for
the unknowns T1, T2 and a. Eqs. 1.20 and 1.21 give
T1 = m1a + µk m1g and T2 = −m2a + m2g sin θ − µk m2 g cos θ
When we put these into Eq. 1.22 we get:
−(m2 + m1 )a − µk g(m2 cos θ + m1 ) + m2g sin θ = 21 Ma
This contains only the acceleration a and so we can quickly solve for it. A little rearranging
gives
(m1 + m2 + M/2)a = m2 g sin θ − µk g(m1 + m2 cos θ)
Isolating a and factoring out g gives
[m2 sin θ − µk (m1 + m2 cos θ)]
a= g
(m1 + m2 + M/2)
for the acceleration of the blocks. This expression can only make sense if µk is not so big
that it makes a negative in this expression.

1.2.9 Work, Energy and Power in Rotational Motion

19. (a) If R = 12 cm, M = 400 g and m = 50 g in Fig. 1.15, find the speed of the
block after it has descended 50 cm starting from rest. Solve the problem using
energy conservation principles. (b) Repeat (a) with R = 5.0 cm. (Assume the
pulley is a uniform disk.) [HRW5 11-77]

(a) If there is no friction in the axle of the pulley then mechanical energy will be conserved
as the block descends. The change in total energy between the “before” and “after” pictures
in Fig. 1.15 will be zero:
∆E = ∆K + ∆U = 0
28 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

Initially, the block is at rest and so is the pulley, so there is no kinetic energy in the system.
In the final picture, the block has some speed v so it has kinetic energy (namely 12 mv 2) and
the pulley is turning at some angular speed ω so that it too has kinetic energy. The kinetic
energy of the pulley is Krot = 21 Iω 2, so that the total kinetic energy in the “after” picture is

Kf = 12 mv 2 + 12 Iω 2

We can simplify this expression by realizing that if the string does not slip on the pulley (and
it is implied in the set-up that it is wrapped around it, so it doesn’t) then the tangential
speed of the edge of the disk is the same as that of the falling mass. This gives ωR = v, or
ω = v/R. Also, assuming that the pulley is a uniform disk, we have I = 12 MR2 . Using these
relations we get:
   v 2
Kf = 1
2
mv 2 + 1
2
1
2
MR2
R
m M

= 12 mv 2 + 14 Mv 2 = + v2
2 4
The potential energy of the system changes only from the change in height of the sus-
pended mass m. Its change in height is ∆y = −0.50 m so that the change in potential energy
of the system is
∆U = mg∆y = mg(−0.50 m)
Putting everything into the energy conservation equation we get

m M
 
∆K + ∆U = + v 2 + mg(−0.50 m) = 0
2 4
which we can use to solve for v since we know all the other quantities:

m M
 
+ v 2 = mg(0.50 m) = (0.050 kg)(9.80 sm2 )(0.50 m) = 0.245 J
2 4
!
(0.050 kg) (0.400 kg) 2
+ v = (0.125 kg)v 2 = 0.245 J
2 4
(0.245 J) 2
v2 = = 1.96 ms2
(0.125 kg)
v = 1.4 ms
The final speed of the block is v = 1.4 ms .
(b) In this part we are asked to find the final speed v if R has a different value. But if we
look back at our solution for part (a) we see that we never used the given value of R! (It
cancelled out when we wrote out the energy conservation condition in terms of m, M and
v.) So we get the same answer: v = 1.4 ms .
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 29

10 cm 5 cm

CM Axis
w
Axis

CM

(a) (b)

Figure 1.16: Cylinder rotating about an off–center axis, in Example 20. (a) is the initial position of the
cylinder; (b) shows the cylinder as it moves through its lowest position.

20. A uniform cylinder of radius 10 cm and mass 20 kg is mounted so as to rotate

freely about a horizontal axis that is parallel to and 5.0 cm from the central
longitudinal axis of the cylinder. (a) What is the rotational inertia of the cylinder
about the axis of rotation? (b) If the cylinder is released from rest with its central
longitudinal axis at the same height as the axis about which the cylinder rotates,
what is the angular speed of the cylinder as it passes through its lower position?
(Hint: Use the principle of conservation of energy.) [HRW5 11-84]

(a) First, draw a picture of this system; Fig. 1.16 (a) shows an end–on view of the rotating
cylinder. Its symmetry axis is labelled “CM” but its rotational axis is marked “Axis”. The
cylinder does not turn about its center! (If it did, its moment of inertia would be I = 21 MR2 ,
but that will not be the case here.) We need some other way of getting I.
There is one special feature about this rotation which will give us I. The rotation takes
place about an axis which is parallel to an axis for which we do know I, namely the symmetry
axis. For that axis, we have ICM = 21 MR2 (where M and R are the mass and radius of the
cylinder). Our axis is displaced from that one by a distance D = 5.0 cm = 0.050 m. Then
the Parallel Axis Theorem, Eq. 1.16, gives us:

I = ICM + MD2
= 12 MR2 + MD2
= 12 (20 kg)(0.10 m)2 + (20 kg)(0.050 m)2
= 0.15 kg · m2

So the rotational (moment of) inertia of the cylinder about the given axis is 0.15 kg · m2.
(b) The cylinder starts in the position shown Fig. 1.16 (a), that is, with the symmetry axis
at the same height as the rotational axis. We know that the force of gravity acts on the
cylinder to give it an angular velocity which increases as the cylinder swings downward. We
want to know the angular velocity when the center of mass of the cylinder is at its lowest
point.
30 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

It would be very hard to find the final ω using torques, because t he force of gravity does
not act on the cylinder in the same way through the swing. As with similar problems in
particle (point–mass) motion, it is easier to use conservation of evergy. If there is no friction
in the axis, then total mechanical energy is conserved, which we can write as:

∆E = ∆K + ∆U = 0

Now, the cylinder starts from rest when it is at the position shown in (a) so that Ki = 0. In
position (b), the cylinder has angular speed ω about the axis so that the final kinetic energy
is
Kf = 21 Iω 2
where I is the moment of inertia we found in part (a) of this problem.
There is a change in potential energy of the cylinder because there is a change in height
of its center of mass. For an extended object we find the gravitational potential energy by
imagining that all the mass is concentrated at the center of mass. Then for the cylinder,
since its center of mass has fallen by a distance 5.0 cm (compare picture (a) and picture (b))
we see that the change in U is:

∆U = Mg∆y = (20 kg)(9.80 sm2 )(−0.050 m) = −9.80 J

Plugging everything into our energy conservation equation, we find

∆K + ∆U = 12 Iω 2 − 9.80 J = 0

for which we solve for ω:

2(9.80 J) 2(9.80 J)
ω2 = =
I (0.15 kg · m2)
= 131 s−2

which gives us
ω = 11.4 rad
s

21. A tall, cylinder–shaped chimney falls over when its base is ruptured. Treating
the chimney as a thin rod with height h, express the (a) radial and (b) tangential
components of the linear acceleration of the top of the chimney as functions of
the angle θ made by the chimney with the vertical. (c) At what angle θ does the
linear acceleration equal g? [HRW5 11-87]

(a) As suggested in the problem we model the falling chimney as a thin rod of height h and
mass M which turns about a pivot which is fixed to the ground at one place. (A real falling
chimney may behave differently. . . it might break as it falls and the base may move along
the ground. Real life is lots more complicated.) The model is shown in Fig. 1.17 (a). The
angle θ measures the (instantaneous) angle of the chimney with the vertical. We know that
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 31

M q h q
CM

(h/2) cos q
h/2

(a) (b)

Figure 1.17: (a) The falling chimney described in Example 21. (b) Position of the center of mass of the
chimney.

as the chimney falls over (starting from rest) it will lose gravitational potential energy and
pick up rotational kinetic energy from its rotation about the pivot. Its angular speed will
increase as it falls.
In part (a) we are asked for the radial acceleration of the end of the chimney when the
chimney has rotated through an angle θ. That’s just the centripetal acceleration ac of the
top of the chimney, which is given by Eq. 1.12 and since the radius of the circle in which the
top moves is h, this is given by
v2
ac = = hω 2 .
h
All that we need to know to compute ac is the angular speed of the rod, and for this we
can use energy conservation for the rod as it falls. (Energy conservation is good for finding
final speeds!) When the rod is in the initial (vertical) position, it is at rest so it has no
kinetic energy. Suppose we measure height from the ground level; then the center of mass
of the rod is at a height h/2 and so the initial gravitational potential energy is Mg h2 . So the
initial total energy is
Mgh
Ei =
2
Now suppose the rod has fallen through an angle θ, as shown in Fig. 1.17 (b). If it has
angular speed ω at that time, then its kinetic energy is 12 Iω 2, where I is the moment of
inertia of the rotating chimney. For a uniform rod of length h rotating about one end, this
is I = 13 Mh2 , so we have:
 
Kf = 12 Iω 2 = 1
2
1
3
Mh2 ω 2 = 16 Mh2 ω 2
As for the potential energy in this position, we can see from geometry that the center of
mass of the rod is at a height of h2 cos θ. So the rod’s final potential energy is
h
Uf = Mg cos θ .
2
and its final total mechanical energy is
h
Ef = Kf + Uf = 16 Mh2 ω 2 + Mg cos θ
2
32 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

CM

q Fpivot
q

Mg

Figure 1.18: Forces acting on falling rod (chimney)

Energy conservation (we assume that this pivot is frictionless. . . ), Ei = Ef gives

Mgh h
= 16 Mh2 ω 2 + Mg cos θ
2 2
which can solve for ω 2 . Rearranging, we get:
Mgh
1
6
Mh2 ω 2 = (1 − cos θ)
2
3g
ω2 = (1 − cos θ)
h
which we can use in expression for ac :
3g
ac = hω 2 = h (1 − cos θ) = 3g(1 − cos θ) .
h
The radial part of the acceleration of the tip of the chimney has this magnitude and is of
course directed inward toward the pivot.
(b) From Eq. 1.11, the tangential component of the acceleration for a point on a rotating
object a distance h away from the pivot is aT = hα where α is the object’s angular accel-
eration. So we need to find the angular acceleration α of the chimney when it has fallen
through an angle θ. We can get α by finding the net torque acting on the rod and then using
τ = Iα.
In Fig. 1.18 we show the forces that act on the rod as it falls, and their points of applica-
tion. Gravity (effectively) pulls downward at the center of the rod with a force Mg, and the
pivot also exerts a force on the rod. It’s not so clear which direction the latter force points,
but in the end it does not matter because we only want the torques that these forces exert
about the pivot point and force of the pivot itself will give no torque.
The force of gravity is applied at a distance h/2 from the pivot. It makes an angle θ
with the line which joins the pivot and application point. Here, it gives a torque in the
counter-clockwise sense. So the torque due to gravity is
h
τ= Mg sin θ
2
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 33

and this is also the total (counter-clockwise) torque because the force of the pivot gives none.
Then τnet = Iα gives us
h
Mg sin θ = Iα
2
where I is the moment of inertia of the rod. For a uniform rod of length h rotating about
one end, it is I = 13 Mh2 so we get:

h
Mg sin θ = 13 Mh2 α
2
Some algebra gives us:
3g
α= sin θ
2h
And at last we find the tangential acceleration of the end of the chimney:
3g
aT = hα = h sin θ = 32 g sin θ .
2h
The answers to (a) and (b) do not depend on the mass M of the chimney.
(c) We want to know at what angle the linear (i.e. the tangential) acceleration of the
chimney–top is equal to g. Using our answer from part (b), we have the condition:
3
2
g sin θ =g

Solve for θ:  
2 2
sin θ = 3
=⇒ θ = sin−1 3
= 41.8◦
The chimney will have fallen by 41.8◦ when the linear acceleration of its top is equal to g.
34 CHAPTER 1. ROTATION OF AN OBJECT ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
Chapter 2

Rolling Motion; Angular Momentum

2.1 The Important Stuff

2.1.1 Rolling Without Slipping
When a round, symmetric rigid body (like a uniform cylinder or sphere) of radius R rolls
without slipping on a horizontal surface, the distance though which its center travels (when
the wheel turns by an angle θ) is the same as the arc length through which a point on the
edge moves:
∆xCM = s = Rθ (2.1)

These quantities are illustrated in Fig. 2.1.

dxCM
The speed of the center of mass of the rolling object, vCM = dt
and its angular speed
are related by
vCM = Rω (2.2)

and the acceleration magnitude of the center of mass is related to the angular acceleration
by:
aCM = Rα (2.3)

s
DxCM q
R
s=Rq

s
Figure 2.1: Illustration of the relation between ∆x, s, R and θ for a rolling object.

35
36 CHAPTER 2. ROLLING MOTION; ANGULAR MOMENTUM

The kinetic energy of the object is:

Kroll = 12 ICM ω 2 + 12 MvCM

2
. (2.4)

The first term on the right side represents the rotational kinetic energy of the object about
its symmetry axis; the second term represents the kinetic energy the object would have if
it moved along with speed vCM without rotating (i.e. just translational motion). We can
remember this relation simply as: Kroll = Krot + Ktrans .
When a wheel rolls without slipping there may be a frictional force of the surface on
the wheel. If so, it is a force of static friction (which does no work) and depending on the
situation it could point in the same direction or opposite the motion of the center of mass;
in all cases it tends to oppose the tendency of the wheel to slide.

2.1.2 Torque as a Vector (A Cross Product)

In the last chapter we gave a definition for the torque τ acting on a rigid body rotating
around a fixed axis. We now give a more general definition for “torque”; we define the
torque acting on a single particle (relative to some fixed point O) when a force acts on it.
Suppose the (instantaneous) position vector of a particle (relative to the origin O) is r
and a single force F acts on it. Then the torque τ acting on the particle is

τ = r×F (2.5)

If φ is the angle between the position vector r and the force F then the torque τ has
magnitude
τ = rF sin φ

2.1.3 Angular Momentum of a Particle and of Systems of Particles

There is yet more important quantity having to do with rotations that will be of help in
solving problems involving rotating objects; just as the linear momentum p was of importance
in problems with interacting particles, the angular momentum of objects which have motion
about a given axis will be useful when these objects interact with one another. Admittedly,
some of the first definitions and theorems will be rather abstract! But we will soon apply
the ideas to simple objects which rotate around an axis and then the theorems and examples
will be quite down–to–earth.
We start with a fundamental definition; if a particle has position vector r and linear
momentum p, both relative to some origin O, then the angular momentum of that particle
(relative to the origin) is defined by:

` = r × p = m(r × v) (2.6)
kg·m2
Angular momentum has units of s .
One can show that the net torque on a particle is equal to the time derivative of its
angular momentum:
2.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 37

X d``
τ = (2.7)
dt
This relation is analogous to the relation F = dp from linear motion.
P
dt
For a set of mass points in motion, we define the total angular momentum as the (vector)
sum of the individual angular momenta:

L = ` 1 + `2 + ` 3 + . . .
When we consider the total angular momentum, we can prove a theorem which is a bit
different in its content than Eq. 2.7. It’s a bit subtle; when the particles in a system all move
around they will be acted upon by forces from outside the system but also by the forces
they all exert on one another. What the theorem says is that the rate of change of the total
angular momentum just comes from the torques arising from forces exerted from outside the
system. This is useful because the external torques aren’t so hard to calculate.
The theorem is:
X dL
τ ext = (2.8)
dt
This tells us that when the sum of external torques is zero then L is constant (conserved).
We will encounter this theorem most often in problems where there is rotation about a fixed
axis (and then once again we will only deal with the z components of τ and L).

2.1.4 Angular Momentum for Rotation About a Fixed Axis

An extended object is really a set of mass points, and it has a total angular momentum
(vector) about a given origin. We will keep things simple by considering only rotations
about an axis which is fixed in direction (say, the z direction), and for that case we only
need to consider the component of L which lies along this axis, Lz . So, for rotation about a
fixed axis the “angular momentum” of the rigid object is (for our purposes) just a number ,
L. Furthermore, one can show that if the angular velocity of the object is ω and its moment
of inertia about the given axis is I, then its angular momentum about the axis is

L = Iω (2.9)
Again, there is a correspondence with the equations for linear motion:
px = mvx ⇔ L = Iω

2.1.5 The Conservation of Angular Momentum

In the chapter on Momentum (in Vol. 1) we used an important fact about systems for which
there is no (net) external force acting: The total momentum remains the same. One can
show a similar theorem which concerns net external torques and angular momenta.
For a system on which there is no net external torque, the total angular momentum
remains constant: Li = Lf . This principle is known as the Conservation of Angular
Momentum.
38 CHAPTER 2. ROLLING MOTION; ANGULAR MOMENTUM

2.2 Worked Examples

2.2.1 Rolling Without Slipping

1. An automobile traveling 80.0 km/hr has tires of 75.0 cm diameter. (a) What
is the angular speed of the tires about the axle? (b) If the car is brought to a
stop uniformly in 30.0 turns of the tires (without skidding), what is the angular
acceleration of the wheels? (c) How far does the car move during the braking?
[HRW5 12-3]

(a) We know that the speed of the center of mass of each wheel is 80.0 km/hr. And the
radius of each wheel is R = (75.0 cm)/2 = 37.5 cm. Converting the speed to ms , we have:

103 m
! !
km

km
 1h
80 h
= 80 h
= 22.2 ms
3600 s 1 km

From the relation between vCM and ω for an object which rolls without slipping, we have:
vCM
vCM = ωR =⇒ ω=
R
and we get
(22.2 ms )
ω= = 59.3 rad
s
(0.375 m)
The angular speed of the wheel is 59.3 rad
s
.
(b) As the car comes to a halt, the tires go through 30.0 turns. Thus they have an angular
displacement of (with θ0 = 0):
!
2π rad
θ = (30.0 rev) = 188.5 rad .
1 rev

Also, when the wheel has come to a halt, its angular velocity is zero!
So we have the initial and final angular velocities and the angular displacement. We can
get the angular acceleration of the wheel from Eq. 1.8. From that equation we get:

ω 2 − ω02 (0 rad )2 − (59.3 rad )2

α= = s s
= −9.33 rad
s2
2θ 2(188.5 rad)

The magnitude of the wheels’ angular acceleration is 9.33 rad s2

. The minus sign in our result
indicates that α goes in the sense opposite to that of the initial angular velocity (and angular
displacement) of the wheel during the stopping.
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 39

10 N N 10 N

fs
Mg

(a) (b)
Figure 2.2: (a) Constant horizontal applied to a rolling wheel in Example 3. (b) The forces acting on the
wheel, with the points of application as indicated.

(c) As we saw, the angular displacement of any wheel during the stopping was 188.5 rad.
The radius of the wheel is R = 0.375 m, so from Eq. 2.1 the linear displacement of the wheel
(i.e. its center) is:
xCM = Rθ = (0.375 m)(188.5 rad) = 70.7 m
so the car goes 70.7 m before coming to a halt.

2. A bowling ball has a mass of 4.0 kg, a moment of inertia of 1.6 × 10−2 kg · m2 and
a radius of 0.10 m. If it rolls down the lane without slipping at a linear speed of
4.0 ms , what is its total energy? [Ser4 11-5]

The total (kinetic) energy of an object which rolls without slipping is given by Eq. 2.4.
To use this equation we have everything we need except the angular speed of the ball. From
Eq. 2.2 it is related to the linear velocity of the ball by vCM = Rω, so the angular speed is

vCM (4.0 ms )
ω= = = 40.0 rad
s
R (0.10 m)

and then the kinetic energy is

Kroll = 21 ICM ω 2 + 12 MvCM

2

= 12 (1.6 × 10−2 kg · m2 )(40.0 rad

s
)2 + 21 (4.0 kg)(4.0 ms )2
= 44.8 J

The total kinetic energy of the ball is 44.8 J.

3. A constant horizontal force of 10 N is applied to a wheel of mass 10 kg and

radius 0.30 m as shown in Fig. 2.2. The wheel rolls without slipping on the
horizontal surface, and the acceleration of its center of mass is 0.60 sm2 . (a) What
are the magnitude and direction of the frictional force on the wheel? (b) What
is the rotational inertia of the wheel about an axis through its center of mass
and perpendicular to the plane of the wheel? [HRW5 12-9]
40 CHAPTER 2. ROLLING MOTION; ANGULAR MOMENTUM

(a) The forces which act on the wheel along with where these forces are applied are shown
in Fig 2.2 (b). In addition to the applied force of 10 N which points to the right, there is
a force of static friction between the surface and the wheel (of magnitude fs ), which for
now we draw pointing to the left (we can ask: Does it really point that way?). There are
vertical forces acting on the wheel (from gravity and the normal force of the surface) but
these clearly cancel out and for now we don’t need to worry about them.
Even though the wheel will be rolling during its motion, Newton’s 2nd law still holds,
and the sum of the horizontal forces gives max. Here the wheel is clearly accelerating to the
right and so with the choice of directions given in the figure, we find:

Fx = 10.0 N − fs = max = (10 kg)(0.60 sm2 ) = 6.0 N

X

so that
fs = 10.0 N − 6.0 N = 4.0 N
and since this is positive, the frictional force does indeed point to the left, as we guessed.
Actually, it wasn’t so hard to guess that, since only a leftward frictional force could make
the wheel rotate clockwise —as we know it must here— but for some problems in rolling
motion, the direction of the static friction force may not be so evident.
(b) Rotational inertia is related to net torque and angular acceleration by way of τ = Iα.
It is true that in this problem the rotating object is also accelerating but it turns out this
relation still holds as long as we choose the center of mass to be the rotation axis.
Considering the four forces in Fig. 2.2 (b), the applied force and the (effective) force of
gravity are applied at the center of the wheel, so they give no torque about its center. The
normal force of the surface is applied at the rim, but its direction is parallel to the line which
joins the application point to the center so it too gives no torque. All that remains is the
friction force, applied at a distance R from the center and perpendicular to the line joining
this point and the axis; this force gives a clockwise rotation, so if we take the clockwise
direction as the positive sense for rotations, then the net torque on the wheel is

τ = +fs r = (4.0 N)(0.30 m) = 1.2 N · m

From Eq. 2.3 we know the angular acceleration of the wheel; it is

aCM (0.60 sm2 )
α= = = 2.0 rad
s2
.
R (0.30 m)
and then from τ = Iα we get the rotational inertia:
τ (1.2 N · m)
I= = = 0.60 kg · m2
α (2.0 rad
s 2 )

4. A round, symmetrical object of mass M, radius R and moment of inertia I

rolls without slipping down a ramp inclined at an angle θ. Find the acceleration
of its center of mass.
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 41

I, M, R N

fs Mg sin q
q

Mg cos q

Mg

Figure 2.3: Round, symmetrical object with mass M , radius R and moment of inertia I rolls down a ramp
sloped at angle θ from the horizontal.

The problem is diagrammed in Fig. 2.3. We show the forces acting on the object and
where they are applied. The force of gravity, Mg is (effectively) applied at the center
of the object. As usual we decompose this force into its components down the slope and
perpendicular to the slope. The slope exerts a normal force N at the point of contact. Finally
there is a force of static friction fs from the surface; this force points along the surface and
we can pretty quickly see that it must point up the slope because it is the friction force
which gives the object an angular acceleration, which (here) is in the clockwise sense.
Apply Newton’s 2nd law first: The forces perpendicular to the slope cancel, so that
N = Mg cos θ (but we won’t need this fact). If aCM is the acceleration of the CM of the
object down the slope, then adding the forces down the slope gives

Mg sin θ − fs = MaCM (2.10)

Now we look at the net torque on the rolling object about its center of mass. The force
of gravity acts at the center, so it gives no torque. The normal force of the surface acts at
the point of contact, but since it is parallel to the line joining the pivot and the point of
application, it also gives no torque. The force of friction is applied at a distance R from the
pivot and it is perpendicular to the line joining the pivot and point of application. So the
friction force gives a torque of magnitude

τ = Rfs sin 90◦ = Rfs .

and if we take the clockwise sense to be positive for rotations, then the net torque on the
object about its CM is
τnet = Rfs
From the relation τ = Iα we then have

τ = Rfs = Iα (2.11)

but we can also use the fact that for rolling motion (without slipping) the linear acceleration
of the CM and the angular acceleration are related by:
aCM
aCM = rα =⇒ α=
R
42 CHAPTER 2. ROLLING MOTION; ANGULAR MOMENTUM

and using this in Eq. 2.11 gives

IaCM IaCM
Rfs = =⇒ fs = (2.12)
R R2
where we choose to isolate fs (the magnitude of the friction force) so that we can put the
result into Eq. 2.10. When we do that, we get:
IaCM
Mg sin θ − = MaCM
R2
Now solve for aCM :
IaCM I
 
Mg sin θ = MaCM + 2
= M + 2 aCM
R R
Mg sin θ
aCM =   .
M + RI2
If we divide top and bottom of the right side by M, this can be written:
g sin θ
aCM =   .
1 + MIR2

Our result is sensible in that if I is very small then aCM is nearly equal to g sin θ, the
result for a mass sliding with no rolling motion.

5. A uniform sphere rolls down an incline. (a) What must be the incline angle
if the linear acceleration of the center of the sphere is to be 0.10 g? (b) For this
angle, what would be the acceleration of a frictionless block sliding down the
incline? [HRW5 12-7]

(a) We will use the formula for aCM (for rolling without slipping down a slope) in a previous
problem. Note that we are not given the mass of the sphere! But it turns out that we don’t
need it, because for a uniform sphere, we have
I 2
2
=
MR 5
and as we can see from our earlier result,
g sin θ
aCM =   ,
1 + MIR2

aCM just depends on the combination I/(MR2 ). Solving this equation for sin θ and plugging
in the given numbers, we get:
aCM I (0.10g)
 
sin θ = 1+ = (1 + 25 ) = (0.10) 75 = 0.14
g MR2 g
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 43

Which gives us
θ = sin−1 (0.14) = 8.0◦

(b) As we saw in the Chapter on forces (Volume 1) when a mass slides down a frictionless
incline its linear acceleration is given by a = g sin θ. For the slope angle found in part (a),
this is
a = g sin θ = (9.80 sm2 ) sin 8.0◦ = 1.4 sm2
We can also calculate a/g:
a
= sin θ = sin 8.0◦ = 0.14
g
so for the frictionless case we have a = 0.14g.

2.2.2 Torque as a Vector (A Cross Product)

6. What are the magnitude and direction of the torque about the origin on
a plum (!) located at coordinates (−2.0 m, 0, 4.0 m) due to force F whose only
component is (a) Fx = 6.0 N, (b) Fx = −6.0 N, (c) Fz = 6.0 N, and (d) Fz = −6.0 N ?
[HRW5 12-21]

(a) The (vector) torque on a point particle is given by

τ = r×F
I find it easiest to set up the cross product in determinant notation, discussed in Chapter
1 of Volume 1. We note that the units of the result must be N · m; then the cross product
of r and F is
i j k
r × F = −2.0 0.0 4.0 N · m = (+(4.0)(6.0) N · m)j = (+24.0 N · m)j
6.0 0.0 0.0
The torque τ has magnitude 24.0 N · m and points in the +y direction.
(b) Is is fairly clear that if we had had Fx = −6.0 N in part (a), we would have gotten
τ = (−24.0 N · m)j
so the torque would have magnitude 24.0 N · m and point in the −y direction.
(c) When the only component of F is Fz = 6.0 N, then we have
i j k
r × F = −2.0 0.0 4.0 N · m = (−(−2.0)(6.0) N · m)j = (+12.0 N · m)j
0.0 0.0 6.0
so the torque would have magnitude 12.0 N · m and point in the +y direction.
(d) If instead we have only Fz = −6.0 N then the sign of the result in part (c) changes, and
the torque would have magnitude 24.0 N · m and point in the −y direction.
44 CHAPTER 2. ROLLING MOTION; ANGULAR MOMENTUM

6.5 kg
2.2 m/s

1.5 m 3.6 m/s

O 2.8 m
3.1 kg

Figure 2.4: Two masses and their motion relative to the point O, as in Example 8.

2.2.3 Angular Momentum of a Particle and of Systems of Particles

7. The position vector of a particle of mass 2.0 kg is given as a function of time by

r = (6.0i + 5.0tj) m when t is given in seconds). Determine the angular momentum
of the particle as a function of time. [Ser4 11-17]

The angular momentum of a point mass is given by ` = r×p. The velocity of our particle
is given by
d d
v = r = (6.0i + 5.0tj) m = (5.0j) ms
dt dt
and its momentum is

p = mv = (2.0 kg)(5.0j) ms = (10.0j) kg·m

s

Now take the cross product to get ` :

i j k
kg·m2 2
` = r × p = 6.0 5.0t 0.0 s
= (60.0k) kg·m
s
0.0 10.0 0.0

8. Two objects are moving as shown in Fig. 2.4. What is their total angular
momentum about point O? [HRW5 12-27]

In this problem we must use the definition of the angular momentum of a particle (with
respect to some origin O):
` = r×p
First consider the 3.1 kg mass. Its momentum vector has magnitude

p1 = m1 v1 = (3.1 kg)(3.6 ms ) = 11.2 kg·m

s
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 45

and is directed upward in this picture. The vector r which goes from point O to the particle
has magnitude 2.8 m and points to the right. By the right–hand rule for cross products, the
vector r × p points up out of the page, which is along the +z axis; and since the two vectors
are perpendicular, the magnitude of r × p is
2
|r1 × p1 | = r1 p1 sin 90◦ = (2.8 m)(11.2 kg·m
s
) = 31.2 kg·m
s

and so the angular momentum of this particle about O is

2
` 1 = (+31.2 kg·m
s
)k

The 6.5 kg mass has a momentum vector of magnitude

p2 = m2 v2 = (6.5 kg)(2.2 ms ) = 14.3 kg·m

s

and is directed to the right. The vector r which goes from the point O to the particle has
magnitude 1.5 m and points straight up. By the right–hand rule for cross products, the
vector r × p points into the page, which is along the −z axis; and since the two vectors are
perpendicular, the magnitude of r × p is
2
|r2 × p2 | = r2 p2 sin 90◦ = (1.5 m)(14.3 kg·m
s
) = 21.5 kg·m
s

and so the angular momentum of this particle about O is

2
`2 = (−21.5 kg·m
s
)k

The total angular momentum of the system is

2 2
` = `1 + ` 2 = (31.2 − 21.5)k kg·m
s
= (+9.8 kg·m
s
)k

2.2.4 Angular Momentum for Rotation About a Fixed Axis

9. A uniform rod rotates in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis through one
end. The rod is 6.00 m long, weighs 10.0 N, and rotates at 240 rev/min clockwise
when seen from above. Calculate (a) the rotational inertia of the rod about the
axis of rotation and (b) the angular momentum of the rod about that axis. [HRW5
12-45]

(a) The mass of the rod is

M = W/g = (10.0 N)/(9.80 sm2 ) = 10.2 kg

rad
and its angular velocity in units of s
is
!
2π rad 1 min

rev
ω = 240 min
= 25.1 rad
s
1 rev 60 s
46 CHAPTER 2. ROLLING MOTION; ANGULAR MOMENTUM

We know the formula for the moment of inertia of a uniform rod rotating about an axis at
one of its ends (see Chapter 1, Fig. 1) so we calculate I as:

I = 13 ML2 = 13 (10.2 kg)(6.00 m)2 = 12.2 kg · m2

The rotational inertia of the rod (about the given axis) is 12.2 kg · m2.
(b) The angular momentum of the rotating rod will be given by L = Iω. We find that the
magnitude of the angular momentum is:
2
L = Iω = (12.2 kg · m2)(25.1 rad
s
) = 309 kg·m
s

The vector L would point upward (along the +z axis if the rotation were counterclockwise
as seen from above. That is not the case (it is clockwise) so the direction of L is downward.

2.2.5 The Conservation of Angular Momentum

10. Suppose that the Sun runs out of nuclear fuel and suddenly collapses to form
a white dwarf star, with a diameter equal to that of the Earth. Assuming no
mass loss, what would then be the Sun’s new rotation period, which currently
is about 25 days? Assume that the Sun and the white dwarf are uniform, solid
spheres; the present radius of the Sun is 6.96 × 108 m. [HRW5 12-55]

In this simplified account of what will happen to our Sun, its radius will decrease without
any interactions from other masses, including torques. Without external torques, the angular
momentum of the Sun will remain the same, even if it suddenly shrinks to a much smaller
size.
The present angular velocity of the Sun (using the given data) is
! ! !
1 rev 2π rad 1 day rad
ωi = = 2.91 × 10−6 s
25 day 1 rev 86400 s

and assuming it is a uniform sphere (a bad assumption, actually) its present moment of
inertia is
Ii = 25 MR2i
(we’ll leave it in this form; later on, the value of M will cancel out). Its initial angular
momentum is
Li = Ii ωi = 25 MR2i (2.91 × 10−6 rad
s
) .
After the Sun shrinks, it has a new (much smaller) radius, but the same mass, M. Its
new moment of inertia is
If = 25 MR2f
and if its final angular velocity is ωf , then its final angular momentum is

Lf = If ωf = 25 MR2f ωf
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 47

I= 250 kg m2

2.0 m

10 rev/min w=?

25 kg

(a) (b)

Figure 2.5: Child jumps onto a rotating merry-go-round in Example 11.

Conservation of angular momentum gives us Li = Lf and so:

2
5
MR2i (2.91 × 10−6 rad
s
) = 25 MR2f ωf .

We cancel lotsa things and find:

R2i rad
ωf = (2.91 × 10−6 )
R2f s

The present radius of the Sun is 6.96 × 108 m and the radius of the Earth is 6.37 × 106 m so
we find that the angular velocity of the Sun will be

(6.96 × 108 m)2 rad rad

ωf = 6 2
(2.91 × 10−6 s
) = 3.47 × 10−2 s
.
(6.37 × 10 m)
To get the period of the Sun’s motion, use
ω 1 2π
f= =⇒ T = =
2π f ω
So:
2π 2π 1 min
 
Tf = = rad
= 181 s = 3.0 min
ωf (3.47 × 10−2 s
) 60 s
The squooshed–down Sun will have a rotation period of 3.0 minutes!

11. A merry-go-round of radius R = 2.0 m has a moment of inertia I = 250 kg · m2

and is rotating at 10 rev/min. A 25 kg child jumps onto the edge of the merry-go-
round. What is the new angular speed of the merry-go-round? [Ser4 11-28]

We diagram the problem in Fig. 2.5. In (a) the child is waiting (motionless) by the rim
of the rotating wheel and in (b) he/she/it has just stepped on. What do we know about
pictures (a) and (b)? We know that if we consider the “system” to be the combination of
merry-go-round and child, if the child just steps onto the wheel at its rim there will be no
48 CHAPTER 2. ROLLING MOTION; ANGULAR MOMENTUM

external torques on this system. And so the total angular momentum of the system will be
conserved.
We calculate the total angular momentum that we see in Fig. 2.5 (a). Only the wheel is
in motion; its angular velocity is
!
2π rad 1 min

rev
ω = (10 min ) = 1.05 rad
s
1 rev 60 s

so its angular momentum is

2
L = Iω = (250 kg · m2)(1.05 rad
s
) = 262 kg·m
s

The child is motionless, so this is the total initial angular momentum of the system: Li =
2
262 kg·m
s
.
After the child steps onto the merry-go-round (and stays at the same place near its outer
edge) we have a rotating system with a different moment of inertia. The child is (basically)
a point mass at a distance of 2.0 m from the rotation axis, so the new moment of inertia is
found from summing the moments of the original wheel and the child:

I 0 = (250 kg · m2) + MchildR2 = (250 kg · m2) + (25.0 kg)(2.0 m)2 = 350 kg · m2

and if ω 0 is the final angular velocity, then the final angular momentum is given by:

Lf = I 0ω 0

But from angular momentum conservation, Li = Lf and this lets us solve for ω 0 :
2
Li = 262 kg·m
s
= Lf = I 0ω 0 = (350 kg · m2)ω 0

which gives
2
(262 kg·m )
0
ω = s
= 0.748 rad
s
(350 kg · m2)
We can convert this back to revolutions per minute to give:
1 rev 60 s
  
ω 0 = (0.748 rad
s
) rev
= 7.14 min .
2π rad 1 min
rev
The merry-go-round slows down to 7.14 min after the child steps on.

12. Two astronauts (see Fig. 2.6) each having a mass of 75 kg are connected by a
10 m rope of negligible mass. They are isolated in space, orbiting their center of
mass at speeds of 5.0 ms . Calculate (a) the magnitude of the angular momentum of
the system by treating the astronauts as particles and (b) the rotational energy
of the system. By pulling on the rope, the astronauts shorten the distance
between them to 5.0 m. (c) What is the new angular momentum of the system?
(d) What are their new speeds? (e) What is the new rotational energy of the
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 49

CM

10 m

Figure 2.6: Two astronauts out in space, playing around with a rope, in Example 12.

system? (f) How much work is done by the astronauts in shortening the rope?
[Ser4 11-53]

(a) Each astronaut in Fig. 2.6 has a mass of 75 kg, a speed of 5.0 ms and moves perpendicularly
to the line which joins the origin (i.e. the CM) to their locations. Each one is 5.0 m from
the origin, so the magnitude of the angular momentum of each astronaut is
kg·m2
` = rp sin 90◦ = (5.0 m)(75 kg)(5.0 ms ) = 1.88 × 103 s

(By the right–hand–rule, the angular momentum vector for each one points out of the page.
Since the rope is taken to be massless, the sum of the angular momenta for the astronauts
is the L for the system; these just add together to give:
kg·m2 kg·m2
L = 2(1.88 × 103 s
) = 3.75 × 103 s

(b) The rotational energy of the system is simply the total kinetic energy of the astronauts
(again, the rope is massless). This is:
 
K =2 1
2
(75 kg)(5.0 ms )2 = 1.88 × 103 J = 1.88 kJ

(c) As the astronauts pull on the rope to decrease their separation, there are all kinds of
internal forces in the astronaut–rope system, but there are no external torques on the system.
As a result, the total angular momentum stays the same: Its magnitude is still
kg·m2
L = 3.75 × 103 s

(d) In the new configuration, each astronaut will be 5.0 m/2 = 2.5 m from the center of
rotation and will still have a velocity (and linear momentum) perpendicular to the line joining
the rotation center to his location. If the new linear momentum of each astronaut is now p0 ,
then we can use the expression for the total angular momentum in the new configuration to
write:
2
L0 = L = 3.75 × 103 kg·ms
= 2(r0 p0 ) = 2(2.5 m)p0
50 CHAPTER 2. ROLLING MOTION; ANGULAR MOMENTUM

q m
M, l

Figure 2.7: Odd contraption where a sliding particle sticks to the end of a rod which is pivoted about O,
in Example 13.

and then solve for p0 :

2
(3.75 × 103 kg·m )
0
p = s
= 750 kg·m
s
2(2.5 m)
and from this we can get the new speed of each astronaut:

p0 (750 kg·m )
0
v = = s
= 10.0 ms
m (75.0 kg)

(e) The total kinetic energy of the astronauts is now

 
K0 = 2 1
2
(75.0 kg)(10.0 ms )2 = 7.50 × 103 J = 7.50 kJ

(f) Our answer for (e) is larger (in fact, quite a bit larger!) than the initial kinetic energy
which we calculated in part (b). The difference had to come from the work done by astronauts
in pulling on the rope. So the work done was

W = K 0 − K = 7.50 kJ − 1.88 kJ = 5.62 kJ .

The astronauts did 5.62 kJ of work in shortening the length of rope between them.

13. The particle of m in Fig. 2.7 slides down the frictionless surface and collides
with the uniform vertical rod, sticking to it. The rod pivots about O through
the angle θ before momentarily coming to rest. Find θ in terms of the other
parameters given in the figure. [HRW5 12-69]

To make any sense of the motion of the small mass and the rod we need to go through
this collision step–by–step to see which of physical principles can be applied.
The mass starts at a height h above the level part of the surface and slides down the
smooth slope. Just before it hits the rod, we know that the mechanical energy of the system
has been conserved because no friction–type force have been acting. This will allow us to
find the speed of the mass at the bottom of the ramp.
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 51

w
l
v

(a) (b)

Figure 2.8: (a) Just before mass strikes end of rod it has linear motion, with speed v. (b) After mass sticks
to rod, both rod and mass rotate about the pivot with angular velocity ω.

Next, the mass has a very brief (and very sticky) encounter with the end of the rod. We
are used to treating a set of masses as being isolated during the short time that they exert
forces on one another. And indeed during the collision the mass and rod are isolated, in a
sense. But it is not true that we can ignore the external forces during their brief encounter,
because in fact the pivot will exert a significant force on the rod that can’t be ignored. But
it is true that we can ignore the external torques that act on the rod–mass system (about
the pivot, that is) because the pivot force will give no torque. And because of this we will be
able to use the fact that the total angular momentum is conserved during the rapid, sticky
collision of the mass and the end of the rod.
Finally, after the mass is stuck to the end of the rod, the rod makes a swing upward,
momentarily coming to rest. During this part of the motion it is total mechanical energy
which is conserved – as long as there is no friction in the pivot!
Now we start writing down some equations to express the principles laid out here.
First we apply the condition of energy conservation between the initial position of the
mass and the instant before it hit the rod. At first, the mass has only gravitational energy:
Ei = mgh. Just before the collision, it has only kinetic energy; if its speed there is v, then
Ef = 21 mv 2 and energy conservation, Ei = Ef gives us:
q
mgh = 21 mv 2 =⇒ v= 2gh (2.13)

Now we look at the rapid collision, in which angular momentum is conserved. Just before
the mass m hits the end of the rod, its motion is horizontal (perpendicular to line joining the
pivot and its location) and it has the speed v which we have already calculated, as shown in
Fig. 2.8) (a). At this time its distance from the pivot is l, so its angular momentum about
the pivot (in the clockwise sense) is Li = lmv. Since at this time the rod is motionless, that
is the total angular momentum of the mass–rod system.
After the collision the mass and rod form a rotating system with moment of inertia
M
 
I= 1
3
Ml2 2
+ ml = + m l2
3
since the mass m is assumed small and is fixed at a distance l from the pivot. If the angular
52 CHAPTER 2. ROLLING MOTION; ANGULAR MOMENTUM

l q
l cos q
CM

Figure 2.9: Some geometry for the “final” position of the mass/rod combination.

velocity of the rod/mass just after the collision is ω, then the final angular momentum is

M
 
Lf = Iω = + m l2ω
3
Conservation of angular momentum, Li = Lf gives us:

M
 
lmv = + m l2ω (2.14)
3
Finally, after the collision we have energy conservation all during the upward swing of
the rod/mass. (We will now let the letters i and f refer to initial and final positions for
this part.) Just after the mass has stuck to the rod, the kinetic energy of the system is its
rotational kinetic energy,
M
 
Ki = 12 Iω 2 = 21 + m l2 ω2 .
3
To calculate potential energies we will measure height from the “ground” level. The mass
is small and basically has no height but the CM of the rod is at a height 2l so the initial
potential energy is
l
Ui = Mg
2
At the top of the swing, we know what the final kinetic energy is: It’s zero! As for the
final potential energy we will need to do a little geometry, as in Fig. 2.9. From this figure
we can see that the height of the small mass is now l − l cos θ. The vertical distance of the
rod’s CM downward from the pivot is 2l cos θ, so that its height is now l − 2l cos θ. Then the
final potential energy is (after a little factoring):

Uf = mgl(1 − cos θ) + Mgl(1 − 12 cos θ)

The change in potential energy is

l
∆U = Uf − Ui = mgl(1 − cos θ) + Mgl(1 − 12 cos θ) − Mg
2
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 53

= mgl(1 − cos θ) + Mgl( 12 − 12 cos θ)

Mgl
= mgl(1 − cos θ) + (1 − cos θ)
2
M
 
= m+ gl(1 − cos θ)
2
and the change in kinetic energy is just
M
 
∆K = Kf − Ki = − 12 + m l2ω2
3
so conservation of energy, ∆K + ∆U = 0 gives us:
M M
   
m+ gl(1 − cos θ) − 12 + m l2ω2 = 0 (2.15)
2 3
Have we done enough physics to get us to the answer? In the above equations, the
unknowns are v, ω and θ, and we do have three equations: 2.13, 2.14 and 2.15. So we can
solve for them; in particular we can find θ which is what the problem asks for. (The answer
will be expressed in terms of M, m, and l which we take as given.)
Here’s one way we can solve them. In Eq. 2.15 we will need ω 2 , so we can write 2.14 as:
mv
ω = M 
3
+ m l
then square it and use v 2 = 2gh from 2.13:
2 m2 v 2 2m2 gh
ω = 2 = 2
M M
3
+m l2 3
+m l2
Using this, we can substitute for ω 2 in Eq. 2.15 to get
M M 2m2 gh
   
m+ gl(1 − cos θ) = 1
2
+ m l2  2
2 3 M
+ m l2 3

There is much to cancel here! Some algebra gives us:

m2 h
(1 − cos θ) =  M

M

l m+ 2 3
+m
Don’t despair; we’re nearly home! Multiplying the top and bottom of the right hand side by
6 tidies things up to give:
6m2 h
(1 − cos θ) =
l(2m + M)(M + 3m)
Isolate cos θ to get:
6m2 h
cos θ = 1 −
l(2m + M)(3m + M)
And finally:
6m2 h
" #
−1
θ = cos 1−
l(2m + M)(3m + M)
Finished!
54 CHAPTER 2. ROLLING MOTION; ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Chapter 3

Static Equilibrium

3.1 The Important Stuff

In this chapter we study a special case of the dynamics of rigid objects covered in the last
two chapters. It is the (very important!) special case where the center of mass of the object
has no motion and the object is not rotating.

3.1.1 Conditions for Equilibrium of a Rigid Object

For a rigid object which is not moving at all we have the following conditions:
• The (vector) sum of the external forces on the rigid object must equal zero:
X
F=0 (3.1)

When this condition is satisfied we say that the object is in translational equilibrium.
(It really only tells us that aCM is zero, but of course that includes the case where the object
is motionless.)
• The sum of the external torques on the rigid object must equal zero.
X
τ =0 (3.2)

When this condition is satisfied we say that the object is in rotational equilibrium. (It
really only tells us that α about the given axis is zero, but —again— that includes the case
where the object is motionless.)
When both 3.1 and 3.2 are satisfied we say that the object is in static equilibrium.
Nearly all of the problems we will solve in this chapter are two–dimensional problems (in
the xy plane), and for these, Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2 reduce to
X X X
Fx = 0 Fy = 0 τz = 0 (3.3)

55
56 CHAPTER 3. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

3.1.2 Two Important Facts for Working Statics Problems

i) The force of gravity acts on all massive objects in our statics problems; its acts on all the
individual mass points of the object. One can show that for the purposes of computing the
forces and torques on rigid objects in statics problems we can treat the mass of the entire
object as being concentrated at its center of mass; that is, for an object of mass M we can
treat gravity as exerting a force Mg downward at the center of mass.
(This result depends on the fact that the acceleration of gravity, g is usually constant
over the volume of the object. Otherwise it is not true.)

ii) While there is only one way to write the conditions for the forces on a rigid object
summing to zero, we have a choice in the way we write the equation for the total torque.
Eq. 3.3 does not specify the choice of the axis for calculating the torque. In general it matters
a great deal which axis we pick! But when the sum of torques about any one axis is zero
and the sum of forces is zero (translational equilibrium) then the sum of torques about any
axis will give zero; so for statics problems we are free to pick the most convenient axis for
P
computing τ . Often this will be the point on the object where several unknown forces are
acting, so that the resulting set of equations will be simpler to solve.

3.1.3 Examples of Rigid Objects in Static Equilibrium

Strategy for solving problems in static equilibrium:
• Determine all the forces that are acting on the rigid body. They will come from the other
objects with which the body is in contact (supports, walls, floors, weights resting on them)
as well as gravity,
• Draw a diagram and put in all the information you have about these forces: The points
on the body at which they act, their magnitudes (if known), their directions (if known).
• Write down the equations for static equilibrium. For the torque equation you will have a
choice of where to put the axis; in making your choice think of which point would make the
resulting equations the simplest.
• Solve the equations! (That’s not physics. . . that’s math.) If the problem is well–posed you
will not have too many or too few equations to find all the unknowns.

3.2 Worked Examples

3.2.1 Examples of Rigid Objects in Static Equilibrium

1. The system in Fig. 3.1 is in equilibrium with the string in the center exactly
horizontal. Find (a) tension T1, (b) tension T2, (c) tension T3 and (d) angle θ.
[HRW5 13-23]
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 57

35o
T1 q T3

T2
40 N 50 N

Figure 3.1: System of masses and strings for Example 1.

35o
T3
T1 q
T2 T2

40 N 50 N

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2: (a) Forces at the left junction of the strings. (b) Forces acting at the right junction of the
strings.

Whoa! Four unknowns (T1 , T2 , T3 and θ) to solve for! How will we ever figure this out?
We consider the points where the strings meet; the left junction is shown in Fig. 3.2 (a).
Since a string under tension pulls inward along its length with a force given by the string
tension, the forces acting at this point are as shown.
Since this junction in the strings is in static equilibrium, the (vector) sum of the forces
acting on it must give zero. Thus the sum of the x components of the forces is zero:
−T1 sin 35◦ + T2 = 0 (3.4)
and the sum of the y components of the forces is zero:
+T1 cos 35◦ − 40 N = 0 (3.5)
Now we look at the right junction of the strings; the forces acting here are shown in
Fig. 3.2 (b). Again, the sum of the x components of the forces is zero:
−T2 + T3 sin θ = 0 (3.6)
and the sum of the y components of the forces is zero:
+T3 cos θ − 50 N = 0 (3.7)
58 CHAPTER 3. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

And at this point we are done with the physics because we have four equations for four
unknowns. We will do algebra to solve for them.
In this problem the algebra really isn’t so bad. From Eq. 3.5 we get
(40 N)
T1 = = 48.8 N
(cos 35◦ )
and then Eq. 3.4 gives us T2 :

T2 = T1 sin 35◦ = (48.8 N) sin 35◦ = 28.0 N .

We now rewrite Eq. 3.6 as:

T3 sin θ = T2 = 28.0 N (3.8)

and Eq. 3.7 as:

T3 cos θ = 50.0 N (3.9)
Now if we divide the left and right sides of 3.8 by the left and right sides of 3.9 we get:
(28.0 N)
tan θ = = 0.560
(50.0 N)
and then
θ = tan−1 (0.560) = 29.3◦
Finally, we get T3 from Eq. 3.9:
(50.0 N)
T3 = = 57.3 N
(cos 29.3◦ )
Summarizing, we have found:

T1 = 48.8 N T2 = 28.0 N T3 = 57.3 N θ = 29.3◦

This answers all the parts of the problem.

2. The system in Fig. 3.3 is in equilibrium. A mass of 225 kg hangs from the end
of the uniform strut whose mass is 45.0 kg. Find (a) the tension T in the cable
and the (b) horizontal and (c) vertical force components exerted on the strut by
the hinge. [HRW5 13-33]

(a) The rigid body here is the strut. What are the forces acting on it?
We know the mass M of the strut; the force of gravity exerts a force Mg downward at
its center of mass (which is in the middle of the strut since it is uniform). If the hanging
mass is m = 225 kg then the string which supports it exerts a downward force of magnitude
mg at the top end of the strut. The cable attached to the top of the strut exerts a force
of magnitude T . What is its direction? Some geometry (shown in Fig. 3.4 ) shows that its
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 59

Strut

T
225
kg

30o 45o
Hinge
Figure 3.3: Geometry of the statics problem of Example 2.

T
o
15
mg
Fh

Mg
30o 135
o
45o
Hinge
Figure 3.4: Forces acting on the strut in Example 2.
60 CHAPTER 3. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

direction makes an angle of 15◦ with the strut. Finally the hinge exerts a force on the strut.
(Can’t forget that. . . the hinge is in contact with the metal bar which is the “strut” as so
exerts a force on it.) The magnitude of this force is just labelled Fh in the diagram, but we
don’t know its direction!
Now, one way to solve the problem would be to let the direction of the hinge force be
some angle θ as measured from some line of reference. In fact it will probably be easiest to
let the x and y components of this force be the unknowns... I will call them Fh,x and Fh,y . In
fact, parts (b) and (c) of the problem ask us for these components directly. We can always
get the direction and magnitude later!
Now let’s write down some equations. First, the sum of the Fx ’s must give zero. Note
(from basic geometry) that the force of the cable is directed at 30◦ below the horizontal.
And force of the hinge has an x component! Then from Fig. 3.4 we immediately read off:
Fh,x − T cos 30◦ = 0 (3.10)
Good enough. Now onto the Fy equation. The sum of the y components of the forces
gives zero, and we write:
Fh,y − T sin 30◦ − Mg − mg = 0 (3.11)
Now we use the condition for zero net torque. The question is: Where do we want to
put the axis? For this problem, the answer is obvious. We want to put it at the hinge
itself because then when we calculate the torques, the hinge force (with its two unknown
components) will give no torque. The equation will still be useful. . . and it will be much
simpler. (Keep in mind that even though a physical strut really does turn around a physical
hinge we still have the choice of putting the axis for torque anywhere.)
We are not told the length of the strut, so let its length be L. We note the angles that
the force vectors make with the line joining the axis to the points of application, and then
we write the sum of the torques as:
L
−Mg sin 45◦ − mgL sin 45◦ + T L sin 15◦ = 0
2
but we note that we can cancel the L out of this equation, leaving
Mg
− sin 45◦ − mg sin 45◦ + T sin 15◦ = 0 (3.12)
2
Are we done with the physics yet? In the Eqs. 3.10, 3.11 and 3.12 there are three
unknowns: T , Fh,x and Fh,y . We are done with the physics. Only algebra remains.
And the algebra isn’t so bad. The only unknown in Eq. 3.12 is T and we get:
Mg
T sin 15◦ = sin 45◦ + mg sin 45◦
2
= 12 (45 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) sin 45◦ + (225 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) sin 45◦
= 1715 N
so that
(1715 N)
T = = 6.63 × 103 N
sin 15◦
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 61

L
m
M=2m CM

60o xL L/2

Figure 3.5: Geometry of the statics problem of Example 3. Student is standing on a ladder which leans
against a wall.

(b) With our result from part(a) in hand, Fh,x and Fh,y will be easy to find. From 3.10 we
get:
Fh,x = T cos 30◦ = (6630 N) cos 30◦ = 5.74 × 103 N
and From 3.11 we get:

Fh,y = T sin 30◦ + Mg + mg

= (6630 N) sin 30◦ + (45 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) + (225 kg)(9.80 sm2 )
= 5.96 × 103 N

The horizontal and vertical components of the force of the hinge on the strut are

Fh,x = 5740 N Fh,y = 5960 N .

3. A ladder having a uniform density and a mass m rests against a frictionless

vertical wall at an angle of 60◦ . The lower end rests on a flat surface where the
coefficient of static friction is µs = 0.40. A student with a mass M = 2m attempts
to climb the ladder. What fraction of the length L of the ladder will the student
have reached when the ladder begins to slip? [Ser4 12-13]

We make a basic diagram of the geometry of the problem in Fig. 3.5. The ladder has
length L; we show the center of mass of the ladder at a distance L2 up from its bottom end.
If the student had climbed a fraction x of the ladder, then he/she is at a distance xL from
its lower end, as shown.
Keeping the geometry in mind, we next think about all the separate forces that are acting
on the ladder as it leans against the wall and supports the student.
The force of gravity mg (downward) is effectively exerted at the center of the ladder. Since
the ladder is exerting an upward force Mg on the student, the student must be exerting a
62 CHAPTER 3. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

Nw

Nf CM

mg
Mg fs

Figure 3.6: Forces acting on the ladder in Example 3. Many TTU students do look like this guy.

downward force of magnitude Mg = 2mg on the ladder at a point a distance xL from the
lower end. The wall is frictionless so it can only exert a normal force on the top end of the
ladder; we will denote the magnitude of this force by Nw . The floor will exert a normal force
Nf upward on the bottom end of the ladder but also a horizontal force of static friction.
Which way does this friction force point? In our diagram, the wall’s normal force points to
the left so the friction force must point to the right so that the forces can add up to zero.
All these forces and their directions are diagrammed in Fig. 3.6. Now we apply the
conditions for static equilibrium given in Eq. 3.3.
First off, the horizontal forces must sum to zero. That gives us:
fs − Nw = 0 (3.13)
Next, the vertical forces must sum to zero. This gives:
Nf − Mg − mg = 0
and using M = 2m we get:
Nf − 3mg = 0 (3.14)
or: Nf = 3mg, giving us an expression for the normal force of the floor.
The next condition for equilibrium is that the sum of torques taken about any axis must
give zero. Since we have two forces acting at the lower end of the ladder, it might be best to
put the axis there because then those forces will give no torque, and we will have a simpler
equation to deal with. We note that the gravity forces from the student and the ladder’s
CM make an angle of 30◦ with the line joining the axis to the application points; they give
a clockwise (negative) torque. The normal force from the wall makes an angle of 60◦ with
the line from the axis, and it gives a positive torque. Our equation is:
−(xL)(2mg) sin 30◦ − (L/2)(mg) sin 30◦ + (L)(Nw ) sin 60◦ = 0
This equation can be simplified: We can cancel an L and use the values of sin 30◦ and sin 60◦
to get: √
mg 3
−xmg − + Nw = 0 (3.15)
4 2
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 63

We now have three equations, with four unknowns Nf , Nw , fs and x. (We can consider
m as given. In fact, its value won’t matter.) We need another equation!
We have not yet used the condition that when the student is standing xL up from the
ladder’s bottom it is just about to slip. Why should the ladder slip at all? It is because the
force of static friction fs is limited in size; we know that it can only be as large as µs Nf , since
Nf is the normal force between the floor and the ladder’s lower end. When the student has
walked up far enough that the ladder is on the verge of slipping then we have the equality

fs = µs Nf (3.16)

That’s all the equations! Now let’s start solving them. (The physics is done. The math
remains.)
Using Eq. 3.16 in Eq. 3.13 gives

µs Nf − Nw = 0

but from 3.14 we had Nf = 3mg, so we get

3µs mg = Nw

Put this result in Eq. 3.15 and we have:

√
mg 3
−xmg − + (3µs mg) = 0
4 2
We can cancel out the factor mg since it appears in each term. (So we never needed to know
m): √
1 3 3µs
−x − + =0
4 2
And at last, using the given value µs = 0.400:
√
3 3(0.400) 1
x= − = 0.798
2 4
The student can climb a fraction of 0.789 (that is, nearly 80%) of the length of the ladder
before it starts to slip.

4. For the stepladder shown in Fig. 3.7, sides AC and CE are each 8.0 ft long
and hinged at C. Bar BD is a tie–rod 2.5 ft long, halfway up. A man weighing
192 lb climbs 6.0 ft along the ladder. Assuming that the floor is frictionless and
neglecting the weight of the ladder, find (a) the tension in the tie–rod and the
forces exerted on the ladder by the floor at (b) A and (c) E. Hint: It will help
to isolate parts of the ladder in applying the equilibrium conditions. [HRW5 13-41]

Before anything else, we need to do a little geometry to find the angles which the ladder
sides make with with floor, because we are given enough information for this in the problem.
64 CHAPTER 3. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

B D

A E

Figure 3.7: Man stands on a ladder in Example 4.

T
f Nf
ft

192 lb
4.0

q q
1.25 ft

(a) (b)

Figure 3.8: (a) Some trigonometry to find the angle of slope of the ladder. (b) The forces which act on
the left side of the ladder and their application points.
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 65

We note that since the sides are of equal length then triangle ACE is an isosceles triangle.
The part of the ladder above the tie–rod has the lengths shown in Fig. 3.8(a). From this we
can see that the angle which either side of the ladder makes with the ground is the same as
the angle θ shown in the figure, and θ is given by
1.25
cos θ = = 0.3125 =⇒ θ = 71.79◦
4.00
and the angle φ (which we’ll also need) is the complement of θ and is given by

φ = 90◦ − θ = 18.21◦

Now that the geometry is settled, we follow the hint and treat the sides of the ladder as
separate objects for which we will apply the conditions of static equilibrium. First, consider
the left side of the ladder (the one on which the man is standing). What forces are acting
on it?
The floor is frictionless (!) and so it can only exert a normal (vertical) force on the lower
end. We will let this force be Nf . Moving up, the tie-bar is under a tension T , so it exerts
a force of magnitude T which (we would guess) is pulling inward along its length, and so
points to the right. This force is applied at the midpoint of the side. The 192 lb man is
supported by the ladder, so he must be exerting a downward force of 192 lb at the point that
is 6 ft up from the lower end.
But we’re not done. At point C, the right side of the ladder is exerting a force on the left
side (the one we are now considering). This is true because the two parts of the ladder are
in contact at this point. Right now it is not at all clear which direction this force will point,
so we will just say it is some force F with components Fx and Fy which we will determine
in the course of solving the equations. This force is indicated in the figure. Now we have all
the forces acting on the left side of the ladder; they are diagrammed in Fig. 3.8 (b).
Thinking ahead to when we do our analysis for the right side of the ladder. . . . we note
that from Newton’s 3rd law the sides of the ladder will exert “equal and opposite” forces on
each other at point C. So the force of the left side on the right side will be −F. But that
comes later.
The sum of the x forces on this part of the ladder gives zero. That gives us:

Fx + T = 0 (3.17)

The sum of the y forces on this part of the ladder gives zero:

Fy − 192 lb + Nf = 0 (3.18)

Next, the sum of the torques on the left ladder section must give zero. We will choose
the location for our axis to be at the top (that is, point C); the reason for this choice is that
the unknown force F (which acts at C) will then give no torque. Using the given dimensions
of the ladder and the application points of the forces (as well as the angles θ and φ that we
figured out), we find:

−(8 ft)Nf sin φ + (2 ft)(192 lb) sin φ + (4 ft)T sin θ = 0 (3.19)

66 CHAPTER 3. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

-F

T N’f

Figure 3.9: The forces which act on the right side of the ladder.

And now we analyze right side of the ladder. Starting from the bottom, we have the
force of the floor. The floor is frictionless, so again the force points straight up, but it will
not have the same magnitude as on the left side; we denote its magnitude here by Nf0 . Then,
midway up the length of the ladder the tension of the tie–rod pulls with a force of magnitude
T to the left. Finally at point C, the left side of the ladder is exerting a force. But it must
be opposite to the force we already assigned as coming from the right side. So the left side
exerts a force −F on the right side of the ladder. These forces are diagrammed in Fig. 3.9.
And now we get the equations. The sum of the x forces on this part of the ladder gives
zero:
−Fx − T = 0
But note that this equation is basically the same as Eq. 3.17. So we can ignore it!
The sum of the y forces on this part of the ladder gives zero:
−Fy + Nf0 = 0 (3.20)
Finally, the sum of the torques on the left ladder section must give zero. Again we choose
the top (point C) as the location for our axis (for the same reasons as before). Using the
given dimensions of the ladder and the application points of the forces we find:
−(4 ft)T sin θ + (8 ft)Nf0 sin φ = 0 (3.21)
And now we stop and rest and size up where we stand with the solution. We have found
five equations, namely Eqs. 3.17 through 3.21. Our unknowns are Nf , Nf0 , T , Fx and Fy .
So we have enough equations to solve the problem. The physics is done. Only the math
remains.
Here’s one way to go about solving this set of equations.
Notice that Fx only appears in 3.17, so we can wait until the very end to use it (if we
want to get Fx ). Combining 3.18 and 3.20 we get
Fy = 192 lb − Nf and Fy = Nf0
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 67

so
Nf0 = 192 lb − Nf
or
Nf = 192 lb − Nf0 (3.22)
From Eq. 3.21, we cancel a factor of 4 ft and find

2Nf0 sin φ
T = = 0.658Nf0 (3.23)
sin θ
Now we use results 3.22 and 3.23 in Eq. 3.19 to substitute for Nf and T . First, in 3.19
we can cancel a factor of 2 ft and rearrange to get:

−4Nf sin φ + 2T sin θ = −(192 lb) sin φ

Now substitute for Nf and T . This gives:

−4(192 lb − Nf0 ) sin φ + 2(0.658)Nf0 sin θ = −(192 lb) sin φ

Some more regrouping and evaluation of terms gives

(2.50)Nf0 = 180 lb

and at last we have an answer:

(180 lb)
Nf0 = = 72 lb
(2.50)

Having one solution, we can quickly get all the rest:

Nf = 192 lb − Nf0 = 120 lb

2(72 lb) sin φ

T = = 47 lb
sin θ
Glancing at what the problem asked us for, we see that we’ve now answered all the parts:

(a) T = 47 lb (b) Nf = 120 lb (c) Nf0 = 72 lb

But being the thorough kind of guy that I am, I’d like to find the components of the
force F which the ladder parts exert on each other at C. They are:

Fx = −T = −47 lb Fy = Nf0 = 72 lb

(So the direction that I chose for F rather arbitrarily in the figures was the correct one.)
68 CHAPTER 3. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
Chapter 6

Waves II: Sound Waves

6.1 The Important Stuff

6.1.1 Sound Waves; The Speed of Sound
A sound wave is a longitudinal wave in an elastic medium (which could be a gas, liquid or
solid). In such a wave the particles of the medium oscillate back and forth along the direction
in which the wave travels such that regions of high and low density are created. It is these
regions of compression and rarefaction which make up the wave fronts which travel through
space and carry energy.
The waves have a speed which comes from the elastic properties of the medium.

6.1.2 Interference of Sound Waves

6.1.3 Intensity and Sound Level

I = 21 ρvω 2s2m (6.1)

P
I= (6.2)
4πr2

I
β = (10 dB) log 10 (6.3)
I0

6.1.4 Standing Waves in Pipes

6.1.5 Beats

fbeat = |f1 − f2 | (6.4)

97
98 CHAPTER 6. WAVES II: SOUND WAVES

6.1.6 The Doppler Effect

When a source or sound is in motion — or if an “observer” is in motion — or if both are in
motion — the observer will detect a different frequency from what the source is producing.
If a source of sound moves toward an observer the wavefronts are bunched up closer
together than they would be otherwise (though they travel the same speed). This results
in a greater frequency at which they strike the observer. If vS is the speed of the source
toward or away from the observer, v is the speed of sound, and f is the frequency at which
the source is making the sound, then the observer hears a frequency f 0 given by:
v
 
0
f =f (6.5)
v ∓ vS
Here the top sign goes with motion of the source toward the observer, the bottom sign with
motion away.
If the source of sound is stationary and the observer is moving toward the source or away
from it, he will also hear a different frequency, but for a different reason. Here the observer
encounters the wave fronts which have their usual separation distance (i.e. wavelength) but
because of his motion, they are (effectively) coming at him with a different speed, and as a
result he receives them at a different frequency. If vO is the speed of the source toward or
away from the observer, v is the speed of sound, and f is the frequency at which the source
is making the sound, then the observer hears a frequency f 0 given by:
v ± vO
 
0
f =f (6.6)
v
Again, the top sign goes with motion “toward” and the bottom sign with motion “away”.
If both the source and obeserver are in motion then in fact Eqs. ?? and ?? combine as
1 ± vvO
!
v ± vO
 
0
f =f = (6.7)
v ∓ vS 1 ∓ vvS

6.2 Worked Examples

Unless otherwise specified, we will take the speed of sound in air to be 343 ms and the (mass)
density of air as 1.21 mkg3 .

6.2.1 Sound Waves; The Speed of Sound

1. A stone is dropped into a well. The sound of the splash is heard 3.00 s later.
What is the depth of the well? [HRW6 18-7]
6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 99

t1 h t2

(a) (b)

Figure 6.1: (a) Rock falls to bottom of well, in a time t1 . (b) Sound of splash travels back up the well, in
a time t2 .

There are two time intervals we need to think about: The time t1 it takes for the rock
to fall to the bottom of the well and the time t2 it it takes for the sound to travel back up
the well to the listener, as diagrammed in Fig. 6.1. . The sum of these two times is 3.00 s:

t1 + t2 = 3.00 s (6.8)

If the depth of the well is h, then from our ample experience in the kinematics of freely–
falling objects we can relate t1 to h. We have:
1 2
gt
2 1
= 12 (9.80 sm2 )t21 = h (6.9)

Now, unlike a falling rock, sound travels at a constant speed (which we’ll assume is vsound =
343 ms ) so that the relation between t2 and h is

vsoundt2 = (343 ms )t2 = h (6.10)

We can combine 6.9 and 6.10 (eliminate h) to get:

1
2
(9.80 sm2 )t21 = (343 ms )t2

Since 6.8 gives us t2 = 3.00 s−t1 , we can substitute for t2 to get an equation in one unknown:
1
2
(9.80 sm2 )t21 = (343 ms )(3.00 s − t1)

Dropping the units for simplicity, we can rearrange this to:

(4.9)t21 + (343)t1 − 1029 = 0

Use the quadratic formula to find t1 (just get the positive root; the negative one is meaningless
here): q
−343 + (343)2 + 4(4.9)(1029)
t1 = = 2.88 s
2(4.9)
100 CHAPTER 6. WAVES II: SOUND WAVES

so that we can get t2:

t2 = 3.00 s − 2.88 s = 0.12 s
and then 6.10 gives h;
h = (343 ms )(0.12 s) = 40.7 m
The depth of the well is 40.7 m.

2. The audible frequency range for normal hearing is from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
What are the wavelengths of sound waves at these frequencies? [HRW6 18-8]

The wavelength and frequency of a wave are related by λf = v, where v is the speed of
the wave. Here we take v = 343 ms ; for a sound wave of frequency 20 Hz the wavelength is

v (343 ms ) (343 ms )
λ = = = = 17.2 m
f (20.0 Hz) (20.0 s−1 )
For the wave of frequency 20 kHz, the wavelength is
v (343 ms ) (343 ms )
λ= = = = 1.72 × 10−2 m = 1.72 cm
f (20.0 kHz) (20.0 × 103 s−1 )

6.2.2 Intensity and Sound Level

3. A source emits sound waves isotropically. The intensity of the waves 2.50 m
from the source is 1.91 × 10−4 W/m2 . Assuming that the energy of the waves is
conserved, find the power of the source. [HRW6 18-17]

Eq. 6.2 gives the relation between power, intensity and distance for an isotropic (point)
source of sound waves: I = P/(4πr2 ). We are given the intensity I at a given distance r, so
the power of the source is

P = 4πr2 I = 4π(2.50 m)2 (1.91 × 10−4 W

m2
)
= 1.50 × 10−2 W = 15.0 mW

The power of the source is 15.0 mW.

4. A sound wave of frequency 300 Hz has an intensity of 1.00 µW/m2 . What is the
amplitude of the air oscillations caused by this wave? [HRW6 18-19]

Eq. 6.1 gives the intensity of a sound wave in terms of the amplitude of the air oscillations
(sm ) and other things. The formula requires the mass density of air (1.21 mkg3 ), the speed of
sound (343 ms ) and the angular frequency of oscillation of the air, namely

ω = 2πf = 2π(300 Hz) = 1.88 × 103 s−1

6.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 101

Then we find:
2I
s2m =
ρvω 2
2(1.00 × 10−6 mW2 )
= = 1.36 × 10−15 m2
(1.21 mkg3 )(343 ms )(1.88 × 103 s−1 )

So then the amplitude of the air oscillations is

sm = 3.7 × 10−8 m = 37 nm .

This is a very small length, but it should be remembered that it represents an average in
the shifts of the positions of the air molecules.

5. Two sounds differ in sound level by 1.00 dB. What is the ratio of the greater
intensity to the smaller intensity? [HRW6 18-20]

Let β2 be the sound level of the louder sound and I2 its intensity. Likewise, β1 and I1 are
the sound level and intensity of the weaker sound. We are given that β2 − β1 = 1.00. Use
the definition of the sound level to get some information on the intensities:

β2 − β1 = 1.00
I2 I1
   
= (10 dB) log 10 − (10 dB) log10
I0 I0
I2 I1
    
= (10 dB) log10 − log10 (6.11)
I0 I0

(In the last step, we factored out (10 dB) from each term.) Now we observe the the logs in
the last step can combine (a minus sign inverts the argument of a logarithm):

I2 I1 I2 I0
       
log10 − log10 = log10 + log10
I0 I0 I0 I1
I2 I0
 
= log10 ·
I0 I1
I2
 
= log10
I1

Put this into 6.11 and find:

I2
 
1.00 dB = (10 dB) log10
I1

This gives us:

I2 1.00
 
log10 = = 0.100
I1 10
102 CHAPTER 6. WAVES II: SOUND WAVES

and raising 10 to the power of both sides gives:

I2
= 100.100 = 1.26
I1
The ratio of the two sound intensities is 1.26.

6. A point source emits 30.0 W of sound isotropically. A small microphone inter-

cepts the sound in an area of 0.7500 cm2, 200 m from the source. Calculate (a) the
sound intensity there and (b) the power intercepted by the microphone. [HRW6
18-28]

(a) Eq. 6.2 gives the intensity of an isotropic sound wave from the power of the source and
the distance:
P (30.0 W)
I= 2
= 2
= 5.97 × 10−5 mW2
4πr 4π(200 m)

(b) The power intercepted by the microphone is the intensity at its location multiplied by
the area of its sound–sensitive element (assuming it is held face–on to the direction of the
incoming wave): Pmicr = IAmicr. Using 1 m2 = 10−4 cm2 , this gives:

Pmicr = IAmicr = (5.97 × 10−5 W

m2
)(0.750 × 10−4 m2) = 4.48 × 10−9 W .

7. A car horn emits a 380 Hz sound. If the car moves at 17 ms with its horn
blasting, what frequency will a person standing in front of the car hear? [Wolf 14-42]

Here the source is in motion so that eq. ?? is applicable. Use the top sign for motion
“toward”; using v = 343 ms as the speed of sound, the listener hears a frequency

343 ms
!
v
 
0
f =f = (380 Hz) = (380 Hz)(1.05) = 400 Hz
v − vS 343 − 17 ms

8. A fire truck’s siren at rest wails at 1400 Hz; standing by the roadside as the
truck approaches, you hear it at 1600 Hz. How fast is the truck going? [Wolf 14-44]

Again use the formula for the frequency heard when the source is moving; this timne vS
is unknown. Use 343 ms for the speed of sound:
v f 1400
   
f0 = f =⇒ v − vS = v= (343 ms ) = 300 ms
v − vS f 0 1600
Rearrange and get vS :

vS = v − 300 ms = 343 ms − 300 ms = 43 ms

Appendix A: Conversion Factors

Length cm meter km in ft mi
1 cm = 1 10−2 10−5 0.3937 3.281 × 10−2 6.214 × 10−6
1m = 100 1 10−3 39.37 3.281 6.214 × 10−4
1 km = 105 1000 1 3.937 × 104 3281 06214
1 in = 2.540 2.540 × 10−2 2.540 × 10−5 1 8.333 × 10−2 1.578 × 10−5
1 ft = 30.48 0.3048 3.048 × 10−4 12 1 1.894 × 10−4
1 mi = 1.609 × 105 1609 1.609 6.336 × 104 5280 1

Mass g kg slug u
1g = 1 0.001 6.852 × 10−2 6.022 × 1026
1 kg = 1000 1 6.852 × 10−5 6.022 × 1023
1 slug = 1.459 × 104 14.59 1 8.786 × 1027
1u = 1.661 × 10−24 1.661 × 10−27 1.138 × 10−28 1

An object with a weight of 1 lb has a mass of 0.4536 kg.

103
Chapter 5

Waves I: Generalities, Superposition

& Standing Waves

5.1 The Important Stuff

5.1.1 Wave Motion
Wave motion occurs when the mass elements of a medium such as a taut string or the
surface of a liquid make relatively small oscillatory motions but collectively give a pattern
which travels for long distances. This kind of motion also includes the phenomenon of
sound , where the molecules in the air around us make small oscillations but collectively give
a disturbance which can travel the length of a college classroom, all the way to the students
dozing in the back. We can even view the up–and–down motion of inebriated spectators of
sports events as wave motion, since their small individual motions give rise to a disturbance
which travels around a stadium.
The mathematics of wave motion also has application to electromagnetic waves (including
visible light), though the physical origin of those traveling disturbances is quite different from
the mechanical waves we study in this chapter; so we will hold off on studying electromagnetic
waves until we study electricity and magnetism in the second semester of our physics course.
Obviously, wave motion is of great importance in physics and engineering.

5.1.2 Types of Waves

In some types of wave motion the motion of the elements of the medium is (for the most
part) perpendicular to the motion of the traveling disturbance. This is true for waves on
a string and for the people–wave which travels around a stadium. Such a wave is called a
transverse wave. This type of wave is the easiest to visualize.
For other waves the motion of the elements of the medium is parallel to the motion of
the disturbance. This type of wave can be seen when we stretch a spring and wiggle its end
parallel to its length. We then see traveling regions where the spring is more compressed and
more stretched; the elements of the spring have a small back–and–forth motion. A sound

87
88CHAPTER 5. WAVES I: GENERALITIES, SUPERPOSITION & STANDING WAVES

wave travels in the same way; here, the air molecules have a small back-and-forth motion
generating regions where the air has greater or smaller compression.
A wave which travels due to local motions along the direction of propagation is called a
longitudinal wave.

5.1.3 Mathematical Description of a Wave; Wavelength, Frequency

and Wave Speed
In our mathematical treatment of wave phenomena, we will mostly deal with one-dimensional
traveling waves. The coordinate along which the disturbance travels will be x; at each value
of x the medium will be “displaced” in some way, and that displacement will be described
by the variable y. Then y will depend upon x (the place where we see the displacement of
the medium) and also the time t at which we see the displacement. In general, y = f(x, t).
If we specialize to the case where the shape of the wave does not change with time, but
rather travels along the +x axis with some velocity v, then the wave will be a function only
of the combination x − vt:

y = f(x − vt) (Velocity v in +x direction) .

Of course, from this it follows that a wave travelling in the other direction is

y = f(x + vt) (Velocity v in −x direction) .

For reasons which are basically mathematical, it is important to study a particular trav-
eling wave, one which has a sinusoidal shape as a function of x. Such a wave is given by

y(x, t) = ym sin(kx ∓ ωt) (5.1)

In this equation, the − sign is chosen for a wave traveling in the +x direction; + is chosen
for a wave traveling in the −x direction.
This wave form represents an (infinite) wave train rather than a pulse. In this formula,
k is called the angular wave number and it has units of m−1. ω is called the angular
frequency for the wave (as you would expect!) and it has units of s−1 .
The harmonic wave of Eq. 5.1 is periodic in both space and time. The wavelength λ of
the wave is the distance between repetitions of the (sinusoidal) wave shape when we “freeze”
the wave in time. One can show that it is related to k by:

2π
k= . (5.2)
λ
The period T of the wave is the time between repetitions of the motion of any one
element of the medium. One can show that it is related to the angular frequency by:

2π
ω= . (5.3)
T
5.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 89

As in our study of oscillations, the frequency of the wave has the same relation to ω and
T:
ω 1
f= =
2π T
One can show that the speed of such a wave (that is, the rate at which its crests travel
along the x axis) is
ω
v = = λf (5.4)
k
One must be careful not to confuse the speed of the wave with the speeds of the individual
elements of the medium through which the wave passes. Each mass point of the medium
moves like a harmonic oscillator whose amplitude and frequency is the same as that of the
wave; the maximum speed of each element is vmax = ym ω and the maximum acceleration of
each element is ym ω 2 .

5.1.4 Waves on a Stretched String

One of the simplest examples of a transverse wave is that of waves travelling on a stretched
string. One can show that for a string under a tension τ whose mass per unit length is given
by µ, the speed of waves is s
τ
v= (5.5)
µ
An important feature of waves is that they transmit energy. The average power is
the rate at which mechanical energy passes any point of the x axis. One can show that for
harmonic waves on a string it is given by

P = 12 µvω 2ym
2
(5.6)

where µ is the linear mass density of the string, v is the speed of string waves and ω is the
angular frequency of the harmonic wave. We note here that P is proportional to the squares
of ω and ym .

5.1.5 The Principle of Superposition

A simple (but non-obvious!) property of all of the waves in nature that we are likely to study
is that they add together . More precisely, if one physical disturbance of a medium generates
the wave y1(x, t) and another disturbance generates the wave y2(x, t) then if both effects act
at the same time, the resultant wave will be

yTot (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2 (x, t) . (5.7)

5.1.6 Interference of Waves

In this and the next section we give the results for the superposition of two harmonic waves
which differ in only one respect; this allows us to understand the importance that the parts
of Eq. 5.1 play in the combining of waves.
90CHAPTER 5. WAVES I: GENERALITIES, SUPERPOSITION & STANDING WAVES

First we take two waves with the same speed, frequency, amplitude and direction of
motion but which differ by a phase constant. We will combine the two waves
y1 = ym sin(kx − ωt) and y2 = ym sin(kx − ωt + φ) (5.8)
To arrive at a useful form for the sum of these two waves one can use the trig identity
sin α + sin β = 2 sin 12 (α + β) cos 12 (α − β) .
With this, we can show that the resultant wave y 0 (x, t) is:
y 0(x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2(x, t)
h  i
1
= 2ym cos 2
φ sin(kx − ωt + 21 φ) (5.9)
The resultant wave has a new phase but more importantly it has a new amplitude which
depends on ym and φ:
0
ym = 2ym cos 12 φ . (5.10)
When φ = 0, the new amplitude is 2ym ; the waves are said to be completely in phase
and that the addition is fully constructive. A maximum from wave y1 coincides with a
maximum from wave y2 and a “bigger” wave is the result.
When φ = π then the new amplitude is zero and the waves are said to be completely
out of phase and that the addition is fully destructive. Here a maximum from wave y1
coincides with a minimum of wave y2 and the result is complete cancellation.

5.1.7 Standing Waves

Next we consider the result of the addition of two harmonic waves which have the same
speed, frequency and amplitude but for which the directions of propagation (either +x or
−x are different. (In this case the phase constants for each wave won’t matter.) We will
add:
y1(x, t) = ym sin(kx − ωt) and y2 (x, t) = ym sin(kx + ωt) (5.11)
0
One again we can use the trig identity for adding two sines to show that the sum ym (x, t) is:
0
ym (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
= [2ym cos ωt] sin kx (5.12)
The resultant wave in Eq. 5.12 is a very interesting function of x and t, though it is not
a travelling wave since it is not of the form f(kx ∓ ωt). It is a sinusoidal function of the
coordinate x, multiplied by a modulating factor cos(ωt). Since the same spatial pattern of
oscillations stays in one place, a wave of the form of Eq. 5.12 is called a standing wave.
For the wave given in Eq. 5.12 there are points where there is no displacement, i.e. those
where sin(kx) = 0 (so that x = nπ k
with n equal to an integer). These points are the nodes
of the standing wave pattern.
There are also points for which the displacement is a maximum, namely those for which
sin(kx) = ±1 (so that x = (2n+1)π
2k
with n equal to an integer). These points are called the
antinodes of the standing wave pattern. Consecutive nodes and antinodes are separated by
λ/2, where λ is the wavelength of the original waves that went into making up the standing
wave. A node and the closest antinode are separated by λ/4.
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 91

5.1.8 Standing Waves on Strings Under Tension

We can observe standing wave patterns in the lab if we clamp the ends of a piece of string
(putting it under some tension) and pluck it, or possibly give one end of the string a small
jiggly motion of a certain frequency. In the first case it is mostly the fundamental mode
(n = 1) of vibration which is set up on the string, whereas in the second case we can
selectively make any mode oscillate on the string.
The oscillation modes of the string are those where the string oscillates with nodes at
either end and a special pattern of nodes and antinodes in between. Such a pattern exists
only when the string vibrates with certain resonant frequencies. For these modes, the
length of the string L is an integer number of half–wavelengths:

λ
L=n n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2
which leads to the formula for the resonant frequencies:
v
fn = n n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (5.13)
2L
where v is the speed of waves on the string and fn is the resonant frequency of the nth mode.

5.2 Worked Examples

5.2.1 Wavelength, Frequency and Speed

1. A wave has speed 240 ms and a wavelength of 3.2 m. What are the (a) frequency
and (b) period of the wave? [HRW5 17-1]

(a) From Eq. 5.4 we have

v
v = λf =⇒ f= .
λ
Plug in the given v and λ:

(240 ms )
f= = 75 s−1 = 75 Hz
(3.2 m)

(b) Then, from T = 1/f, we get the period of the wave:

1 1
T = = = 1.3 × 10−2 s = 13 ms
f 75 s−1
92CHAPTER 5. WAVES I: GENERALITIES, SUPERPOSITION & STANDING WAVES

2. Write the equation for a (harmonic) wave travelling in the negative direction
along the x axis and having an amplitude of 0.010 m, a frequency of 550 Hz, and a
speed of 330 ms . [HRW5 17-5]

From Eq. 5.4 we get the wavelength for this wave:

v (330 ms )
λ= = = 0.600 m
f (550 s−1 )

and we get the angular wave number k and the angular frequency ω:
2π 2π
k= = = 10.5 m−1
λ (0.600 m)

ω = 2πf = 2π(550 s−1 ) = 3.46 × 103 s−1

This gives us all the quantities we need to put into the harmonic wave of Eq. 5.1. Using
the given amplitude ym = 0.010 m and choosing the proper sign for a wave traveling in the
−x direction, we get:
 
y(x, t) = (0.010 m) sin [10.5 m−1 ]x + [3.46 × 103 s−1 ]t

5.2.2 Waves on a Stretched String

3. The speed of a transverse wave on a string is 170 ms when the string tension
is 120 N. To what value must the tension be changed to raise the wave speed to
180 ms ? [HRW5 17-19]

Knowing the speed of waves on a string for any particular tension allows us to find the
mass density µ of the string. Use:
s
F F F
v= =⇒ v2 = =⇒ µ=
µ µ v2

Plug in the numbers for the first case:

(120 N) kg
µ= = 4.15 × 10−3
(170 ms )2 m

Now for some new tension the speed of the waves on the string is 180 ms . It’s the same
string so the mass density is still 4.15 × 10−3 kg
m
. Then find the new tension F :
kg
F = µv 2 = (4.15 × 10−3 m
)(180 ms )2 = 135 N
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 93

4. A string along which waves can travel is 2.70 m long and has a mass of 260 g.
The tension is the string is 36.0 N. What must be the frequency of travelling
waves of amplitude 7.70 mm for the average power to be 85.0 W ? [HRW6 17-24]

A couple properties of this string which we can calculate: We can find its linear mass
density:
M (260 × 10−3 kg)
µ= = = 9.63 × 10−2 kg
m
L (2.70 m)
and also the speed of waves on the string:
s v
τ (36.0 N)
u
= 19.3 ms
u
v= = t
kg
µ (9.63 × 10−2 m
)

Using Eq. 5.6 to relate the rate of energy transmission P to the other quantities, the
angular frequency of the travelling wave is

2P
ω2 = 2
µvym
2(85.0 W)
= = 1.53 × 106 / s2
(9.63 × 10−2 kg
m
)(19.3 ms )(7.70 × 10−3 m)

so that
ω = 1.24 × 103 / s
and then
ω (1.24 × 103 / s)
f= = = 198 Hz
2π 2π
Waves of the given amplitude must have frequency 198 Hz.

5.2.3 Superposition; Interference of Waves

5. Two identical travelling waves, moving in the same direction, are out of phase
by π2 rad. What is the amplitude of the resultant wave in terms of the common
amplitude ym of the two combining waves? [HRW5 17-36]

Though the answer is given quite simply by Eq. 5.10 with φ = π2 , we’ll work out all the
steps here.
We will make specific choices for the mathematical forms for the two waves, but one can
show that the answer doesn’t depend on the choice.
Suppose the first wave has wave number k and angular frequency ω and travels in the
+x direction. Then one choice for this wave is

y1(x, t) = ym sin(kx − ωt) (5.14)

94CHAPTER 5. WAVES I: GENERALITIES, SUPERPOSITION & STANDING WAVES

Now if the second wave is “identical” it must have the same amplitude (ym ). It will also
be a sine wave whose (x, t) dependence also has the form kx − ωt. But the argument of the
sin function — that is, the “phase” — differs from that of y1 by π2 . The following choice:

y2 (x, t) = ym sin(kx − ωt − π2 ) (5.15)

will put wave y2 ahead of y1 in space by a quarter wave (since at any given time t we need
to increase the term kx in y2 by π2 in order to give the same answer as y1 ). But again, the
opposite choice of sign for the phase difference will give the same result.
When waves y1 and y2 are travelling on the same string, the resultant wave is the sum
of 5.14 and 5.15,

yTot (x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2(x, t)

= ym sin(kx − ωt) + ym sin(kx − ωt − π2 ) (5.16)

Here, the common factor ym can taken from both terms and for the rest we can use the trig
identity h i h i
sin α + sin β = 2 sin 21 (α + β) cos 12 (α − β)
where we intend to use
π
α = kx − ωt and β = kx − ωt − 2

Putting all of this into Eq. 5.16 gives

h i h i
1 1 π
yTot (x, t) = 2ym sin 2
(2kx − 2ωt − π2 ) cos ( )
2 2
h i h i
= 2ym sin 12 (kx − ωt − π4 ) cos π
4
√ h i
= 2ym sin 21 (kx − ωt − π4 )
 
where in the last step we have used the well–known fact that cos π4 = √12 .
Our final result for yTot (x, t) is a sinusoidal function of x and t which has amplitude
√
yTot, m = 2ym ≈ 1.41ym ,
√
that is, it is 2 times the amplitude of either of the original waves.

5.2.4 Standing Waves on a Stretched String

6. A nylon guitar string has a linear density of 7.2 g/m and is under a tension of
150 N. The fixed supports are 90 cm apart. The string is oscillating in the standing
wave pattern shown in Fig. 5.1. Calculate the (a) speed, (b) wavelength, and (c)
frequency of the travelling waves whose superposition gives this standing wave.
[HRW6 17-33]
5.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 95

Figure 5.1: Standing wave on pattern on string of Example 6

(a) We have the linear mass density µ = 7.2 × 10−3 kg m

and the tension τ = 150 N for the
string. From Eq. 5.5, the speed of waves on the string is
s v
τ (150 N)
u
= 140 ms
u
v= =t kg
µ (7.2 × 10−3 m
)

(b) For the pattern shown in Fig. 5.1, the length of the sring is equal to 3 half-wavelengths:
L = 3( λ2 ). So the wavelength (of the travelling waves giving the pattern) is:

λ = 23 L = 23 (0.90 m) = 0.60 m = 60 cm

(c) For the frequency of the waves, use λf = v. Then:

v (140 ms )
f= = = 240 Hz
λ (0.60 m)

7. A string that is stretched between fixed supports separated by 75.0 cm has

resonant frequencies of 420 Hz and 315 Hz with no intermediate frequencies. What
are (a) the lowest resonant frequency and (b) the wave speed? [HRW6 17-39]

(a) The problem gives two successive frequencies, but we don’t (yet) know what values of
n in Eq. 5.13 they correspond to. What does Eq. 5.13 tell us about the difference between
two successive resonant frequencies? The difference between the frequencies corresponding
to N + 1 and n is:
v v v
fn+1 − fn = (n + 1) −n =
2L 2L 2L
v
so that the difference does not depend on n, and it gives us 2L . Using our frequencies, we
get:
v
fn+1 − fn = 420 Hz − 315 Hz = 105 Hz =
2L
and since we have the value of L, we find:

v = 2L(105 Hz) = 2(0.750 m)(105 Hz) = 158 ms

v
which is the answer to part (b)! Anyway, the lowest frequency has n = 1; with this, f1 = 2L
which we already have found to be equal to 105 Hz. So the fundamental frequency of the
string is
f1 = 105 Hz
96CHAPTER 5. WAVES I: GENERALITIES, SUPERPOSITION & STANDING WAVES

Figure 5.2: Standing wave on string as described in Example 8

(b) Answer in part (a): v = 158 ms .

8. In an experiment on standing waves, a string 90 cm long is attached to the

prong of an electrically driven tuning fork that oscillates perpendicular to the
length of the string at a frequency of 60 Hz. The mass of the string is 0.044 kg.
What tension must the string be under (weights are attached to the other end)
if it is to oscillate in four loops? [HRW6 17-44]

The problem is telling us that the standing wave on the string has the pattern (“four
loops”) shown in Fig. 5.2. Thus the full length of the string is four half-wavelengths, so that:
!
λ L (0.90 m
L=4 =⇒ λ= = = 0.45 m
2 2 2

The frequency of the wave is f = 60 Hz so that the speed of wave on this string is

v = λf = (0.45 m)(60 Hz) = 27 ms

The linear mass density of the string is

(0.044 kg)
µ= = 4.9 × 10−2 kg
m
(0.90 m)

So using Eq. 5.5 for the speed of waves on a string, we get:

τ
v2 = =⇒ τ = µv 2 = (4.9 × 10−2 kg
m
)(27 ms )2 = 36 N .
µ
The tension of the string is 36 N.
Chapter 4

Oscillatory Motion

4.1 The Important Stuff

4.1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion
In this chapter we consider systems which have a motion which repeats itself in time, that is,
it is periodic. In particular we look at systems which have some coordinate (say, x) which
has a sinusoidal dependence on time. A graph of x vs. t for this kind of motion is shown in
Fig. 4.1. Suppose a particle has a periodic, sinusoidal motion on the x axis, and its motion
takes it between x = +A and x = −A. Then the general expression for x(t) is

x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ) (4.1)

A is called the amplitude of the motion. For reasons which will become clearer later, ω is
called the angular frequency. We say that a mass which has a motion of the type given
in Eq. 4.1 undergoes simple harmonic motion.
From 4.1 we see that when the time t increases by an amount 2π ω
, the argument of the
cosine increases by 2π and the value of x will be the same. So the motion repeats itself
after a time interval 2π
ω
, which we denote as T , the period of the motion. The number of

Figure 4.1: Plot of x vs. t for simple harmonic motion. (t and x axes are unspecified!)

69
70 CHAPTER 4. OSCILLATORY MOTION

oscillations per time is given by f = T1 , called the frequency of the motion:

2π 1 ω
T = f= = (4.2)
ω T 2π

Rearranging we have a formula for ω in terms of f or T :

2π
ω = 2πf = (4.3)
T
Though ω (angular frequency) and f (frequency) are closely related (with just a factor of
2π between them, we need to be careful to distinguish them; to help in this, we normally
express ω in units of rad
s
and f in units of cycle
s
, or Hz (Hertz). However, the real dimensions
of both are 1s in the SI system.
From x(t) we get the velocity of the particle:

dx
v(t) = = −ωA sin(ωt + φ) (4.4)
dt
and its acceleration:
dv
a(t) = = −ω 2A cos(ωt + φ) (4.5)
dt
We note that the maximum values of v and a are:

vmax = ωA amax = ω 2 A (4.6)

The maximum speed occurs in the middle of the oscillation. (The slope of x vs. t is greatest
in size when x = 0.) The magnitude of the acceleration is greatest at the ends of the
oscillation (when x = ±A).
Comparing Eq. 4.5 and Eq. 4.1 we see that

d2 x
= −ω 2 x (4.7)
dt2

which is the same as a(t) = −ω 2x(t). Using 4.1 and 4.4 and some trig we can also arrive at
a relation between the speed |v(t)| of the mass and its coordinate x(t):
q
|v(t)| = ωA| sin(ωt + φ)| = ωA 1 − cos2 (ωt + φ)
v
u !2
u x(t)
= ωA 1 −
t
. (4.8)
A

We could also arrive at this relation using energy conservation (as discussed below). Note,
if we are given x we can only give the absolute value of v since there are two possibilities for
velocity at each x (namely a ± pair).
4.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 71

k x

Figure 4.2: Mass m is attached to horizontal spring of force constant k; it slides on a frictionless surface!

4.1.2 Mass Attached to a Spring

Suppose a mass m is attached to the end of a spring of force constant k (whose other end is
fixed) and slides on a frictionless surface. This system is illustrated in Fig. 4.2. Then if we
measure the coordinate x of the mass from the place where it would be if the spring were at
its equilibrium length, Newton’s 2nd law gives

d2 x
Fx = −kx = max = m ,
dt2
and then we have
d2 x k
= − x. (4.9)
dt2 m
Comparing Eqs. 4.9 and 4.7 we can identify ω 2 with k
m
so that
s
k
ω= (4.10)
m
From the angular frequency ω we can find the period T and frequency f of the motion:
s
2π m 1 1 k
r
T = = 2π f= = (4.11)
ω k T 2π m
It should be noted that ω (and hence T and f) does not depend on the amplitude A
of the motion of the mass. In reality, of course if the motion of the mass is too large then
then spring will not obey Hooke’s Law so well, but as long as the oscillations are “small”
the period is the same for all amplitudes.

In the lab, it’s much easier to work with a mass bobbing up and down on a vertical
spring. One can (and should!) ask if we can still use the same formulae for T and f, or if
gravity (g) enters in somehow. In fact, the same formulae (Eq. 4.11) do apply in this case.
To be more clear about the vertical mass–spring system, we show such a system in
Fig. 4.3. In (a), the spring is oriented vertically and has some unstretched length. (We are
ignoring the mass of the spring.) When a mass m is attached to the end, the system will be
72 CHAPTER 4. OSCILLATORY MOTION

x
m
m

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.3: (a) Unstretched vertical spring of force constant k (assumed massless). (b) Mass attached to
spring is at equilibrium when the spring has been extended by a distance mg/k. (c) Mass will undergo small
oscillations about the new equilibrium position.

at equilibrium when the spring has been extended by some length y; balancing forces on the
mass, this extension is given by:
mg
ky = mg =⇒ y= .
k
When the mass is disturbed from its equilibrium position, it will undergo harmonic oscil-
lations which can be described by some coordinate x, where x is measured from the new
equilibrium position of the end of the spring. Then the motion is just like that of the
horizontal spring.

Finally, we note that for more precise work with a real spring–mass system one does need
to take into account the mass of the spring. If the spring has a total mass ms , one can show
that Eq. 4.10 should be modified to:
v
k
u
u
ω= t
ms (4.12)
m+ 3

That is, we replace the value of the mass m by m plus one–third the spring’s mass.

4.1.3 Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator

For the mass–spring system, the kinetic energy is given by
K = 12 mv 2 = 21 mω 2A2 sin2 (ωt + φ) (4.13)
and the potential energy is

U = 12 kx2 = 12 kA2 cos2(ωt + φ) . (4.14)

k
Using ω 2 = m
in 4.13 we then find that the total energy is
E = K + U = 21 kA2 [sin2 (ωt + φ) + cos2 (ωt + φ)]
4.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 73

and the trig identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 gives

E = 21 kA2 (4.15)

showing that the energy of the simple harmonic oscillator (as typified by a mass on a spring)
is constant and is equal to the potential energy of the spring when it is maximally extended
(at which time the mass is motionless).

It is useful to use the principle of energy conservation to derive some general relations for
1–dimensional harmonic motion. (We will not use the particular parameters for the mass–
spring system, just the quantities contained in Eq. 4.1, which describes the motion of a mass
m along the x axis. From Eq. 4.13 we have the kinetic energy as a function of time

K = 12 mv 2 = 21 mω 2A2 sin2 (ωt + φ)

Now the maximum value of the kinetic energy is 12 mω 2 A2, which occurs when x = 0. Since
we are free to fix the “zero–point” of the potential energy, we can agree that U(x) = 0 at
x = 0. Then the total energy of the system must be equal to the maximum (i.e. x = 0 value
of the kinetic energy:
E = 12 mω 2A2
Then using these expressions, the potential energy of the system is

U = E−K
= 21 mω 2 A2 − 21 mω 2A2 sin2(ωt + φ) = 21 mω 2 A2(1 − sin2 (ωt + φ))
= 12 mω 2 A2 cos2 (ωt + φ)
= 12 mω 2 x2

Of course, for the mass–spring system U is given by 21 kx2, which gives the relation mω 2 = k,
q
k
or ω = m , which we’ve already found. If we use the relation vmax = ωA then the potential
energy can be written as
2
mvmax
U(x) = 12 mω 2 x2 = 12 2
x2 (4.16)
A

4.1.4 Relation to Uniform Circular Motion

There is a correspondence between simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion,
which is illustrated in Fig. 4.4 (a) and (b). In (a) a mass point moves in a horizontal circular
path with uniform circular motion at a radius R (for example, it might be glued to the edge
of a spinning disk of radius R). Its angular velocity is ω, so its location is given by the
time–varying angle θ, where
θ(t) = ωt + φ
.
74 CHAPTER 4. OSCILLATORY MOTION

R
q(t)
x x
-R 0 +R

(a) (b)

Figure 4.4: (a) Mass point moves in a horizontal circle of radius R. The angular velocity of its motion is
ω. A guy with a big nose (seen from above) is observing the motion of the mass at the level of the circle.
He sees only the x coordinate of the point’s motion. (b) Motion of the mass as seen by the guy with the big
nose. The projection of the motion is the same as simple harmonic motion with angular frequency ω and
amplitude R.

Pivot I, M
q L d
q
CM
m

(a) (b)

Figure 4.5: (a) Simple pendulum. (b) Physical pendulum.

In 4.4 (b) we show the motion of the mass as it would be seen by someone looking
toward the +y direction at the level of the disk. Such an observer sees only the changing x
coordinate of the mass’s motion. Since x = R cos θ, the observed coordinate is

x(t) = R cos(θ(t)) = R cos(ωt + φ) ,

the same as Eq. 4.1. The motion of the corresponding (projected) harmonic oscillator has
an angular frequency of ω and an amplitude of R.

4.1.5 The Pendulum

We start with the simple pendulum, which has just a small mass m hanging from a string
of length L whose mass we can ignore. (See Fig. 4.5 (a).) The mass is set into motion so
4.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 75

that it moves in a vertical plane. One can show that if θ is the angle which the string makes
with the vertical, it obeys the differential equation:
d2 θ g
= − sin θ
dt2 L
One should note that this is not of the form given in Eq. 4.7.
Things are much simpler when we restrict θ to be “small” at all times. If that is the case,
then we can use the approximation sin θ ≈ θ, which is true if we are measuring θ in radians.
Then the differential equation becomes
d2 θ g
2
=− θ (4.17)
dt L
Comparison of this equation with Eq. 4.7 lets us identify the angular frequency of the
motion:
g
r
ω= (4.18)
L
s
2π L ω 1 g
r
T = = 2π f= = (4.19)
ω g 2π 2π L
The (perhaps) surprising thing about Eqs. 4.18 and 4.19 is that they have no dependence
on the mass suspended from the string or on the amplitude of the swing. . . as long as it is a
small angle!

θ(t) = θmax cos(ωt + φ) (4.20)

We must always keep our assumption of “small” θ in the back of our minds whenever we
do a problem with a pendulum. The formulae giving T and f become less accurate as θmax
gets too big.
An important generalization of the simple pendulum is that of a rigid body which is free
to rotate in a plane about some (frictionless!) pivot. Such a system is known as a physical
pendulum and is diagrammed in Fig. 4.5 (b).
Suppose we look at the line which joins the pivot to the center of mass of the object. If
θ is the angle which this line makes with the vertical, and if we again use the approximation
sin θ ≈ θ, one can show that it obeys the differential equation
d2 θ Mgd
2
=− θ (4.21)
dt I
where d is the distance between the pivot and the center of mass, M is the mass of the
object and I is the moment of inertia of the object about the given axis. (Note: the axis is
probably not at the center of mass; if it were, the mass wouldn’t oscillate!)
Following the usual procedure we find the period T :
s
2π I
T = = 2π (4.22)
ω Mgd
76 CHAPTER 4. OSCILLATORY MOTION

4.2 Worked Examples

4.2.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

1. The displacement of a particle at t = 0.25 s is given by the expression x =

(4.0 m) cos(3.0πt + π) where x is in meters and t is in seconds. Determine (a) the
frequency and period of the motion, (b) the amplitude of the motion, (c) the
phase constant, and (d) the displacement of the particle at t = 0.25 s. [Ser4 13-1]

(a) We compare the given function x(t) with the standard form for simple harmonic motion
given in Eq. 4.1. This gives us the angular frequency ω:
rad
ω = 3.0π s

and from this we can get the frequency and period:

ω 3.0π rad
s
f= = = 1.50 Hz
2π 2π
1 1
T = = = 0.667 s
f (1.50 s−1 )
(b) We easily read off the amplitude as the factor (a length) which multiplies the cosine
function:
A = 4.0 m

(c) Again, comparison with Eq. 4.1 gives

φ=π

(d) At t = 0.25 s the displacement (i.e. the coordinate) of the particle is:
x(0.25 s) = (4.0 m) cos((3.0π)(0.25) + π) = (4.0 m) cos((1.75)π)
= (4.0 m)(0.707) = 2.83 m

2. A loudspeaker produces a musical sound by means of the oscillation of a

diaphragm. If the amplitude of oscillation is limited to 1.0 × 10−3 mm, what fre-
quencies will result in the magnitude of the diaphragm’s acceleration exceeding
g? [HRW5 16-5]

We are given the amplitude of the diaphragm’s motion, A = 1.0×10−3 mm = 1.0×10−6 m.

From Eq. 4.6, the maximum value of the acceleration is amax = Aω 2. So then the angular
frequency that results in a maximum acceleration of g is
amax (9.8 sm2 )
ω2 = = = 9.8 × 106 s−2
A (1.0 × 10−6 m)
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 77

=⇒ ω = 3.1 × 103 s−1 .

This corresponds to a frequency of
ω (3.1 × 103 s−1 )
f= = = 5.0 × 102 Hz
2π 2π
At frequencies larger than 500 Hz, the acceleration of the diaphragm will exceed g.

3. The scale of a spring balance that reads from 0 to 15.0 kg is 12.0 cm long.
A package suspended from the balance is found to oscillate vertically with a
frequency of 2.00 Hz. (a) What is the spring constant? (b) How much does the
package weigh? [HRW5 16-6]

(a) The data in the problem tells us us that the spring within the balance increases in length
by 12.0 cm when a weight of

W = mg = (15.0 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) = 147 N

is pulls downward on its end. So the force constant of the spring must be
F (147 F) N
k= = = 1225 m
x (12 × 10−2 m)

(b) Eq. 4.11 we have the frequency of oscillation of the mass–spring system in terms of the
spring constant and the attached mass. We have the frequency and spring constant and we
can solve to get the mass of the package:
s
1 k k
f= =⇒ m=
2π m 4π 2 f 2
Plug in the numbers:
N
(1225 m )
m= = 7.76 kg
4π (2.00 s )2
2 −1

That’s the mass of the package; its weight is

W = mg = (7.76 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) = 76 N

4. In an electric shaver, the blade moves back and forth over a distance of 2.0 mm
in simple harmonic motion, with frequency 120 Hz. Find (a) the amplitude, (b)
the maximum blade speed, and (c) the magnitude of the maximum acceleration.
[HRW5 16-9]

(a) The problem states that the full distance that the blade travels on each back-and-forth
swing is 2.0 mm, but the full swing distance is twice the amplitude. So the amplitude of the
motion is A = 1.0 mm.
78 CHAPTER 4. OSCILLATORY MOTION

(b) From Eq. 4.6 we have the maximum speed of an oscillating mass in terms of the amplitude
and frequency:

vmax = ωA = 2πfA = 2π(120 s−1 )(1.0 × 10−3 m) = 0.75 ms

(c) From Eq. 4.6 we also have magnitude of the maximum acceleration of an oscillating mass
in terms of the amplitude and frequency:

amax = ω 2 A = (2πf)2 A = 4π 2 (120 s−1 )2 (1.0 × 10−3 m) = 570 sm2

5. The end of one of the prongs of a tuning fork that executes simple harmonic
motion of frequency 1000 Hz has an amplitude of 0.40 mm. Find (a) the maximum
acceleration and (b) the maximum speed of the end of the prong. Find (c)
the acceleration and (d) the speed of the end of the prong when the end has a
displacement of 0.20 mm [HWR5 16-22]

(a) Since we have the amplitude A of the prong’s motion, and we can easily find the angular
frequency ω:
ω = 2πf = 2π(1000 Hz) = 6.28 × 103 s−1
we can use Eq. 4.6 to find the maximum value of a:

amax = ω 2A = (6.28 × 103 s−1 )2 (0.400 × 10−3 m)

= 1.6 × 104 sm2

(b) Likewise, from the same equation we find the maximum speed of the prong’s tip:

vmax = ωA = (6.28 × 103 s−1 )(0.400 × 10−3 m)

= 2.5 ms

(c) Equation 4.7 relates the acceleration a and coordinate x at all times. When the dis-
placement of the prong’s tip is 0.20 mm (half of its maximum) we find

a = −ω 2 x = −(6.28 × 103 s−1 )2(0.20 × 10−3 m) = −7.9 × 103 m

s2

(d) We have already given a relation between |v| (speed) and x in Eq. 4.8. We use it here
to find the speed when x = 0.20 mm:
v
u !2
ux(t)
|v| = ωA 1 −t
A
s
2
0.20 mm

3 −1
= (6.28 × 10 s )(0.40 × 10 −3
m) 1 −
0.40 mm
= 2.2 ms
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 79

k m
Frictionless

M
Figure 4.6: Mass M is attached to a spring and oscillates on a frictionless surface. Another block of mass
m is on top!

4.2.2 Mass Attached to a Spring

6. A 7.00 − kg mass is hung from the bottom end of a vertical spring fastened to
an overhead beam. The mass is set into vertical oscillations having a period of
2.60 s. Find the force constant of the spring. [Ser4 13-11]

The formulae in Eq. 4.11 hold even if the mass–spring system oscillates vertically (just
as long as we can neglect the mass of the spring). Then we can solve for the force constant:

m 4π 2 m 4π 2 m
r
T = 2π =⇒ T2 = =⇒ k=
k k T2
and the numbers give us
4π 2(7.00 kg)
k= = 40.9 kg
s2
N
= 40.9 m .
(2.60 s)2
N
The force constant of the spring is 40.9 m .

N
7. Two blocks (m = 1.0 kg and M = 10 kg) and a spring (k = 200 m ) are arranged
on a horizontal, frictionless surface as shown in Fig. 4.6. The coefficient of static
friction between the two blocks is 0.40. What is the maximum possible amplitude
of simple harmonic motion of the spring–block system if no slippage is to occur
between the blocks? [HRW5 16-25]

We first look at what happens when the two blocks oscillate together. In that case it is
legal to regard the mass on the spring as a single mass whose value is M = M + m = 11.0 kg.
We know the spring constant, so using Eq. 4.10 the angular frequency of the motion is
s v
N
200 m
u
k u
ω= = t
= 4.26 s−1
M 11.0 kg
80 CHAPTER 4. OSCILLATORY MOTION

fs fs
m

mg
Figure 4.7: The forces acting on mass m in Example 7. (The force of static friction changes direction and
magnitude during the motion of mass m.)

During the motion, the large mass oscillates with this frequency and so does the small mass
since they move together. But note, the spring is attached only to the large mass; what is
making the small mass move back and forth? The answer is static friction.
We make a diagram of the forces which act on the small mass. This is shown in Fig. 4.7.
We have the force of gravity mg pointing down, the normal force N from the big block
pointing up and also the force of static friction fs , which can point either to the right or
to the left, depending on the current position of m during the oscillation! The magnitude
and direction of the static friction force fs are not constant; the value of fs depends on the
acceleration of the co-moving blocks (assuming there is no slipping so that they are indeed
co-moving).
There is no vertical motion of the small block so clearly

N = mg = (1.00 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) = 9.80 N .

But having the normal force (between the surfaces of the two blocks) we know the maximum
possible magnitude of the static friction force, namely:

fsmax = µs FN = µs mg

and since that is the only sideways force on mass m, from Newton’s 2nd Law, the maximum
possible magnitude of its acceleration — assuming no slipping — is
fsmax µs mg
ano−slip
max = = = µs g .
m m
Now, if the two blocks are moving together and oscillating with amplitude A, then the
maximum value of the acceleration is given by Eq. 4.6, namely amax = ω 2 A, which of course
will get larger if A gets larger. By equating this maximum acceleration of the motion to the
value we just found, we arrive at a condition on the maximum amplitude A such that no
slipping will occur:

ano−slip
max = ω 2 Amax =⇒ µs g = ω 2 Amax
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 81

which gives:
µs g (0.40)(9.80 sm2 )
Amax = = = 0.216 m
ω2 (4.26 s−1 )2

4.2.3 Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator

8. A particle executes simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of 3.00 cm. At

what displacement from the midpoint of its motion does its speed equal one half
of its maximum speed? [Ser4 13-23]

The maximum speed occurs in the center of the motion, where there is no potential
energy. So the total energy is given by
2
E = 21 mvmax

At the point(s) where v = 21 vmax the potential energy is not zero; rather it is given by

U = E − 21 mv 2
2
= 12 mvmax − 21 mv 2
vmax 2
 
1 2 1
= 2 mvmax − 2 m
2
1 1
 
2 2
= − mvmax = 83 mvmax
2 8
But we also have from Eq. 4.16 the result
2
mvmax
U(x) = 1
2
x2
A2
And combining these expressions gives the corresponding value of x:
2
1 mvmax 2 2
2 2
x = 38 mvmax
A
Solve for x:
√ √
3 3 3
x = A2
2
=⇒ x=± A=± (3.00 cm) = ±2.60 cm
4 2 2
The mass has half its maximum speed at x = ±2.60 cm.
The problem can also be worked just using Eqs. 4.1 and 4.4. The problem gives no data
about any specific value of t so we are free to choose φ = 0 for simplicity. Then

x(t) = A cos(ωt) and v(t) = −ωA sin(ωt) = −vmax sin(ωt)

82 CHAPTER 4. OSCILLATORY MOTION

and for the times t at which the speed of the mass is half the maximum value, we must have
the condition
sin(ωt) = ± 12 .
But when this is true we have

cos2 (ωt) = 1 − sin2 (ωt) = 1 − 1

4
= 3
4

or √
3
cos(ωt) = ±
2
and that gives √ √
3 3
x = ±A = ±(3.00 cm) = ±2.60 cm
2 2

4.2.4 The Simple Pendulum

9. A simple pendulum has a period of 2.50 s. (a) What is its length? (b) What
would its period be on the Moon, where gMoon = 1.67 sm2 ? [Ser4 13-25]

(a) Using Eq. 4.19 we solve for the length:

s
L L T 2g
T = 2π =⇒ T 2 = 4π 2 =⇒ L=
g g 4π 2

and the numbers give:

(2.50 s)2 (9.80 sm2 )
L= = 1.55 m
4π 2
The length of the pendulum is 1.55 m.
(b) If we take this pendulum to the Moon, its length will be the same, but the acceleration
of gravity will be different. Using the new value of g in Eq. 4.19 we find
s v
L u (1.55 m)
u
TMoon = 2π = 2π t = 6.06 s
gMoon (1.67 sm2 )

The pendulum’s period on the Moon is 6.06 s.

10. If a simple pendulum with length 1.50 m makes 72.0 oscillations in 180 s, what
is the acceleration of gravity at its location? [HRW5 16-59]

We find the frequency f of this pendulum:

72.0
f= = 0.400 Hz
180 s
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 83

qmax
L cos qmax
L

2.06 m/s
(a) (b)

Figure 4.8: (a) Pendulum starts with speed 2.06 ms at the bottom of the swing. (b) It attains a maximum
angular displacement θmax .

Then from Eq. 4.19 we can solve for the value of g:

1 g g
r
f= =⇒ (2πf)2 = =⇒ g = 4π 2 f 2 L
2π L L
Plug in the numbers:
g = 4π 2 (0.400 s−1 )2(1.50 m) = 9.47 sm2
The acceleration of gravity at this location is 9.47 sm2 .

11. A simple pendulum having a length of 2.23 m and a mass of 6.74 kg is given
an initial speed of 2.06 ms at its equilibrium position. Assume it undergoes sim-
ple harmonic motion and determine its (a) period, (b) total energy, and (c)
maximum angular displacement. [Ser4 13-59]

The problem is diagrammed in Fig. 4.8 (a).

I will answer the parts of this question in a different order; one reason for this is that
part (c) (maximum value of θ) can clearly be found using energy conservation. Finding the
maximum angular displacement will then give the period.
First off, if we measure height from the bottom of the pendulum’s swing, then in its
initial position it has no potential energy but a kinetic energy equal to

K = 12 mv 2 = 12 (6.74 kg)(2.06 ms )2 = 14.3 J

so the total energy of the system is 14.3 J.

Now when the mass reaches its maximum angular displacement (say, θmax) it is at a
height
ymax = L − L cos θmax = L(1 − cos θmax) .
At that time all of the energy of the particle is potential energy and using energy conserva-
tion, we can solve for θmax :

E = mgymax = mgL(1 − cos θmax) = 14.3 J

84 CHAPTER 4. OSCILLATORY MOTION

(14.3 J) (14.3 J)
(1 − cos θmax) = = = 9.71 × 10−2
mgL (6.74 kg(9.80 sm2 )(2.23 m)
cos θmax = 1 − 9.71 × 10−2 = 9.03 × 10−1
θmax = 25.4◦ = 0.444 rad
This is the exact answer for θmax . Now, one might wonder if 25.4◦ is small enough so that
our calculation of the period of the motion is very accurate, but we forge on anyway!
Now, we are given the linear speed at the bottom of the swing, but the pendulum’s
(harmonic) motion has to do with its angle. We need to relate the two.
From Eq. 1.10 we can get the angular velocity of the mass at the bottom of the swing:
(2.06 ms )
!
dθ v0
= = = 0.924 rad
s
dt 0
L (2.23 m)

But from 4.20 we have θ(t) = θmax cos(ωt + φ) so that the angular velocity of the pendulum
at all times is
dθ
= −ωθmax cos(ωt + φ)
dt
so that the maximum angular speed (namely at the bottom of the swing) is
!
dθ
= ωθmax
dt max

and this is the same as the 0.924 rad

s
found above. So we can get ω:

(0.924 rad
!
dθ rad )
= 0.924 s
= ωθmax =⇒ ω= s
= 2.08 rad
s
dt max
(0.444 rad)

(It is true that the units don’t look right on that last one, but keep in mind that “radian”
is really dimensionless.)
Having ω, the angular frequency of the pendulum’s oscillations, we go on to get the
period:
2π
T = = 3.02 s
ω
Summing up what problem asked for, we have:

(a) T = 3.02 s (b) E = 14.3 J (c) θmax = 0.444 rad

4.2.5 Physical Pendulums

12. A physical pendulum in the form of a planar body moves in simple harmonic
motion with a frequency of 0.450 Hz. If the pendulum has a mass of 2.20 kg and
the pivot is located 0.350 m from the center of mass, determine the moment of
inertia of the pendulum. [Ser4 13-33]
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 85

From Eq. 4.22 we have an expression for the frequency of a “physical pendulum”:
s
1 1 Mgd
f= =
T 2π I
We have all the values that we need to solve for I:
Mgd Mgd
f2 = =⇒ I=
4π 2I 4π 2 f 2
Plug in the numbers:

(2.20 kg)(9.80 sm2 )(0.350 m)

I= = 0.944 kg · m2
4π 2(0.450 s−1 )2

13. A thin disk of mass 5 kg and radius 20 cm is suspended by a horizontal axis

perpendicular to the disk through the rim. The disk is displaced slightly from
equilibrium and released. Find the period of the subsequent simple harmonic
motion. [Tip4 14-57]

We need to find the moment of inertia of the disk when it rotates around an axis at the
rim of the disk. For this, we use the Parallel Axis Theorem of Chapter 1. With ICM given
by ICM = 21 MR2 and recognizing that in this problem, the axis has been shifted a distance
D = R away from the center of mass, we find:

I = ICM + MD2 = 12 MR2 + MR2 = 23 MR2

Then we can find the period of the oscillatory motion from Eq. 4.22. Note, the distance of
the axis from the center of mass (called D in that formula) is R:
v v
s u3 s
I u MR2 3R u 3(0.20 m)
u
t2
T = 2π = 2π = 2π = 2π t = 1.1 s
Mgd MgR 2g 2(9.80 sm2 )

The period of this pendulum is 1.1 s. Interestingly enough, the answer did not depend on
the mass of the disk.
86 CHAPTER 4. OSCILLATORY MOTION
Chapter 2

Electric Fields

2.1 The Important Stuff

2.1.1 The Electric Field
Suppose we have a point charge q0 located at r and a set of external charges conspire so as
to exert a force F on this charge. We can define the electric field at the point r by:
F
E= (2.1)
q0

The (vector) value of the E field depends only on the values and locations of the external
charges, because from Coulomb’s law the force on any “test charge” q0 is proportional to the
value of the charge. However to make this definition really kosher we have to stipulate that
the test charge q0 is “small”; otherwise its presence will significantly influence the locations
of the external charges.
Turning Eq. 2.1 around, we can say that if the electric field at some point r has the value
E then a small charge placed at r will experience a force

F = q0 E (2.2)
N
The electric field is a vector . From Eq. 2.1 we can see that its SI units must be C .
It follows from Coulomb’s law that the electric field at point r due to a charge q located
at the origin is given by
q
E = k 2 r̂ (2.3)
r
where r̂ is the unit vector which points in the same direction as r.

2.1.2 Electric Fields from Particular Charge Distributions

• Electric Dipole
An electric dipole is a pair of charges of opposite sign (±q) separated by a distance d
which is usually meant to be small compared to the distance from the charges at which we

17
18 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS

E
E

r r

q q
(a) (b)

Figure 2.1: The E field due to a point charge q. (a) If the charge q is positive, the E field at some point
a distance r away has magnitude k|q|/r 2 and points away from the charge. (b) If the charge q is negative,
the E field has magnitude k|q|/r 2 and points toward the charge.

want to find the electric field. The product qd turns out to be important; the vector which
points from the −q charge to the +q charge and has magnitude qd is known as the electric
dipole moment for the pair, and is denoted p.
Suppose we form an electric dipole by placing a charge +q at (0, 0, d/2) and a charge
−q at (0, 0, −d/2). (So the dipole moment p has magnitude p = qd and points in the +k
direction.) One can show that when z is much larger than d, the electric field for points on
the z axis is
1 p 2qd
Ez = 3
=k 3 (2.4)
2π0 z z

• “Line” of Charge
A linear charge distribution is characterized by its charger per unit length. Linear
charge density is usually given the symbol λ; for an arclength ds of the distribution, the
electric charge is
dq = λds

For a ring of charge with radius R and total charge q, for a point on the axis of the ring
a distance z from the center, the magnitude of the electric field (which points along the z
axis) is
qz
E= (2.5)
4π0 (z + r2 )3/2
2

• Charged Disk & Infinite Sheet

A two-dimensional (surface) distribution of charge is characterized by its charge per unit
area. Surface charge density is usually given the symbol σ; for an area element dA of the
distribution, the electric charge is
dq = σdA

For a disk or radius R and uniform charge density σ on its surface, for a point on the axis
of the disk at a distance z away from the center, the magnitude of the electric field (which
points along the z axis) is !
σ z
E= 1− √ 2 (2.6)
20 z + r2
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 19

The limit R −→ ∞ of Eq. 2.6 gives the magnitude of the E field at a distance z from an
infinite sheet of charge with charge density σ. The result is
σ
E= (2.7)
20

2.1.3 Forces on Charges in Electric Fields

An isolated charge q in an electric field experiences a force F = qE. We note that when q is
positive the force points in the same direction as the field, but when q is negative, the force
is opposite the field direction!
The potential energy of a point charge in an E field will be discussed at great length in
chapter 4!
When an electric dipole p is place in a uniform E field, it experiences no net force, but
it does experience a torque. The torque is given by:

τ =p×E (2.8)

The potential energy of a dipole also depends on its orientation, and is given by:

U = −p · E (2.9)

2.1.4 Electric Field Lines

Oftentimes it is useful for us to get an overall visual picture of the electric field due to a
particular distribution of charge. It is useful make a plot where the little arrows represent-
ing the direction of the electric field at each point are joined together, forming continuous
(directed) “lines”. These are the electric field lines for the charge distribution.
Such a plot will tell us the basic direction of the electric field at all points in space (though
we do lose information about the magnitude of the field when we join the arrows). One can
show that:
• Electric field lines originate on positive charges (they point away from the positive
charge) and end on negative charges (they point toward the negative charge).
• Field lines cannot cross one another.
Whereas a diagram of field lines can contain as many lines as you please, for an accurate
representation of the field the number of lines originating from a charge should be proportional
to the charge.

2.2 Worked Examples

2.2.1 The Electric Field
20 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS

Felec = qE
E
q = 24 mC

mg

Figure 2.2: Forces acting on the charged mass in Example 1.

1. An object having a net charge of 24 µC is placed in a uniform electric field

of 610 N
C
directed vertically. What is the mass of this object if it “floats” in the
field? [Ser4 23-16]

The forces acting on the mass are shown in Fig. 2.2. The force of gravity points downward
and has magnitude mg (m is the mass of the object) and the electrical force acting on the
mass has magnitude F = |q|E, where q is the charge of the object and E is the magnitude
of the electric field. The object “floats”, so the net force is zero. This gives us:
|q|E = mg
Solve for m:
|q|E (24 × 10−6 C)(610 N
C
)
m= = m = 1.5 × 10−3 kg
g (9.80 s2 )
The mass of the object is 1.5 × 10−3 kg = 1.5 g.

2. An electron is released from rest in a uniform electric of magnitude 2.00×104 N

C
.
Calculate the acceleration of the electron. (Ignore gravitation.) [HRW6 23-29]

The magnitude of the force on a charge q in an electric field is given by F = |qE|, where E
is the magnitude of the field. The magnitude of the electron’s charge is e = 1.602 × 10−19 C,
so the magnitude of the force on the electron is
F = |qE| = (1.602 × 10−19 C)(2.00 × 104 C
N
) = 3.20 × 10−15 N
Newton’s 2nd law relates the magnitudes of the force and acceleration: F = ma, so the
acceleration of the electron has magnitude
F (3.20 × 10−15 N)
a= = = 3.51 × 1015 m
s2
m (9.11 × 10−31 kg)
That’s the magnitude of the electron’s acceleration. Since the electron has a negative charge
the direction of the force on the electron (and also the acceleration) is opposite the direction
of the electric field.
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 21

+q +

a P

+ a +
+2.0q +q

Figure 2.3: Charge configuration for Example 4.

3. What is the magnitude of a point charge that would create an electric field of
1.00 N
C
at points 1.00 m away? [HRW6 23-4]

From Eq. 2.3, the magnitude of the E field due to a point charge q at a distance r is
given by
|q|
E=k 2
r
Here we are given E and r, so we can solve for |q|:

Er2 (1.00 NC
)(1.00 m)2
|q| = = 2

k 8.99 × 109 N·m2
C

= 1.11 × 10−10 C

The magnitude of the charge is 1.11 × 10−10 C.

4. Calculate the direction and magnitude of the electric field at point P in

Fig. 2.3, due to the three point charges. [HRW6 23-12]

Since each of the three charges is positive they give electric fields at P pointing away
from the charges. This is shown in Fig. 2.4, where the charges are individually numbered
along with their (vector!) E–field contributions.
We note that charges 1 and 2 have the same magnitude and are both at the same
distance from P . So the E–field vectors for these charges shown in Fig. 2.4(being in opposite
directions) must cancel. So we are left with only the contribution from charge 3.
We know the direction for this vector; it is 45◦ above the x axis. To find its magnitude
we note that the distance of this charge from P is half the length of the square’s diagonal,
or: √ a
r = 12 ( 2a) = √
2
and so the magnitude is
2q 2kq 4kq
E3 = k 2 = √ = 2 .
r (a/ 2) a
22 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS

1
+q +

2 3

P
1

3 2
+ +
+2.0q +q

Figure 2.4: Directions for the contributions to the E field at P due to the three positive charges in
Example 4.

+q + a - -2.0q

a a

-q - a + +2.0q

Figure 2.5: Charge configuration for Example 5.

So the electric field at P has magnitude

4kq 4q q
Enet = = =
a2 (4π0 )a2 π0a2
and points at an angle of 45◦ .

5. What are the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the center of
the square of Fig. 2.5 if q = 1.0 × 10−8 C and a = 5.0 cm? [HRW6 23-13]

The center of the square is equidistant from all the charges. This distance r is half the
diagonal of the square, hence
√ a (5.0 cm)
r = 12 ( 2a) = √ = √ = 3.55 × 10−2 m
2 2
Then we can find the magnitudes of the contributions to the E field from each of the charges.
The charges of magnitude q have contributions of magnitude
q N·m2 (1.0 × 10−8 C)
E1.0q = k = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 7.13 × 104 N
C
r2 (3.55 × 10−2 m)2
The charges of magnitude 2.0q contribute with fields of twice this magnitude, namely
E2.0q = 2E1.0q = 1.43 × 105 N
C
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 23

+q + a - -2.0q +q + a - -2.0q +q + a - -2.0q +q + a - -2.0q

a a a a a a a a

-q - a + +2.0q -q - a + +2.0q -q - a + +2.0q -q - a + +2.0q

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2.6: Directions of E field√ at the center of the square due to three of the corner charges. (a) Upper
left charge is at distance r = a/ 2 from the center (as are the other charges). E field due to this charge
points away from charge, in −45◦ direction. (b) E field due to upper right charge points toward charge, in
+45◦ direction. (c) E field due to lower left charge points toward charge, in +225◦ direction. (d) E field due
to lower left charge points away from charge, in +135◦ direction.

The directions of the contributions to the total E field are shown in Fig. 2.6(a)–(d). The E
field due to the upper left charge points away from charge, which is in −45◦ direction (as
measured from the +x axis, as usual. The E field due to upper right charge points toward
the charge, in +45◦ direction. The E field due to lower left charge points toward that charge,
in 180◦ + 45◦ = +225◦ direction. Finally, E field due to lower right charge points away from
charge, in 180◦ − 45◦ = +135◦ direction.
So we now have the magnitudes and directions of four vectors. Can we add them together?
Sure we can!
ETotal = (7.13 × 104 N
C
)(cos(−45◦ )i + sin(−45◦ )j)
+ (1.43 × 105 N
C
)(cos(+45◦ )i + sin(45◦ )j)
+ (7.13 × 104 N
C
)(cos(225◦ )i + sin(225◦ )j)
+ (1.43 × 105 N
C
)(cos(+135◦ )i + sin(135◦ )j)
(I know, this is the clumsy way of doing it, but I’ll get to that.) The sum gives:
ETotal = 0.0i + (1.02 × 105 N
C
)j
N
So the magnitude of ETotal is 1.02 × 105 C and it points in the +y direction.
This particular problem can be made easier by noting the cancellation of the E’s con-
tributed by the charges on opposite corners of the square. For example, a +q charge in the
upper left and a +2.0q charge in the lower right is equivalent to a single charge +q in the
lower right (as far as this problem is concerned).

2.2.2 Electric Fields from Particular Charge Distributions

6. Electric Quadrupole Fig. 2.7 shows an electric quadrupole. It consists of two

dipole moments that are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Show
that the value of E on the axis of the quadrupole for points a distance z from its
center (assume z  d) is given by
3Q
E= ,
4π0 z 4
24 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS

z
d d

+q -q -q +q P

-p +p

Figure 2.7: Charges forming electric quadrupole in Example 6.

in which Q (defined by Q ≡ 2qd2 ) is known as the quadrupole moment of the charge

distribution. [HRW6 23-17]

We note that as the problem is given we really have three separate charges in this con-
figuration: A charge −2q at the origin, a charge +q at z = −d and a charge +q at z = +d.
(Again, see Fig. 2.7.)
We are assuming that q is positive; for now let us also assume that the point P (for which
we want the electric field) is located on the z axis at some positive value of z, as indicated
in Fig. 2.7. We will now find the contribution to the electric field at P for each of the three
charges.
The center charge (−2q) lies at a distance z from the point P . So then the magnitude of
the E field due to this charge is k 2q
z2
, but since the charge is negative the field points toward
the charge, which in this case in the −z direction. So then the contribution Ez (at point P )
by the center charge is
2q
Ez(center) = −k 2
z
The charge on the left (+q) lies at a distance z + d from the point P . So then the
q
magnitude of the E field due to this charge is k (z+d) 2 . Since this charge is positive, this field

points away from the charge, namely in the +z direction. So the contribution to Ez by the
left charge is
q
Ez(left) = +k
(z + d)2
The charge on the right (+q) lies at a distance z − d from the point P . The magnitude of
q
the field due to this charge is k (z−d) 2 and this charge is also positive so we get a contribution

q
Ez(right) = +k
(z − d)2

The field at point P is the sum of the three contributions. We factor out kq from each
term to get: " #
2 1 1
Ez = kq − 2 + + .
z (z + d)2 (z − d)2
At this point we are really done with the physics of the problem; the rest of the work is
doing the mathematical steps to get a simpler (approximate) expression for Ez .
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 25

We can remove a factor of z 2 from the denominator of each term. We choose z because
it is much larger than d and later this will allow us to use the binomial expansion. We get:
 
2 1 1
Ez = kq − +  2 +
 
2 2 
z

d d
z2 1 + z z2 1 − z
 
kq  1 1
= −2 +  2 + 

2
2 
z 1 + dz 1 − zd
 !−2 !−2 
kq d d
= 2 −2 + 1 + + 1−  (2.10)
z z z

At this point the expression for Ez is exact, but it is useful to get an approximate
expression for the case where z is much larger than the size of the quadrupole: z  d. For
this we can make use of the binomial expansion (another name for the Taylor expansion of
(1 + x)n about x = 0):

nx n(n − 1)x2 n(n − 1)(n − 2)x3

(1 + x)n = 1 + + + + ··· valid for x2 < 1
1! 2! 3!
The formula is especially useful when x is small in absolute value; then the first several
terms of the expansion will give a good approximation. We will use the binomial expansion
to simplify our last expression by associating ± dz with x (because it is small), using n = −2,
and just to be safe, we’ll use the first three terms. This give us the approximations:
!−2 ! !2 !2
d d 6 d 2d d
1+ ≈1−2 + =1− +3
z z 2 z z z
!−2 ! !2 !2
d d 6 d 2d d
1− ≈1+2 + = 1+ +3
z z 2 z z z
Now putting these results into Eq. 2.10 we find:
 !2 !2 
kq 2d d 2d d
Ez ≈ 2 −2 + 1 − +3 +1+ +3 
z z z z z
 !2 
kq  d
= 6 
z2 z
6kqd2
=
z4
1
Using the definition Q ≡ 2qd2 , and also k = 4π0
we can also write this result as

3kQ 3Q
Ez = = .
z4 4π0z 4
26 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS

-e z
0 m

Figure 2.8: Electron oscillates on z axis through center of charged ring or radius R and total charge q, as
in Example 7.

7. An electron is constrained to the central axis of the ring of charge with radius
R and total charge q. Show that the electrostatic force exerted on the electron
can cause it to oscillate through the center of the ring with an angular frequency
s
eq
ω= ,
4π0mR3
where m is the electron’s mass. [HRW6 23-19]

A picture of this problem is given in Fig. 2.8; included is the electron which oscillates
through the center. For this to happen, the charge q must be positive so that the electron is
always attracted back to the ring (i.e. the force is restoring.)
From Eq. 2.5 we have the magnitude of the E field for points on the axis of the ring
(which we will call the z axis, with its origin at the center of the ring):
q|z|
E=
4π0 (z 2 + R2 )3/2
Note, we need an absolute value sign on the coordinate z to get a positive magnitude. Now,
the E field points along the ±z axis; when z is positive it goes in the +z direction and when
z is negative it goes in the −z direction. So the z component of the electric field which the
electron “sees” at coordinate z is in fact
qz
Ez =
4π0(z + R2 )3/2
2

From Eq. 2.2 we get force on the electron as it moves on the z axis:
−eqz
Fz = (−e)Ez = (2.11)
4π0(z 2 + R2 )3/2
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 27

This expression for the force on the electron is rather messy; it is a restoring force since its
direction is opposite the displacement of the electron from the center, but it is not linear ,
that is, it is not simply proportional to z. (Our work on harmonic motion assumed a
linear restoring force.) We will assume that the oscillations are small in the sense that the
maximum value of |z| is much smaller than R. If that is true, then in the denominator of
Eq. 2.11 we can approximate:
 3/2
(z 2 + R2 )3/2 ≈ R2 = R3

Making this replacement in Eq. 2.11, we find:

−eqz eq
 
Fz ≈ 3
=− z
4π0R 4π0R3
This is a force “law” which just like the Hooke’s Law, Fz = −kz with the role of the spring
constant k being played by
eq
k⇔ (2.12)
4π0R3
By analogy with the harmonic motion of a mass m on the q end of a spring of force
k
constant k, where the result for the angular frequency was ω = m , using Eq. 2.12 we find
that angular frequency for the electron’s motion is
s
eq
ω=
4π0R3 m

8. A thin nonconducting rod of finite length L has a charge q spread uniformly

along it. Show that the magnitude E of the electric field at point P on the
perpendicular bisector of the rod (see Fig. 2.9) is given by
q 1
E= .
2π0y (L + 4y 2)1/2
2

[HRW6 23-24]

We first set up a coordinate system with which to do our calculation. Let the origin be
at the center of the rod and let the x axis extend along the rod. In this system, the point P
is located at (0, y) and the ends of the rod are at (−L/2, 0) and (+L/2, 0).
If the charge q is spread uniformly over the rod, then it has a linear charge density of
q
λ= .
L
Then if we take a section of the rod of length dx, it will contain a charge λdx.
Next, we consider how a tiny bit of the rod will contribute to the electric field at P . This
is shown in Fig. 2.10. We consider a piece of the rod of length dx, centered at the coordinate
28 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS

+ + + + + + + +
L

Figure 2.9: Charged rod and geometry for Example 8.

dE q
P

q
y r

x
dx

Figure 2.10: An element of the rod of length dx located at x gives a contribution to the electric field at
point P .
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 29

x. This element is small enough that we can treat it as a point charge. . . and we know how
to find the electric field due to a point charge.
The distance of this small piece from the point P is
q
r= x2 + y 2

and the amount of electric charge contained in the piece is

dq = λdx

Therefore the electric charge in this little bit of the rod gives an electric field of magnitude
dq kλdx
dE = k 2
= 2
r (x + y 2)
This little bit of electric field dE points at an angle θ away from the y axis, as shown in
Fig. 2.10.
Eventually we will have to add up all the little bits of electric field dE due to each little
bit of the rod. In doing so we will be adding vectors and so we will need the components of
the dE’s. As can be seen from Fig. 2.10, the components are:
kλdx kλdx
dEx = dE sin θ = − sin θ and dEy = cos θ dE = cos θ (2.13)
(x2 + y 2) (x2 + y 2 )
Also, some basic trigonometry gives us:
x x y y
sin θ = = 2 cos θ = = 2
r (x + y 2)1/2 r (x + y 2)1/2
Using these in Eqs. 2.13 gives:
kxλdx kyλdx
dEx = − dEy = (2.14)
(x2+ y 2)3/2 (x2+ y 2 )3/2
The next step is to add up all the individual dEx ’s and dEy ’s. The result for the sum of
the dEx ’s is easy: It must be zero! By considering all of the little bits of the rod, we can see
that dEx will be positive just as often as it is negative, and when the sum is taken the result
is zero. (We sometimes say that this result follows “from symmetry”.) The same is not true
for the dEy ’s; they are always positive and we will have to do some work to add them up.
Eq. 2.14 gives the contribution to Ey arising from an element of length dx centered on x.
The bits of the rod extend from x = −L/2 to x = +L/2, so to get the sum of all the little
bits we do the integral:
kyλdx
Z Z +L/2
Ey = dEy = (2.15)
rod −L/2 (x2 + y 2 )3/2

Eq. 2.15 gives the result for the E field at P (which is what the problem asks for) so
we are now done with the physics of the problem. All that remains is some mathematics to
work out the integral in Eq. 2.15.
30 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS

First, since k, λ and y are constants as far as the integral is concerned, they can be taken
outside the integral sign:
1
Z +L/2
Ey = kyλ dx
−L/2 (x + y 2 )3/2
2

The integral here is not difficult; it can be looked up in a table or evaluated by computer.
We find:
+L
x 2
Ey = kλy 2√ 2
y x + y2 − L
2

Evaluate!
 
L/2 (−L/2)

 

Ey = kλy  1/2 −  1/2 
 y2 L2 L2
+ y2 y2 + y2
 
4 4
L
= kλy  1/2
L2
y2 4
+ y2
1
We can cancel a factor of y; also, make the replacements k = 4π0
and λ = q/L. This gives:

1 q L
Ey =
4π0 L y L + y 2 1/2
 2 
4
q 1
=
4π0 y L + y 2 1/2
 2 
4

We’re getting close! We can make the expression look a little neater by pulling a factor
1
of out of the parentheses in the denominator. Use:
4
!1/2
L2 1 2 1/2
+ y2 = L + 4y 2
4 2

in our last expression and finally get:

q 2
Ey =
4π0 y (L2 + 4y 2)1/2
q 1
=
2π0y (L2 + 4y 2 )1/2

Since at point P , E has no x component, the magnitude of the E field is

q 1
E=
2π0y (L2 + 4y 2 )1/2

(and the field points in the +y direction for positive q.)

2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 31

12 cm
s = 5.3 mC/m2

2.5 cm

Figure 2.11: Geometry for Example 9.

µC
9. A disk of radius 2.5 cm has a surface charge density of 5.3 m 2 on its upper face.

What is the magnitude of the electric field produced by the disk at a point on
its central axis at distance z = 12 cm from the disk? [HRW6 23-26]

The geometry for this problem is shown in Fig. 2.11. Here we do have a formula we can
µC
use, Eq. 2.6. With r = 2.5 × 10−2 m, σ = 5.3 m2 and z = 12 × 10
−2
m we find:
!
σ z
E = 1− √ 2
20 z + r2
 
(5.3 µC
m2
) (12 × 10−2 m)
= 
C2
 1 − q 
2 8.85 × 10−12 N·m2 (12 × 10−2 m)2 + (2.5 × 10−2 m)2
= 629 N
C

At the given point, the E field has magnitude 629 N

C
and points away from the disk.

2.2.3 Forces on Charges in Electric Fields

10. An electron and a proton are each placed at rest in an electric field of 520 N/C.
Calculate the speed of each particle 48 ns after being released. [Ser4 23-44]

Consider the electron. From F = qE, and the fact that the magnitude of the electron’s
charge is 1.60 × 10−19 C, the magnitude of the force on the electron is

F = |q|E = (1.60 × 10−19 C)(520 N/C) = 8.32 × 10−17 N

and since the mass of the electron is me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg, from Newton’s 2nd Law, the
magnitude of its acceleration is

F (8.32 × 10−17 N)
a= = = 9.13 × 1013 m
s2
me (9.11 × 10−31 kg)
32 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS

Since the electron starts from rest (v0 = 0), we have v = at and so the magnitude of its
velocity 48 ns after being released is

v = at = (9.13 × 1013 m
s2
)(48 × 10−9 s) = 4.4 × 106 m
s
.

So the final speed of the electron is 4.4 × 106 ms .

We do a similar calculation for the proton; the only difference is its larger mass. Since
the magnitude of the proton’s charge is the same as that of the electron, the magnitude of
the force will be the same:
F = 8.32 × 10−17 N
But as the proton mass is 1.67 × 10−27 kg, its acceleration has magnitude
F (8.32 × 10−17 N)
a= = = 4.98 × 1010 m
s2
m (1.67 × 10−27 kg)
And then the magnitude of the velocity 48 ns after being released is

v = at = (4.98 × 1010 m
s2
)(48 × 10−9 s) = 2.4 × 103 m
s
.
m
So the proton’s final speed is 2.4 × 103 s
.

11. Beams of high–speed protons can be produced in “guns” using electric fields
to accelerate the protons. (a) What acceleration would a proton experience if
N
the gun’s electric field were 2.00× 104 C ? (b) What speed would the proton attain
if the field accelerated the proton through a distance of 1.00 cm? [HRW6 23-35]

(a) The proton has charge +e = 1.60 × 10−19 C so in the given (uniform) electric field, the
force on the protons has magnitude

F = |q|E = eE = (1.60 × 10−19 C)(2.00 × 104 N

C
) = 3.20 × 10−15 N

Then we use Newton’s second law to get the magnitude of the protons’ acceleration. Using
the mass of the proton, mp = 1.67 × 10−27 kg,

F (3.20 × 10−15 N)
a= = = 1.92 × 1012 m
s2
mp (1.67 × 10 kg)
−27

(b) The protons start from rest (this is assumed) and move in one dimension, accelerating
with ax = 1.92 × 1012 sm2 . If they move through a displacement x − x0 = 1.00 cm, then one of
our favorite equations of one–dimensional kinematics gives us:
m2
vx2 = vx0
2
+ 2ax (x − x0) = 02 + 2(1.92 × 1012 m
s2
)(1.00 × 10−2 m) = 3.83 × 1010 s2

so that the final velocity (and speed) is

vx = 1.96 × 105 m
s
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 33

Felec

E
Mg
E = 462 N/C

Figure 2.12: Forces acting on the water drop in Example 12.

12. A spherical water drop 1.20 µm in diameter is suspended in calm air owing
N
to a downward–directed atmospheric electric field E = 462 C . (a) What is the
weight of the drop? (b) How many excess electrons does it have? [HRW5 23-49]

(a) Not much physics for this part. The volume of the drop is

V = 43 πR3 = 43 π(1.20 × 10−6 ) m3 = 9.05 × 10−19 m3

kg
Assuming that the density of the drop is the usual density of water, ρ = 1.00 × 103 m3
, we
can get the mass of the drop from M = ρV . Then the weight of the drop is
kg
W = Mg = ρV g = (1.00 × 103 m3
)(9.05 × 10−19 m3 )(9.80 sm2 ) = 8.87 × 10−15 N

(b) The forces acting on the water drop are as shown in Fig. 2.12, namely gravity with mag-
nitude Mg directed downward and the electric force with magnitude Felec = |q|E, directed
upward. Here, E is the magnitude of the electric field and |q| is the magnitude of the charge
on the drop. The net force on the drop is zero, and so this allows us to solve for |q|:
Mg
Felec = |q|E = Mg =⇒ |q| =
E
Plug in the weight W = Mg found in part (a) and the given value of the E:

Mg (8.87 × 10−15 N)
|q| = = = 1.92 × 10−17 C
E (462 N
C
)

We know that the drop has a negative charge (electric field points down, but the electric
force points up) so that the charge on the drop is

q = −1.92 × 10−17 C .
34 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS

positive negative
plate plate

p
e

Figure 2.13: Proton and electron are released at the same time and move in opposite directions in a
uniform electric field, as given in Example 13.

p e
ap ae
x

0 D
Figure 2.14: Coordinates for the motion of proton and electron in Example 13.

This negative charge comes from an accumulation of electrons on the water drop. The
charge of one electron is qe = −1.60 × 10−19 C. So the number of electrons on the drop must
be
(−1.92 × 10−17 C)
N= = 120
(−1.60 × 10−19 C)
The drop has 120 excess electrons.

13. Two large parallel copper plates are 5.0 cm apart and have a uniform electric
field between them as depicted in Fig. 2.13. An electron is released from the
negative plate at the same time that a proton is released from the positive plate.
Neglect the force of the particles on each other and find their distance from the
positive plate when they pass each other. (Does it surprise you that you need
not know the electric field to solve this problem? [HRW6 23-41]

We organize our work by setting up coordinates; we suppose that the proton and electron
both move along the x axis, as shown in Fig. 2.14 (though we ignore the force they exert on
each other). If the distance between the plates is D = 5.0 cm then the proton starts off at
x = 0 and the electron starts off at x = D. The proton will accelerate in the +x direction
and the electron will accelerate in the −x direction.
The charge of the proton is +e. The electric field between the plates points in the +x
direction and has magnitude E. Then the force on the proton has magnitude eE and by
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 35

eE
Newton’s second law the magnitude of the proton’s acceleration is mp
, where mp is the mass
of the proton. Then the x−acceleration of the proton is
eE
ax,p =
mp

and since the proton starts from rest, its position is given by

1 eE 2
xp = 2
t (2.16)
mp

The charge of the electron is −e. Then the force on the electron will have magnitude eE
eE
and point in the −x direction. The magnitude of the electron’s acceleration is m e
, where me
is the mass of the electron, but the electron’s acceleration points in the −x direction. Then
the x−acceleration of the electron is
eE
ax,e = −
mp

and since the electron starts from rest and is initially at x = D, its position is given by

1 eE 2
xe = D − 2
t (2.17)
me
Clearly, there is some time at which xp and xe are equal. This happens when

1 eE 2 eE 2
2
t = D − 12 t
mp me

A little bit of algebra will allow us to solve for t. Regroup some terms:

1 eE 2 1 eE 2
2
t +2 t =D
mp me
!
1 1
1
2
eEt2 + =D
mp me
!−1
2 2D 1 1
t = + (2.18)
eE mp me
Taking the square root to get t is not necessary because we want to plug t back into either
one of the equations for the coordinates to find the value of x at which the meeting occurred,
and both of those equations contain t2. Putting 2.18 into 2.16 we find:

1 eE 2
xmeet = t
2
mp meet
!−1
1 eE 2D 1 1
= 2
+
mp eE mp me
36 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS

Then we keep doing algebra to get a beautiful, simple form!

!−1
D 1 1
xmeet = +
mp mp me
!
D mp me
=
mp (me + mp )
Dme
= (2.19)
(me + mp)
Now just plug numbers into Eq. 2.19. We are given D, and we also need:

mp = 1.67 × 10−27 kg me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg

These give:
(5.0 × 10−2 m)(9.11 × 10−31 kg)
D =
(9.11 × 10−31 kg + 1.67 × 10−27 kg)
= 2.73 × 10−5 m = 27 µm

As for the concluding question. . .

We note that the final answer did not depend on the value of the electric field strength E
(a good thing, since it wasn’t given). We can think about why this happened: Since at the
meeting place both particles had been traveling for the same amount of time, the distances
traveled by each are proportional to their accelerations. If we change both accelerations by
the same factor, the meeting point will occur at the same place because the ratio of distances
traveled by each particle is the same. So applying the same scale factor to both ap and ae
does not change the answer. But changing the value of the electric field does apply the same
scale factor to both accelerations; since this will not change the answer, we don’t expect to
see E show up in the expression for xmeet.
(That was long–winded. . . do you have a simpler way to see this?)

14. The electrons in a particle beam each have a kinetic energy of 1.60 × 10−17 J.
What are the magnitude and direction of the electric field that will stop these
electrons in a distance of 10.0 cm? [Ser4 23-47]

Let’s think about the direction first. The acceleration of the electrons must be directly
opposite their initial (beam) velocities in order for them to come to a halt. So the force on
them is also opposite the beam direction. From the vector equation F = qE we see that if the
charge q is negative —as it is for an electron— then the force and electric field have opposite
directions. So the electric field must point in the same direction as the initial velocities of
the electrons (the beam direction). See Fig. 2.15.
It is easiest to use the work–energy theorem to solve the problem. Recall:

Wnet = ∆K
2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 37

a
v0
F

q = -e E

Figure 2.15: Directions for the acceleration, force and (uniform) electric field for Example 14.

As the electron slows to a halt, its change in kinetic energy is

∆K = Kf − Ki = 0 − (1.60 × 10−17 J) = −1.60 × 10−17 J

Suppose the electric force on the electron has magnitude F . The electron moves a distance
s = 10.0 cm opposite the direction of the force so that the work done is

W = −F d = −F (10.0 × 10−2 m)

which is also the net work done. The work–energy theorem says that these are equal, so:

−F (10.0 × 10−2 m) = −1.60 × 10−17 J

Solve for F :
(1.60 × 10−17 J)
F = = 1.60 × 10−16 N
(10.0 × 10−2 m)
Now since we know the charge of an electron we can find the magnitude of the electric
field. Here we have E = F/|q| = F/e, so the magnitude of the E field is

F (1.60 × 10−16 N)
E= = = 1.00 × 103 N
C
e (1.60 × 10−19 C)

We have now found both the magnitude and direction of the E field.
38 CHAPTER 2. ELECTRIC FIELDS
Chapter 1

Electric Charge; Coulomb’s Law

1.1 The Important Stuff

1.1.1 Introduction
During the second semester of your introductory year of physics you will study two special
types of forces which occur in nature as a result of the fact that the constituents of matter
have electric charge; these forces are the electric force and the magnetic force. In fact,
the study of electromagnetism adds something completely new to the ideas of the mechanics
from first semester physics, namely the concept of the electric and magnetic fields. These
entities are just as real as the masses and forces from first semester and they take center
stage when we discuss the phenomenon of electromagnetic radiation, a topic which includes
the behavior of visible light.
The entire picture of matter and fields which we will have at the end of this study is
known as classical physics, but this picture, while complete enough for many fields of
engineering, is not a complete statement of the laws of nature (as we now know them).
New phenomena which were discovered in the early 20th century demanded revisions in
our thinking about the relation of space and time (relativity) and about phenomena on
the atomic scale (quantum physics). Relativity and quantum theory are often known
collectively as modern physics.

1.1.2 Electric Charge

The phenomenon we recognize as “static electricity” has been known since ancient times.
It was later found that there is a physical quantity known as electric charge that can be
transferred from one object to another. Charged objects can exert forces on other charged
objects and also on uncharged objects. Finally, electric charge comes in two types, which we
choose to call positive charge and negative charge.
Substances can be classified in terms of the ease with which charge can move about on
their surfaces. Conductors are materials in which charges can move about freely; insula-
tors are materials in which electric charge is not easily transported.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

Electric charge can be measured using the law for the forces between charges (Coulomb’s
Law). Charge is a scalar and is measured in coulombs 1 . The coulomb is actually defined
in terms of electric current (the flow of electrons), which is measured in amperes2; when
the current in a wire is 1 ampere, the amount of charge that flows past a given point in the
wire in 1 second is 1 coulomb. Thus,

1 ampere = 1 A = 1 Cs .

As we now know, when charges are transferred by simple interactions (i.e. rubbing), it
is a negative charge which is transferred, and this charge is in the form of the fundamental
particles called electrons. The charge of an electron is 1.6022 × 10−19 C, or, using the
definition
e = 1.602177 × 10−19 C (1.1)
the electron’s charge is −e. The proton has charge +e. The particles found in nature all
have charges which are integral multiples of the elementary charge e: q = ne where
n = 0, ±1, ±2 . . .. Because of this, we say that charge is quantized.
The mass of the electron is

me = 9.1094 × 10−31 kg (1.2)

1.1.3 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s Law gives the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges. If
two point charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance r then the magnitude of the force of
repulsion or attraction between them is

|q1| |q2 | N·m2

F =k where k = 8.9876 × 109 C2
(1.3)
r2
This is the magnitude of the force which each charge exerts on the other charge (recall
Newton’s 3rd law). The symbol k as used here has to do with electrical forces; it has nothing
to do with any spring constants or Boltzmann’s constant!
If the charges q1 and q2 are of the same sign (both positive or both negative) then the
force is mutually repulsive and the force on each charge points away from the other charge.
If the charges are of opposite signs (one positive, one negative) then the force is mutually
attractive and the force on each charge points toward the other one. This is illustrated in
Fig. 1.1.
The constant k in Eq. 1.3 is often written as
1 C2
k= where 0 = 8.85419 × 10−12 N·m2
(1.4)
4π0
1
Named in honor of the. . . uh. . . Dutch physicist Jim Coulomb (1766–1812) who did some electrical ex-
periments in. . . um. . . Paris. That’s it, Paris.
2
Named in honor of the. . . uh. . . German physicist Jim Ampere (1802–1807) who did some electrical
experiments in. . . um. . . Düsseldorf. That’s it, Düsseldorf.
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 3

F q1 q2 F q1 F F q2

r r

(a) (b)
Figure 1.1: (a) Charges q1 and q2 have the same sign; electric force is repulsive. (b) Charges q1 and q2
have opposite signs; electric force is attractive.

for historical reasons but also because in later applications the constant 0 is more convenient.
0 is called the permittivity constant 3
When several points charges are present, the total force on a particular charge q0 is the
vector sum of the individual forces gotten from Coulomb’s law. (Thus, electric forces have a
superposition property.) For a continuous distribution of charge we need to divide up the
charge distribution into infinitesimal pieces and add up the individual forces with integrals
to get the net force.

1.2 Worked Examples

1.2.1 Electric Charge

1. What is the total charge of 75.0 kg of electrons? [HRW6 22-19]

The mass of one electron is 9.11 × 10−31 kg, so that a mass M = 75.0 kg contains
M (75.0 kg)
N= = = 8.23 × 1031 electrons
me (9.11 × 10−31 kg)

The charge of one electron is −e = −1.60 × 10−19 C, so that the total charge of N
electrons is:

Q = N(−e) = (8.23 × 1031 )(−1.60 × 10−19 C) = −1.32 × 1013 C

2. (a) How many electrons would have to be removed from a penny to leave it
with a charge of +1.0 × 10−7 C? (b) To what fraction of the electrons in the penny
does this correspond? [A penny has a mass of 3.11 g; assume it is made entirely
of copper.] [HRW6 22-23]
3
In these notes, k will be used mainly in the first chapter; thereafter, we will make increasing use of 0 !
4 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

(a) From Eq. 1.1 we know that as each electron is removed the penny picks up a charge of
+1.60 × 10−19 C. So to be left with the given charge we need to remove N electrons, where
N is:
qTotal (1.0 × 10−7 C)
N= = = 6.2 × 1011 .
qe (1.60 × 10−19 C)

(b) To answer this part, we will need the total number of electrons in a neutral penny; to
find this, we need to find the number of copper atoms in the penny and use the fact that
each (neutral) atom contains 29 electrons. To get the moles of copper atoms in the penny,
divide its mass by the atomic weight of copper:

(3.11 g)
nCu = g = 4.89 × 10−2 mol
(63.54 mol )

The number of copper atoms is

NCu = nCu NA = (4.89 × 10−2 mol)(6.022 × 1023 mol−1 ) = 2.95 × 1022

and the number of electrons in the penny was (originally) 29 times this number,

Ne = 29NCu = 29(2.95 × 1022 ) = 8.55 × 1023

so the fraction of electrons removed in giving the penny the given electric charge is

(6.2 × 1011 )
f= = 7.3 × 10−13
(8.55 × 1023 )

A very small fraction!!

1.2.2 Coulomb’s Law

3. A point charge of +3.00 × 10−6 C is 12.0 cm distant from a second point charge
of −1.50 × 10−6 C. Calculate the magnitude of the force on each charge. [HRW6 22-2]

Being of opposite signs, the two charges attract one another, and the magnitude of this
force is given by Coulomb’s law (Eq. 1.3),

|q1 q2|
F = k
r2
N·m2 (3.00 × 10−6 C)(1.50 × 10−6 C)
= (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 2.81 N
(12.0 × 10−2 m)2

Each charge experiences a force of attraction of magnitude 2.81 N.

1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 5

R R

+46e +46e

R = 5.9 x 10-15 m

Figure 1.2: Simple picture of a nucleus just after fission. Uniformly charged spheres are “touching”.

4. What must be the distance between point charge q1 = 26.0 µC and point charge
q2 = −47.0 µC for the electrostatic force between them to have a magnitude of
5.70 N? [HRW6 22-1]

We are given the charges and the magnitude of the (attractive) force between them. We
can use Coulomb’s law to solve for r, the distance between the charges:

|q1q2 | |q1 q2|

F =k =⇒ r2 = k
r2 F
Plug in the given values:

N·m2 (26.0 × 10−6 C)(47.0 × 10−6 C)

r2 = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 1.93 m2
(5.70 N)

This gives: √
r= 1.93 m2 = 1.39 m

5. In fission, a nucleus of uranium–238, which contains 92 protons, divides into

two smaller spheres, each having 46 protons and a radius of 5.9 × 10−15 m. What
is the magnitude of the repulsive electric force pushing the two spheres apart?
[Ser4 23-6]

The basic picture of the nucleus after fission described in this problem is as shown in
Fig. 1.2. (Assume that the edges of the spheres are in contact just after the fission.) Now, it
is true that Coulomb’s law only applies to two point masses, but it seems reasonable to take
the separation distance r in Coulomb’s law to be the distance between the centers of the
spheres. (This procedure is exactly correct for the gravitational forces between two spherical
objects, and because Coulomb’s law is another inverse–square force law it turns out to be
exactly correct in the latter case as well.)
The charge of each sphere (that is, each nucleus) here is

q = +Ze = 46(1.602 × 10−19 C) = 7.369 × 10−18 C .

6 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

The separation of the centers of the spheres is 2R, so the distance we use in Coulomb’s law
is
r = 2R = 2(5.9 × 10−15 m) = 1.18 × 10−14 m
so from Eq. 1.3 the magnitude of the force between the two charged spheres is
|q1| |q2|
F = k
r2
2 (7.369 × 10−18 C)(7.369 × 10−18 C)
= (8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
) 2
= 3.5 × 103 N .
(1.18 × 10 m)
−14

The force between the two fission fragments has magnitude 3.5 × 103 N, and it is a repulsive
force since the fragments are both positively charged.

6. Two small positively charged spheres have a combined charge of 5.0 × 10−5 C.
If each sphere is repelled from the other by an electrostatic force of 1.0 N when
the spheres are 2.0 m apart, what is the charge on each sphere? [HRW5 22-12]

We are are not given the values of the individual charges; let them be q1 and q2 . The
condition on the combined charge of the spheres gives us:

q1 + q2 = 5.0 × 10−5 C . (1.5)

The next condition concerns the electrostatic force, and so it involves Coulomb’s Law.
Now, Eq. 1.3 involves the absolute values of the charges so we need to be careful with the
algebra. . . but in this case we know that both charges are positive because their sum is
positive and they repel each other. Thus |q1| = q1 and |q2| = q2, and the next condition gives
us:
q1 q2
F = k 2 = 1.0 N
r
As we know k and r, this give us the value of the product of the charges:

(1.0 N)r2 (1.0 N)(2.0 m)2

q1 q2 = =  = 4.449 × 10−10 C2 (1.6)
k 9 N·m2
8.99 × 10 C2

With Eqs. 1.5 and 1.6 we have two equations for the two unknowns q1 and q2. We can
solve for them; the rest is math! Here’s my approach to solving the problem:
From Eq. 1.5 we have:
q2 = 5.0 × 10−5 C − q1 (1.7)
Substitute for q2 in Eq. 1.6 and get:

q1(5.0 × 10−5 C − q1) = 4.449 × 10−10 C2

which gives us a quadratic equation for q1:

q12 − (5.0 × 10−5 C)q1 + 4.449 × 10−10 C2 = 0

1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 7

q1 q2 Q Q

50.0 cm

(a) (b)

Figure 1.3: (a) Two unknown charges on identical conducting spheres, separated by 50.0 cm, in Example 7.
(b) When joined by a wire, the charge evenly divides between the spheres with charge Q on each, such that
q1 + q2 = 2Q.

which we all know how to solve. The two possibilities for q1 are:
q
(5.0 × 10−5 ) ± (5.0 × 10−5 )2 − 4(4.449 × 10−10 ) 
3.84 × 10−5 C
q1 = C=
2 1.16 × 10−5 C
(Hmm. . . how do we deal with two answers? We’ll see. . . )
Using the two possibilities for q1 give:
q1 = 3.84 × 10−5 C =⇒ q2 = 5.0 × 10−5 C − q1 = 1.16 × 10−5 C
q1 = 1.16 × 10−5 C =⇒ q2 = 5.0 × 10−5 C − q1 = 3.84 × 10−5 C
Actually, these are both the same answer, because our numbering of the charges was arbi-
trary. The answer is that one of the charges is 1.16 × 10−5 C and the other is 3.84 × 10−5 C.

7. Two identical conducting spheres, fixed in place, attract each other with
an electrostatic force of 0.108 N when separated by 50.0 cm, center-to-center. The
spheres are then connected by a thin conducting wire. When the wire is removed,
the spheres repel each other with an electrostatic force of 0.360 N. What were
the initial charges on the spheres? [HRW6 22-7]

The initial configuration of the spheres is shown in Fig. 1.3(a). Let the charges on the
spheres be q1 and q2. If the force of attraction between them has magnitude 0.108 N, then
Coulomb’s law gives us
|q1q2 | N·m2 |q1q2 |
F =k 2
= (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 0.108 N
r (0.500 m)2
from which we get
(0.108 N)(0.500 m)2
|q1q2 | = 2 = 3.00 × 10−12 C2
(8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
)
But since we are told that the charges attract one another, we know that q1 and q2 have
opposite signs and so their product must be neagtive. So we can drop the absolute value
sign if we write
q1 q2 = −3.00 × 10−12 C2 (1.8)
8 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

Then the two spheres are joined by a wire. The charge is now free to re–distribute itself
between the two spheres and since they are identical the total excess charge (that is, 11 + q2)
will be evenly divided between the two spheres. If the new charge on each sphere is Q, then

Q + Q = 2Q = q1 + q2 (1.9)

The force of repulsion between the spheres is now 0.0360 N, so that

Q2 N·m2 Q2
F =k = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 0.0360 N
r2 (0.500 m)2

which gives
(0.0360 N)(0.500 m)2
Q2 = N·m2
= 1.00 × 10−12 C 2
9
(8.99 × 10 C2 )
We don’t know what the sign of Q is, so we can only say:

Q = ±1.00 × 10−6 C (1.10)

Putting 1.10 into 1.9, we get

q1 + q2 = 2Q = ±2.00 × 10−6 C (1.11)

and now 1.8 and 1.11 give us two equations for the two unknowns q1 and q2 , and we’re in
business!
First, choosing the + sign in 1.11 we have

q2 = 2.00 × 10−6 C − q1 (1.12)

and substituting this into 1.8 we have:

q1 (2.00 × 10−6 C − q1) = −3.00 × 10−12 C2

which we can rewrite as

q12 − (2.00 × 10−6 C)q1 − 3.00 × 10−12 C2 = 0

which is a quadratic equation for q1. When we find the solutions; we get:

q1 = 3.00 × 10−6 C or q1 = −1.00 × 10−6 C

Putting these possibilities into 1.12 we find

q2 = −1.00 × 10−6 C or q2 = 3.00 × 10−6 C

but these really give the same answer: One charge is −1.00 × 10−6 C and the other is
+3.00 × 10−6 C.
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 9

Now make the other choice in 1.11. Then we have

q2 = −2.00 × 10−6 C − q1 (1.13)

Putting this into 1.8 we have:

q1(−2.00 × 10−6 C − q1) = −3.00 × 10−12 C2

which we can rewrite as

q12 + (2.00 × 10−6 C)q1 − 3.00 × 10−12 C2 = 0

which is a different quadratic equation for q1 , and which has the solutions

q1 = −3.00 × 10−6 C or q1 = 1.00 × 10−6 C

Putting these into 1.13 we get

q2 = 1.00 × 10−6 C or q2 = −3.00 × 10−6 C

but these really give the same answer: One charge is +1.00 × 10−6 C and the other is
−3.00 × 10−6 C.
So in the end we have two distinct possibilities for the initial charges q1 and q2 on the
spheres. They are
−1.00 µC and + 3.00 µC
and
+1.00 µC and − 3.00 µC

8. A certain charge Q is divided into two parts q and Q − q, which are then
separated by a certain distance. What must q be in terms of Q to maximize the
electrostatic repulsion between the two charges? [HRW6 22-13]

If the distance between the two (new) charges is r, then the magnitude of the force
between them is
(Q − q)q k
F =k 2
= 2
(qQ − q 2) .
r r
(We know that Q and Q − q both have the same sign so that Q(Q − q) is necessarily a
positive number. Force between the charges is repulsive.) To find the value of q which give
maximum F , take the derivative of F with respect to q and find where it is zero:
dF k
= 2 (Q − 2q) = 0
dq r
which has the solution
Q
(Q − 2q) = 0 =⇒ q= .
2
10 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

q = -e/3 q = -e/3

r = 2.6 x 10-15 m
Figure 1.4: Two down quarks, each with charge −e/3, separated by 2.6 × 10−15 m, in Example 9.

So the maximum repulsive force is gotten by dividing the original charge Q in half.

9. A neutron consists of one “up” quark of charge + 2e

3
and two “down” quarks
e
each having charge − 3 . If the down quarks are 2.6 × 10−15 m apart inside the
neutron, what is the magnitude of the electrostatic force between them? [HRW5
22-24]

We picture the two down quarks as in Fig. 1.4. We use Coulomb’s law to find the force
between them. (It is repulsive since the quarks have the same charge.) The two charges are:

e (1.60 × 10−19 C)
q1 = q2 = − = − = −5.33 × 10−20 C
3 3
and the separation is r = 2.6 × 10−15 m. The magnitude of the force is

|q1| |q2|  N·m2

 (5.33 × 10−20 C)(5.33 × 10−20 C)
F =k = 8.99 × 109 C2
= 3.8 N
r2 (2.6 × 10−15 m)2

The magnitude of the (repulsive) force is 3.8 N.

10. The charges and coordinates of two charged particles held fixed in the xy
plane are: q1 = +3.0 µC, x1 = 3.5 cm, y1 = 0.50 cm, and q2 = −4.0 µC, x2 = −2.0 cm,
y2 = 1.5 cm. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force on
q2. (b) Where could you locate a third charge q3 = +4.0 µC such that the net
electrostatic force on q2 is zero? [HRW6 22-12]

(a) First, make a sketch giving the locations of the charges. This is done in Fig. 1.5. (Clearly,
q2 will be attracted to q1; the force on it will be to the right and downward.)
Find the distance between q2 and q1. It is
q
r = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1 )2
q
= (−2.0 − 3.5)2 + (1.5 − 0.50)2 cm = 5.59 cm
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 11

y
- 4.0 mC
q2
+ 3.0 mC
q1

Figure 1.5: Locations of charges in Example 10.

q3
q2
+ 4.0 mC

- 4.0 mC q1
+ 3.0 mC

Figure 1.6: Placement of q3 such as to give zero net force on q2.

Then by Coulomb’s law the force on q2 has magnitude

|q1||q2| N·m2 (3.0 × 10−6 C)(4.0 × 10−6 C)
F =k 2
= (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 35 N
r (5.59 × 10−2 m)2
Since q2 is attracted to q1, the direction of this force is the same as the vector which
points from q2 to q1. That vector is
r12 = (x1 − x2)i + (y1 − y2 )j = (5.5 cm)i + (−1.0 cm)j
The direction (angle) of this vector is
−1.0
 
θ = tan−1 = −10.3◦
5.5
(b) The force which the +4.0 µC charge exerts on q2 must cancel the force we calculated in
part (a) (i.e. the attractive force from q1). Since this charge will exert an attractive force
on q2 , we must place it on the line which joins q1 and q2 but on the other side of q2. This is
shown in Fig. 1.6.
First, find the distance r0 between q3 and q2. The force of q3 on q2 must also have
magnitude 35 N; this allows us to solve for r0 :
|q2 ||q3| 2 |q2 ||q3|
F =k ⇒ r0 = k
r0 2 F
12 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

q q
L L

+q +q +q

m m m

Figure 1.7: Charged masses hang from strings, as described in Example 11.

Plug in the numbers:

2 N·m2 (4.0 × 10−6 C)(4.0 × 10−6 C)

r0 = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 4.1 × 10−3 m
(35 N)

r0 = 6.4 × 10−2 m = 6.4 cm

This is the distance q3 from q2; we also know that being opposite q1 , its direction is

θ0 = 180◦ − 10.3◦ = 169.7◦

from q2 . So the displacement of q3 from q2 is given by:

∆x = r0 cos θ0 = (6.45 cm) cos 169.7◦ = −6.35 cm

∆y = r0 sin θ0 = (6.45 cm) sin 169.7◦ = +1.15 cm

Adding these differences to the coordinates of q2 we find:

x3 = x2 + ∆x = −2.0 cm − 6.35 cm = −8.35 cm

y3 = y2 + ∆y = +1.5 cm + 1.15 cm == 2.65 cm

The charge q3 should be placed at the point (−8.35 cm, 2.65 cm).

11. Three identical point charges, each of mass m = 0.100 kg and charge q hang
from three strings, as in Fig. 1.7. If the lengths of the left and right strings are
L = 30.0 cm and angle θ = 45.0◦ , determine the value of q. [Ser4 23-10]

Make a free–body diagram in order to understand things! Choose the leftmost mass in
Fig. 1.7. The forces on this mass are shown in Fig. 1.8. Gravity pulls down with a force mg;
the string tension pulls as shown with a force of magnitude T . Both of the other charged
masses exert forces of electrostatic repulsion on this mass. The charge in the middle exerts
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 13

Fmid

Ffar

mg

Figure 1.8: Forces acting on the leftmost charged mass in Example 11.

a force of magnitude Fmid; the rightmost (far) charge exerts a force of magnitude Ffar. Both
forces are directed to the left.
We can get expressions for Fmid and Ffar using Coulomb’s law. The distance between the
left charge and the middle charge is

r1 = (30.0 cm) sin 45.0◦ = 21.2 cm = 0.212 m

and since both charges are +q we have

q2
Fmid = k .
(0.212 m)2
Likewise, the distance between the left charge and the rightmost charge is

r2 = 2(30.0 cm) sin 45.0◦ = 2(0.212 m) = 0.424 m

so that we have
q2
Ffar = k .
(0.424 m)2
The vertical forces on the mass must sum to zero. This gives us:
mg
T sin 45.0◦ − mg = 0 =⇒ T = = 1.39 N
sin 45.0◦
where we have used the given value of m to evaluate T .
The horizontal forces must also sum to zero, and this gives us:

−Fmid − Ffar + T cos 45.0◦ = 0

Substitute for Fmid and Ffar and get:

q2 q2
−k − k + T cos 45.0◦ = 0 (1.14)
(0.212 m)2 (0.424 m)2
14 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

qq

L L

q q
x

Figure 1.9: Charged masses hang from strings, as described in Example 12.

Since we have already found T , the only unknown in this equation is q. The physics part of
the problem is done!
A little rearranging of Eq. 1.14 gives us:
!
2 1 1
kq 2
+ = T cos 45.0◦
(0.212 m) (0.424 m)2

The sum in the big parenthesis is equal to 27.8 m−2 and with this we can solve for q:
T cos 45.0◦
q2 =
k(27.8 m−2 )
(1.39 N) cos 45.0◦
=  2
 = 3.93 × 10−12 C2
8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
(27.8 m−2 )

And then:
q = 1.98 × 10−6 C = 1.98 µC

12. In Fig. 1.9, two tiny conducting balls of identical mass and identical charge q
hang from nonconducting threads of length L. Assume that θ is so small that tan θ
can be replaced by its approximate equal, sin θ. (a) Show that for equilibrium,
!1/3
q 2L
x= ,
2π0 mg

where x is the separation between the balls. (b) If L = 120 cm, m = 10 g and
x = 5.0 cm, what is q? [HRW6 22-15]

(a) We draw a free-body diagram for one of the charge (say, the left one). This is done in
Fig. 1.10. The forces acting on the charged ball are the string tension T , the downward force
of gravity mg and the force of electrostatic repulsion from the other charged ball, Felec. The
direction of this for is to the left because the other ball, having the same charge exerts a
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 15

Felec

mg

Figure 1.10: The forces acting on one of the charged masses in Example 12.

repulsive force which must point horizontally to the left because of the symmetric position
of the other ball.
We do know the magnitude of the force of electrostatic repulsion; from Coulomb’s law it
is
q2
Felec = k 2
x
The ball is in static equilibrium, so the forces on the ball sum to zero. The vertical
components add to zero, which gives us:

T cos θ = mg

and from the horizontal components we get

q2
T sin θ = Felec = k
x2
Divide the second of these equations by the first one and get:

T sin θ kq 2
= tan θ = (1.15)
T cos θ mgx2

Now the problem says that the angle θ is so small that we can safely replace tan θ by sin θ
(they are nearly the same for “small” angles). But from the geometry of the problem we can
express sin θ as:
x/2 x
sin θ = =
L 2L
Using all of this in Eq. 1.15 we get:

x kq 2
≈
2L mgx2
16 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CHARGE; COULOMB’S LAW

Now we can solve for x because a little algebra gives:

kq 2(2L) 2q 2 L q 2L
x3 = = = (1.16)
mg 4π0 mg 2π0mg
which then gives the answer for x,
!1/3
q 2L
x=
2π0mg

(b) Rearranging Eq. 1.16 we find:

2π0mgx3
q2 =
L
and plugging in the given values (in SI units, of course), we get:
C2
2 2π(8.85 × 10−12 × 10−3 kg)(9.80 sm2 )
)(10
q = N·m2
= 5.68 × 10−16 C2
(1.20 m)

and then we find q (note the ambiguity in sign!):

q = ±2.4 × 10−8 C .
Chapter 3

Gauss’(s) Law

3.1 The Important Stuff

3.1.1 Introduction; Grammar
This chapter concerns an important mathematical result which relates the electric field in
a certain region of space with the electric charges found in that same region. It is useful
for finding the value of electric field in situations where the charged objects are highly
symmetrical. It is also valuable as an alternate mathematical expression of the inverse–
square nature of the electric field from a point charge (Eq. 2.3).
Alas, physics textbooks can’t seem to agree on the name for this law, discovered by
Gauss. Some call it Gauss’ Law. Others call it Gauss’s Law. Do we need the extra “s”
after the apostrophe or not? Physicists do not yet know the answer to this question!!!!

3.1.2 Electric Flux

The concept of electric flux involves a surface and the (vector) values of the electric field
at all points of the surface. To introduce the way that flux is calculated, we start with a
simple case. We will consider a flat surface of area A and an electric field which is constant
(that is, has the same vector value) over the surface.
The surface is characterized by the “area vector” A. This is a vector which points
perpendicularly (normal) to the surface and has magnitude A. The surface and its area
vector along with the uniform electric field are shown in Fig. 3.1.
Actually, there’s a little problem here: There are really two choices for the vector A. (It
could have been chosen to point in the opposite direction; it would still be normal to the
surface and have the same magnitude.) However in every problem where we use electric flux,
it will be made clear which choice is made for the “normal” direction.
Now, for this simple case, the electric flux Φ is given by

Φ = E · A = EA cos θ

where theta is the angle between E and A.

39
40 CHAPTER 3. GAUSS’(S) LAW

E A
E A
E
E
E E
q

Figure 3.1: Electric field E is uniform over a flat surface whose area vector is A.

DA i Ei DA i
Ei

Figure 3.2: How flux is calculated (conceptually) for a general surface. Divide up the big surface into small
squares; for each square find the area vector ∆Ai and average electric field Ei . Take ∆Ai · Ei and add up
the results for all the little squares.

2
We see that electric flux is a scalar and has units of N·mC
.
In general, a surface is not flat, and the electric field will not be uniform (either in
magnitude or direction) over the surface. In practice one must use the machinery of advanced
calculus to find the flux for the general case, but it is not hard to get the basic idea of the
process: We divide up the surface into little sections (say, squares) which are all small enough
so that it is a good approximation to treat them as flat and small enough so that the electric
field E is reasonably constant. Suppose the ith little square has area vector ∆Ai and the
value of the electric field on that square is close to Ei . Then the electric flux for the little
square is found as before,
∆Φi = ∆Ai · Ei
and the electric flux for the whole surface is roughly equal to the sum of all the individual
contributions: X
Φ≈ ∆Ai · Ei
i

The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 3.2.

The procedure outlined above gets closer and closer to the real value of the electric
flux Φ when we make the little squares more numerous and smaller. A similar procedure in
beginning calculus gives an integral (for one variable). Here, we arrive at a surface integral
and the proper way to write out definition of the electric flux over the surface S is
Z
Φ= E · dA (3.1)
S
3.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 41

3.1.3 Gaussian Surfaces

For now at least, we are only interested in finding the flux for a special class of surfaces, ones
which we call Gaussian surfaces. Such a surface is a closed surface. . . that is, it encloses a
particular volume of space and doesn’t have any holes in it. In principle it have any shape
at all, but in our problem–solving we will have the most use for surfaces which have a high
degree of symmetry, for example spheres and cylinders.
When we find the electric flux on a closed surface, it is agreed that the unit normal for
all the little surface elements dA points outward .
There is a special notation for a surface integral done over a closed surface; the integral
sign will usually have a circle superimposed on it. Thus for a Gaussian surface S, the electric
flux is written I
Φ = E · dA (3.2)
S

We will be considering Gaussian surfaces constructed around different configurations of

charges, configurations for which we are interested in finding the electric field. We get an
interesting result for the electric flux for a Gaussian surface when it encloses some electric
charge. . . and also when it doesn’t!

3.1.4 Gauss’(s) Law

Suppose we choose a closed surface S in some environment where there are charges and
electric fields. We can (in principle, at least) compute the electric flux Φ on S. We can also
find the total electric charge enclosed by the surface S, which we will call qenc. Gauss’(s)
Law tells us:
qenc
I
Φ = E · dA = (3.3)
0

3.1.5 Applying Gauss’(s) Law

Gauss’(s) Law is used to find the electric field for charge distributions which have a symmetry
H
which we can exploit in calculating both sides of the equation: E · dA and qenc/0.
• Point Charge
Of course, we already know how to get the magnitude and direction of the electric field
due to a point charge q. Here we show how this result follows from Gauss’(s) Law. (The
purpose here is to give a patient discussion of how we get a known result so that we can use
Gauss’(s) Law to obtain new results.
We imagine a spherical surface of radius r centered on q, as shown in Fig. 3.3. The
spherical shape takes advantage of the fact that a single point gives no preferred direction in
space. When we are done with the calculation, we will know the electric field for any point
a distance r away from the charge.
Having drawn the proper surface, we have to use a little “common sense” for determining
the direction of the electric field. From symmetry we can see the the the E field must point
radially. Imagine looking at the point charge from any direction. It doesn’t look any different!
42 CHAPTER 3. GAUSS’(S) LAW

E E

r
E

E
Figure 3.3: Gaussian surface of radius r centered on a point charge q. Symmetry dictates that the E field
must point in the radial direction so that for points on the surface it is (locally) perpendicular to the surface.

But if the electric field’s direction were anything but radial (straight out from the charge)
we could distinguish the direction from which we were observing the charge.
Furthermore at a given distance r from the charge, the magnitude of the E field must be
the same, although for all we know right now it could depend upon r. So we conclude that
at all points of our (spherical) surface the E field is radial everywhere and its magnitude is
the same. This fact is indicated in Fig. 3.3. H
With this very reasonable assumption about E we can evaluate E · dA without explicitly
doing any integration. We note that every where on the surface the vector E is parallel to
the area vector dA, so that E · dA = E dA. Since the magnitude of E is constant over the
surface it can be taken outside the integral sign:
I I I
E · dA = EdA = E dA .
H
But the expression dA just tells us to add up all the area elements of the surface, giving
us the total area of the spherical surface, which is 4πr2 . So we find:
I
E · dA = E(4πr2 ) .

Now the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is simply q, that is:

qenc = q .

Putting these facts into Gauss’(s) Law (Eq. 3.3) we have:

q q
E(4πr2 ) = =⇒ E= ,
0 4π0r2
which we know is the correct answer for the electric field due to a point charge q.
• Spherically–Symmetric Distributions of Charge
3.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 43

E
E
q (Total)
r

E
E
Figure 3.4: Gaussian surface of radius r centered on spherically symmetric charge distribution with total
charge q. E field points radially outward on the surface.

Using Gauss’(s) Law and a spherical Gaussian surface, we can find the electric field
outside of any spherically symmetric distribution of charge. Suppose we have a ball with
total charge q, where the charge density only depends on the distance from the center of the
ball. (That is to say, is has spherical symmetry.) We can draw a Gaussian surface of radius
r (r being large than the radius of the ball) and use the same arguments as for the point
charge to find the electric field.
We again argue that since the system looks the same regardless of the direction from
which we view it, the E field on the spherical surface must point in the radial direction. (See
Fig. 3.4.) So for the surface integral in Gauss’(s) Law, we get exactly the same thing we had
before: I I
E · dA = EdA = E(4πr2 ) .
As for the charge enclosed, since the total charge is given as q, Gauss’(s) Law gives us:
q
E(4πr2) =
0
so as before we find that the magnitude of the electric field at a distance r from the center
of the ball of charge is
q
E=
4π0r2
From a mathematical point of view, this result is quite interesting. It is the same as the
field due to a point charge (as long as r is bigger than the ball’s radius). The exact nature
of the distribution of charge does not matter, just so long as it is spherically symmetric and
its total is q. If you were to try to calculate the electric field explicitly by doing a integral
over the volume elements of the sphere it would be a lot of work! Using Gauss’(s) Law the
calculation is very easy.
As a further example involving spherical symmetry, we consider a hollow spherically-
symmetric charge distribution. We can find the value of the electric field inside all of charge.
44 CHAPTER 3. GAUSS’(S) LAW

E
r

E E

Figure 3.5: Gaussian surface of radius r centered in the interior of a spherically symmetric charge distri-
bution with total charge q. E must point in the radial direction everywhere on the surface, but in fact E is
zero.

To do this we once again draw a spherical Gaussian surface, this time of radius r, where r
is smaller than the inner radius of the hollow ball.
What can we say about the electric field on this Gaussian surface? Symmetry tells us
exactly the same thing as before: The electric field (if there is one!) must point in the radial
direction because of the symmetry of the problem, and it must have the same magnitude
everywhere on the surface. This is shown in Fig. 3.5. So again we have
I I
E · dA = EdA = E(4πr2 ) .

But this time the Gaussian surface encloses no charge at all. So Gauss’(s) Law gives
qenc
E(4πr2 ) = =0
0
so that E = 0 anytime we are inside the hollow sphere of charge. This result comes about
very simply using Gauss’(s) Law but it is rather challenging to show it by doing all the
integrals by hand.
• Other Geometries
We can use Gauss’(s) Law to find the electric field around other charge distributions
which have some type of symmetry, but we need to chose Gaussian surfaces of different
shapes in order to take advantage of the symmetry.
If a charge distribution has symmetry about an axis (that is, cylindrical symmetry, like a
long line of charge) then it is most useful to choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface, as shown
in Fig. 3.6.
Using a cylindrical Gaussian surface, one can show that for a line of charge with a
(positive) linear charge density λ, the electric field E at a distance r from the points radially
outward and has magnitude
λ
E= (3.4)
2π0r
3.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 45

Figure 3.6: Gaussian surface for a line charge or more generally a distribution with cylindrical symmetry.

Figure 3.7: Gaussian surface for a sheet of charge (or, more generally, a charge distribution with planar
symmetry).

If the charge density λ is negative, the E field points radially inward with a magnitude given
by 3.4 with λ being the magnitude of the charge density.

If a charge distribution has planar symmetry that is, it stretches out uniformly and
forever in the x and y directions) then it turns out to be quite useful to choose a Gaussian
surface shaped like a “pillbox”, that is, a cylindrical shape of very small thickness. Such a
construction is shown in Fig. 3.7.
Using such a “pillbox” Gaussian surface, one can show that for a plane of charge with a
(positive) charge density (charge per unit area) σ, the electric field E points outward from
the sheet and has magnitude
σ
E= (3.5)
20
If the charge density is negative the electric field points inward toward the sheet and has a
magnitude given by 3.5 with σ being the magnitude of the charge density. This is the same
result as Eq. 2.7.
Note that the magnitude of the E field in 3.5 does not depend on the distance from the
sheet of charge.

3.1.6 Electric Fields and Conductors

For the electrostatic conditions that we are considering all through Vol. 4, the electric field
is zero inside any conductor. Using Gauss’(s) law it follows that if a conductor carries any
net charge, the charge will reside on the surface(s) of the conductor.
Also using Gauss’(s) law one can show that the electric field just outside a conducting
surface is perpendicular to the surface and is given by
σ
E= (3.6)
0
46 CHAPTER 3. GAUSS’(S) LAW

+
+ q
+
+
s
+
m, q

Figure 3.8: Example 1.

where σ is the surface charge density at the chosen location on the conductor and where we
mean that if σ is positive the E field points outward and if it is negative the E field points
toward the surface. Note that Eq. 3.6 differs from Eq. 3.5; the reasons are subtle! Be careful
in choosing which one to use!

3.2 Worked Examples

3.2.1 Applying Gauss’(s) Law

1. In Fig. 3.8, a small nonconducting ball of mass m = 1.0 mg and charge

q = 2.0 × 10−8 C (distributed uniformly through its volume) hangs from an in-
sulating thread that makes an angle θ = 30◦ with a vertical, uniformly charged
nonconducting sheet (shown in cross section). Considering the gravitational
force on the ball and assuming that the sheet extends far vertically and into and
out of the page, calculate the surface charge density σ of the sheet. [HRW6 24-29]

Draw a free–body diagram for the sphere! This is done in Fig. 3.9. The forces on the ball
are gravity, mg downward, the tension in the string T and the force of electrostatic repulsion
(Felec, straight out from the sheet), arising from the sheet of positive charges. We know that
the electrostatic force must point straight out from the sheet because the electric field arising
from the charge points straight out, so the force exerted on the ball must point straight out
as well. (We can assume the ball acts like a point charge with the charge concentrated at
its center.)
First, find Felec. The ball is in static equilibrium, so that the vertical and horizontal
forces sum to zero. This gives us the equations:
T cos θ = mg T sin θ = Felec
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 47

q T
Felec

mg
Figure 3.9: Free–body diagram for the small ball in Example 1.

Divide the second of these by the first to cancel out T and give:
sin θ Felec
= tan θ = =⇒ Felec = mg tan θ
cos θ mg

Plug in the numbers (note: 1.0 mg = 1.0 × 10−6 kg) and get

Felec = (1.0 × 10−6 kg)(9.80 sm2 ) tan 30◦ = 5.7 × 10−6 N

From Felec = |q|E we can get the magnitude of the electric field:

E = Felec/|q| = (5.7 × 10−6 N)/(2.0 × 10−8 C) = 2.8 × 102 N

C

This is the magnitude of an E field on one side of an infinite sheet of charge so that from
Eq. 3.5 we can find the charge density of the sheet:
C2
σ = 20E = 2(8.85 × 10−12 N·m2
)(2.8 × 102 N
C
) = 5.0 × 10−9 C
m2
= 5.0 nC
m2

Since the E field points away from the sheet, this is the correct sign for the charge density;
the charge density of the sheet is +5.0 nC
m2
.

2. In a 1911 paper, Ernest Rutherford said: “In order to form some idea of
the forces required to deflect an α particle through a large angle, consider an
atom [as] containing a point positive charge Ze at its center and surrounded by
a distribution of negative electricity −Ze uniformly distributed within a sphere
of radius R. The electric field E at a distance r from the center for a point inside
the atom [is]
Ze 1 r
 
E= − .”
4π0 r2 R3
Verify this equation. [HRW6 24-37]

Rutherford’s model of the atom is shown in Fig. 3.10(a). The charge density of the
48 CHAPTER 3. GAUSS’(S) LAW

R
+Ze +Ze
r

-Ze -Ze

(a) (b)

Figure 3.10: (a) Rutherford’s atomic model. Point charge +Ze is at the center, with a ball of uniform
charge density of radius R and total charge −Ze surrounding it. (b) Spherical Gaussian surface of radius r.

distribution of “negative electricity” is found by dividing the total charge −Ze by the volume
of the ball:
−Ze 3Ze
ρ−Ze = 4 3 = −
3
πR 4πR3
To find the electric field at a distance r from the center (where r < R), we will assume from
the spherical symmetry of the problem that the E field points radially, and its magnitude
depends on the distance from the center, r. Then a spherical Gaussian surface will be useful,
and such a surface is shown in Fig. 3.10(b). The surface has radius r and is centered on the
point charge +Ze. Since the E field is (assumed) radial, the surface integral of E will give
a simple result, and it won’t be too hard to find the charge enclosed by this surface. Then
Gauss’(s) Law will give us E.
What is the charge enclosed by the surface in Fig. 3.10(b)? It encloses the point charge
+Ze but it also encloses some of the continuous charge distribution. How much? The volume
of our surface is 34 πr3 and multiplying this volume by the charge density found above gives
the amount of the charge from the ball of negative charge which is enclosed. Thus the total
charge enclosed by the surface is

r3
!
   −3Ze 
qenc = +Ze + 4
3
πr3 = +Ze − Ze
4πR3 R3
r3
!
= Ze 1 −
R3

(Notice that when r = R the total charge enclosed is zero, as it should be.)
Now, the surface integral of E is just the (common) magnitude of E on the surface
multiplied by its area, 4πr2 . Putting all of this together, Gauss’(s) Law gives us:

r3
!
qenc Ze
I
2
E · dA = =⇒ E(4πr ) = 1− 3
0 0 R

Divide through by 4πr2 to get E, the radial component of the E field inside the “atom”
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 49

R
r

r(r)

(a) (b)

Figure 3.11: (a) Ball of charge, radius R. The charge density depends on the distance r. (b) Spherical
Gaussian surface of radius r drawn inside the sphere.

(which is also the magnitude of the E field):

Ze 1 r
 
E= 2
− 3
4π0 r R

3. A solid nonconducting sphere of radius R has a nonuniform charge distribution

of volume charge density ρ = ρs r/R, where ρs is a constant and r is the distance
from the center of the sphere. Show (a) that the total charge on the sphere is
Q = πρs R3 and (b) that
1 Q 2
E= r
4π0 R4
gives the magnitude of the electric field inside the sphere. [HRW6 24-41]

(a) The ball of charge with nonuniform density ρ(r) is drawn in Fig. 3.11(a). To get the
total charge, integrate the charge density ρ(r) over the volume of the sphere. (We must do
an integral since the density is not uniform.) When integrating functions like ρ(r) which
depend only on the distance r over a spherical volume, we multiply ρ(r) by the volume of
the spherical shell element 4πr2 dr and sum up from r = 0 to r = R:
Z Z R
Q= ρ(r)dτ = ρ(r)4πr2 dr
sphere 0

Substitute the given expression for ρ(r) and get:

R
ρs r
Z R
2 4πρs Z R 3 4πρs r4
Q = (4π)r dr = r dr =
0 R R 0 R 4 0
4
4πρs R
= = πρs R3
R 4

(b) To find the E field inside the sphere: Assume that the E field points in the radial direction
(from the spherical symmetry of the problem). Imagine a spherical Gaussian surface of radius
50 CHAPTER 3. GAUSS’(S) LAW

r centered on the center of the charge distribution, as drawn in Fig. 3.11(b). Then the surface
integral of E will have a simple expression and if we can calculate the charge enclosed by
this surface, we can find E using Gauss’(s) Law.
To get the enclosed charge, perform an integral as in part (a) but this time only integrate
out to the radius r. This gives us:
r ρs r0 r
Z Z
qenc = ρ(r0 )(4πr02 )dr0 =
(4πr02)dr0
0 0 R
4πρs Z r 03 0 4πρs r4 πρs r4
= r dr = =
R 0 R 4 R
As usual (yawn) the surface integral of the E field over the spherical Gaussian surface is
I
E · dA = E(4πr2 )

Putting all of this into Gauss’(s) Law, we find:

qenc πρs r4
I
E · dA = =⇒ E(4πr2) =
0 0 R
Divide out the 4πr2 and get:
ρs r2
E=
40R
This answer is correct, but we would like to express E in terms of the total charge of the
sphere (instead of ρs ). In part (a) we found that we can write:

Q
Q = πρs R3 =⇒ ρs =
πR3
so then our answer for E is
r2 Q Qr2
 
E= =
40r πR3 4π0 R4
This is the radial component of the E field as well as its magnitude.

3.2.2 Electric Fields and Conductors

4. An isolated conductor of arbitrary shape has a net charge of +10 × 10−6 C.

Inside the conductor is a cavity within which is a point charge q = +3.0 × 10−6 C.
What is the charge (a) on the cavity wall and (b) on the outer surface of the
conductor? [HRW6 24-15]

(a) The system is shown in Fig. 3.12(a). Consider any Gaussian surface which lies within
the material of the conductor and encloses the cavity, as shown in Fig. 3.12(b). Since E = 0
3.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 51

+ + ++
+ +
+
+ +
+ -
- --- +
+ - +
q - q -
+
+
- - -- + +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ + ++

(a) (b)

Figure 3.12: (a) Conductor carrying a net charge has a cavity inside of it. Cavity contains a charge
q = 3.0 × 10−6 C. (b) Charges in the conductor arrange themselves; negative charges collect on the inner
surface; the Gaussian surface shown must enclose a net charge of zero! An even larger number of positive
charges collect on the outer surface since the conductor must have a net positive charge.

everywhere inside the conductor the integral E · dA on this surface gives zero and then
H

by Gauss’(s) Law the total charge enclosed is zero. The surface encloses the charge q =
+3.0 × 10−6 C and also the charge which accumulates on the inner surface of the conductor.
This implies that the charge which collects on the inner surface is qinner = −3.0 × 10−6 C.
(b) The rest of the free charge on the conductor accumulates on the outer surface. But the
total must come out to +10 × 10−6 C, as advertised! Thus:

qouter + qinner = +10 × 10−6 C .

Then:

qouter = +10 × 10−6 C − qinner

= +10 × 10−6 C − (−3.0 × 10−6 C) = 13 × 10−6 C

The charge on the outer surface is +13 × 10−6 C.

52 CHAPTER 3. GAUSS’(S) LAW
Chapter 4

The Electric Potential

4.1 The Important Stuff

4.1.1 Electrical Potential Energy
A charge q moving in a constant electric field E experiences a force F = qE from that field.
Also, as we know from our study of work and energy, the work done on the charge by the
field as it moves from point r1 to r2 is
Z r2
W = F · ds
r1

where we mean that we are summing up all the tiny elements of work dW = F · ds along the
length of the path. When F is the electrostatic force, the work done is
Z r2 Z r2
W = qE · ds = q E · ds (4.1)
r1 r1

In Fig. 4.1, a charge is shown being moved from r1 to r2 along two different paths, with
ds and E shown for a bit of each of the paths.
Now it turns out that from the mathematical form of the electrostatic force, the work
done by the force does not depend on the path taken to get from r1 to r2. As a result we say

r2
q

E
ds
ds
E

q
r1

Figure 4.1: Charge is moved from r1 to r2 along two separate paths. Work done by the electric force
involves the summing up E · ds along the path.

53
54 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

that the electric force is conservative and it allows us to calculate an electric potential
energy, which as usual we will denote by U. As before, only the changes in the potential
have any real meaning, and the change in potential energy is the negative of the work done
by the electric force: Z r2
∆U = −W = −q E · ds (4.2)
r1

We usually want to discuss the potential energy of a charge at a particular point, that
is, we would like a function U(r), but for this we need to make a definition for the potential
energy at a particular point. Usually we will make the choice that the potential energy is
zero when the charge is infinitely far away: U∞ = 0.

4.1.2 Electric Potential

Recall how we developed the concept of the electric field E: The force on a charge q0 is
always proportional to q0, so by dividing the charge out of F we get something which can
conveniently give the force on any charge. Likewise, if we divide out the charge q from
Eq. 4.2 we get a function which we can use to get the change in potential energy for any
charge (simply by multiplying by the charge). This new function is called the electric
potential, V :
∆U
∆V =
q
where ∆U is the change in potential energy of a charge q. Then Eq. 4.2 gives us the difference
in electrical potential between points r1 and r2 :
Z r2
∆V = − E · ds (4.3)
r1

The electric potential is a scalar. Recalling that it was defined by dividing potential
energy by charge we see that its units are CJ (joules per coulomb). The electric potential is
of such great importance that we call this combination of units a volt1 . Thus:

1 volt = 1 V = 1 CJ (4.4)

Of course, it is then true that a joule is equal to a coulomb-volt=C · V. In general,

multiplying a charge times a potential difference gives an energy. It often happens that we
are multiplying an elementary charge (e) (or some multiple thereof) and a potential difference
in volts. It is then convenient to use the unit of energy given by the product of e and a volt;
this unit is called the electron-volt:

1 eV = (e) · (1 V) = 1.60 × 10−19 C · (1 V) = 1.60 × 10−19 J (4.5)

Equation 4.3 can only give us the differences in the value of the electric potential between
two points r1 and r2 . To arrive at a function V (r) defined at all points we need to specify
1
Named in honor of the. . . uh. . . French physicist Jim Volt (1813–1743) who did some electrical experi-
ments in. . . um. . . Bologna. That’s it, Bologna.
4.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 55

a point at which the potential V is zero. Often we will choose this point to be “infinity”
(∞) that is, as we get very far away from the set of charges which give the electric field, the
potential V becomes very small in absolute value. However this “reference point” can be
chosen anywhere and for each problem we need to be sure where it is understood that V = 0
before we can sensibly talk about the function V (r). Then in Eq. 4.3 equal to this reference
point and calculate an potential function V (r) for all other points. So we can write:
Z r
V (r) = − E · ds (4.6)
rref

4.1.3 Equipotential Surfaces

For a given configuration of charges, a set of points where the electric potential V (r) has a
given value is called an equipotential surface. It takes no work to move a charged particle
from one point on such a surface to another point on the surface, for then we have ∆V = 0.
From the relations between E(r) and V (r) it follows that the field lines are perpendicular
to the equipotential surfaces everywhere.

4.1.4 Finding E from V

The definition of V an integral involving the E field implies that the electric field comes from
V by taking derivatives:

∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − Ey = − Ez = − (4.7)
∂x ∂y ∂z

These relations can be written as one equation using the notation for the gradient:

E = −∇V (4.8)

4.1.5 Potential of a Point Charge and Groups of Points Charges

Using Eq. 4.3, one can show that if we specify that the electrical potential is zero at “infinity”,
then the potential due to a point charge q is

q 1 q
V (r) = k = (4.9)
r 4π0 r

where r is the distance of the charge from the point of interest. Furthermore, for a set of
point charges q1, q2, q3, . . . the electrical potential is
X qi X 1 qi
V (r) = k = (4.10)
i ri i 4π0 ri

where ri is the distance of each charge from the point of interest.

56 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Using Eq. 4.10, one can show that the potential due to an electric dipole with magnitude
p at the origin (pointing upward along the z axis) is
1 p cos θ
V (r) = (4.11)
4π0 r2
Here, r and θ have the usual meaning in spherical coordinates.

4.1.6 Potential Due to a Continuous Charge Distribution

To get the electrical potential due to a continuous distribution of charge (with V = 0 at
infinity assumed), add up the contributions to the potential; the potential due to a charge
1 dq
dq at distance r is dV = 4π0 r
so that we must do the integral

1 dq 1 ρ(r)dτ
Z Z
V = = (4.12)
4π0 r 4π0 V r
In the last expression we are using the charge density ρ(r) of the distribution to get the
element of charge dq for the volume element dτ .

4.1.7 Potential Energy of a System of Charges

The potential energy of a pair of point charges (i.e. the work W needed to bring point
charges q1 and q2 from infinite separation to a separation r) is
1 q1 q2
U =W = (4.13)
4π0 r
For a larger set of charges the potential energy is given by the sum
1 X qi qj
U = U12 + U23 + U13 + . . . = (4.14)
4π0 pairs ij rij

Here rij is the distance between charges qi and qj . Each pair is only counted once in the
sum.

4.2 Worked Examples

4.2.1 Electric Potential

1. The electric potential difference between the ground and a cloud in a partic-
ular thunderstorm is 1.2 × 109 V. What is the magnitude of the change in energy
(in multiples of the electron-volt) of an electron that moves between the ground
and the cloud?
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 57

The magnitude of the change in potential as the electron moves between ground and
cloud (we don’t care which way) is |∆V | = 1.2 × 109 V. Multiplying by the magnitude of the
electron’s charge gives the magnitude of the change in potential energy. Note that lumping
“e” and “V” together gives the eV (electron-volt), a unit of energy:

|∆U| = |q∆V | = e(1.2 × 109 V) = 1.2 × 109 eV = 1.2 GeV

2. An infinite nonconducting sheet has a surface charge density σ = 0.10µC/m2

on one side. How far apart are equipotential surfaces whose potentials differ by
50 V?

In Chapter 3, we encountered the formula for the electric field due a nonconducting sheet
of charge. From Eq. 3.5, we had: Ez = σ/(20 ), where σ is the charge density of the sheet,
which lies in the xy plane. So the plane of charge in this problem gives rise to an E field:
σ
Ez =
20
(0.10 × 10−6 mC2
= C2
= 5.64 × 103 N
C
2(8.85 × 10−12 N·m2
)

Here the E field is uniform and also Ex = Ey = 0.

Now, from Eq. 4.7 we have
∂V
= −Ez = −5.64 × 103 N
C
.
∂z
and when the rate of change of some quantity (in this case, with respect to the z coordinate)
is constant we can write the relation in terms of finite changes, that is, with “∆”s:
∆V
= −Ez = −5.64 × 103 N
C
∆z
and from this result we can find the change in z corresponding to any change in V . If we
are interested in ∆V = 50 V, then
∆V (50 V)
∆z = − =− = −8.8 × 10−3 m = −8.8 mm
Ez (5.64 × 103 N
C
)

i.e. to get a change in potential of +50 V we need a change in z coordinate of −8.8 mm.
Since the potential only depends on the distance from the plane, the equipotential surfaces
are planes. The distance between planes whose potential differs by 50 V is 8.8 mm.

3. Two large, parallel conducting plates are 12 cm apart and have charges of
equal magnitude and opposite sign on their facing surfaces. An electrostatic
force of 3.9 × 10−15 N acts on an electron placed anywhere between the two plates.
58 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

(Neglect fringing.) (a) Find the electric field at the position of the electron. (b)
What is the potential difference between the plates?

(a) We are given the magnitude of the electric force on an electron (whose charge is −e).
Then the magnitude of the E field must be:

F F (3.9 × 10−15 N)
E = = = = 2.4 × 104 N
C
= 2.4 × 104 V
m
|q| e (1.60 × 10−19 C)

(b) The E field in the region between two large oppositely–charged plates is uniform so in
that case, we can write
∆V
Ex = −
∆x
(where the E field points in the x direction, i.e. perpendicular to the plates), and the
potential difference between the plates has magnitude

|∆V | = |Ex ∆x| = (2.4 × 104 V

m
)(0.12 m) = 2.9 × 103 V

4. The electric field inside a nonconducting sphere of radius R with charge spread
uniformly throughout its volume, is radially directed and has magnitude
qr
E(r) = .
4π0 R3

Here q (positive or negative) is the total charge within the sphere, and r is the
distance from the sphere’s center. (a) Taking V = 0 at the center of the sphere,
find the electric potential V (r) inside the sphere. (b) What is the difference in
electric potential between a point on the surface and the sphere’s center? (c) If
q is positive, which of those two points is at the higher potential?

(a) We will use Eq. 4.6 to calculate V (r) using r = 0 as the reference point: V (0) = 0. The
electric field has only a radial component Er (r) so that we will evaluate:
Z r Z r
V (r) = − E · ds = − Er (r0 )dr0
rref 0

Using the given expression for Er (r0 ) (which one can derive using Gauss’(s) law) we get:

qr0
r q r
Z Z
V (r) = − dr = − r0 dr0
0 4π0 R 3 4π0R3 0
2
q r
= −
4π0R3 2
qr2
= −
8π0R3
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 59

x
r’= r r’= 4
Figure 4.2: Path of integration for Example 5. Integration goes from r0 = ∞ to r0 = r.

(b) Using the result of part (a), the difference between values of V (r) on the sphere’s surface
and at its center is
qR2 q
V (R) − V (0) = − = −
8π0R3 8π0R

(c) For q positive, the answer to part (b) is a negative number, so the center of the sphere
must be at a higher potential.

5. A charge q is distributed uniformly throughout a spherical volume of radius

R. (a) Setting V = 0 at infinity, show that the potential at a distance r from the
center, where r < R, is given by

q(3R2 − r2 )
V = .
8π0R3
(b) Why does this result differ from that of the previous example? (c) What is
the potential difference between a point of the surface and the sphere’s center?
(d) Why doesn’t this result differ from that of the previous example?

(a) We find the function V (r) just as we did the last example, but this time the reference
point (the place where V = 0) is at r = ∞. So we will evaluate:
Z r Z r
V (r) = − E · ds = − Er (r0) dr0 . (4.15)
rref ∞

The integration path is shown in Fig. 4.2. We note that the integration (from r0 = ∞ to
r0 = r with r < R) is over values of r both outside and inside the sphere.
Just as before, the E field for points inside the sphere is
qr
Er, in(r) = , (4.16)
4π0R3
but now we will also need the value of the E field outside the sphere. By Gauss‘(s) law the
external E field is that same as that due to a point charge q at distance r, so:
q
Er, out(r) = . (4.17)
4π0r2
Because Er (r) has two different forms for the interior and exterior of the sphere, we will
have to split up the integral in Eq. 4.15 into two parts. When we go from ∞ to R we need
60 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

to use Eq. 4.17 for Er (r0 ). When we go from R to r we need to use Eq. 4.16 for Er (r0 ). So
from Eq. 4.15 we now have
Z R Z r
V (r) = − Er, out(r0 ) dr0 − Er, in(r0 ) dr0
∞ R
!
Z R
q Z r
qr0
 
0
= − dr − dr0
∞ 4π0r02 R 4π0R3
(Z )
q R dr 0 Z r 0
r 0
= − + dr
4π0 ∞ r02 R R3

Now do the individual integrals and we’re done:

 
R r
q  1 r02 
V (r) = − − 0 +
4π0  r ∞
2R3 R


(r2 − R2 )
( )
q 1
= − − +
4π0 R 2R3
2R2 (R2 − r2 )
!
q
= +
4π0 2R3 2R3
q(3R2 − r2 )
=
8π0R3

(b) The difference between this result and that of the previous example is due to the different
choice of reference point. There is no problem here since it is only the differences in electrical
potential that have any meaning in physics.
(c) using the result of part (a), we calculate:

q(2R2 ) q(3R2 )
V (R) − V (0) = −
8π0 R3 8π0R3
qR2 q
= − = −
8π0R3 8π0R
This is the same as the corresponding result in the previous example.
(d) Differences in the electrical potential will not depend on the choice of the reference
point, the answer should be the same as in the previous example... if V (r) is calculated
correctly!

6. What are (a) the charge and (b) the charge density on the surface of a con-
ducting sphere of radius 0.15 m whose potential is 200 V (with V = 0 at infinity)?

(a) We are given the radius R of the conducting sphere; we are asked to find its charge Q.
From our work with Gauss’(s) law we know that the electric field outside the sphere is
the same as that of a point charge Q at the sphere’s center. Then if we were to use Eq. 4.6
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 61

Er
r

Er=0 inside
V=+400 V

Figure 4.3: Conducting charged sphere, has potential of 400 V, from Example 7.

with the condition V = 0 at infinity (which is outside the sphere!), we would get the same
result for V as we would for a point charge Q at the origin and V = 0 at infinity, namely:
1 Q
V (r) = (outside sphere)
4π0 r
This equation holds for r ≥ R.
Then at the sphere’s surface (r = R) we have:
1 Q
V =
4π0 R
Solve for Q and plug in the numbers:
Q = 4π0V R
C2
= 4π(8.85 × 10−12 N·m2
)(200 V)(0.15 m)
= 3.3 × 10−9 C
The charge on the sphere is 3.3 × 10−9 C.
(b) The charge found in (a) resides on the surface of the conducting sphere. To get the
charge density, divide the charge by the surface are of the sphere:
Q (3.3 × 10−9 C) C
σ= 2
= = 1.2 × 10−8 m2
4πR 4π(0.15 m)2
C
The charge density on the sphere’s surface is 1.2 × 10−8 m2
.

7. An empty hollow metal sphere has a potential of +400 V with respect to

ground (defined to be at V = 0) and has a charge of 5.0 × 109 C. Find the electric
potential at the center of the sphere.

The problem is diagrammed in Fig. 4.3. From considering a spherical Gaussian surface
drawn inside the sphere, we see that the electric field Er must be zero everywhere in side
the sphere because such a surface will enclose no charge. But for spherical geometries, Er
and V are related by
dV
Er = −
dr
62 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Q
R

r= 4
V=400 V
Figure 4.4: Conducting charged sphere, has potential of 400 V (with V = 0 at r = ∞), from Example 8.

so that with Er = 0, V must be constant throughout the interior of the spherical conductor.
Since the value of V on the sphere itself is +400 V, V then must also equal +400 V at the
center.
So V = +400 V at the center of the sphere. (There was no calculating to do on this
problem!)

8. What is the excess charge on a conducting sphere of radius R = 0.15 m if the

potential of the sphere is 1500 V and V = 0 at infinity?

The problem is diagrammed in Fig. 4.4. If the sphere has net charge Q then from Gauss’
law the radial component of the electric field for points outside the sphere is
Q
Er = k
r2
Using Eq. 4.6 with r = ∞ as the reference point, the potential at distance R from the
sphere’s center is:
r r kQ
Z Z
V (R) = − Er dr = − dr
∞ ∞ r2
R
kQ kQ
= = −0
r ∞
R
kQ
=
R
(Note that the integration takes place over values of r outside the sphere so that the expres-
sion for Er is the correct one. Er is zero inside the sphere.)
We are given that V (R) = 400 V, so from kQ/R = 400 V we solve for Q and get:
R(400 V) (0.15 m)(400 V)
Q= = N·m2
= 2.5 × 10−8 C
k 9
(8.99 × 10 C2 )

9. The electric potential at points in an xy plane is given by

V = (2.0 mV2 )x2 − (3.0 mV2 )y 2 .

4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 63

What are the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the point (3.0 m, 2.0 m)?

Equations 4.7 show how to get the components of the E field if we have the electric
potential V as a function of x and y. Taking partial derivatives, we find:
∂V ∂V
Ex = − = −(4.0 mV2 )x and Ey = − = +(6.0 mV2 )y .
∂x ∂y
Plugging in the given values of x = 3.0 m and y = 2.0 m we get:
V V
Ex = −12 m and Ey = −12 m

So the magnitude of the E field at the given is

q
V V
E= (12.0)2 + (12.0)2 m
= 17 m

and its direction is given by

Ey
 
−1
θ = tan = tan−1 (1.0) = 135◦
Ex
where for θ we have made the proper choice so that it lies in the second quadrant.

4.2.2 Potential Energy of a System of Charges

10. (a) What is the electric potential energy of two electrons separated by
2.00 nm? (b) If the separation increases, does the potential energy increase or
decrease?

Since the charge of an electron is −e, using Eq. 4.13 we find:

1 (−e)(−e)
U =
4π0 r
1 (1.60 × 10−19 C)2
= C2
4π(8.85 × 10−12 N·m2
) (2.00 × 10−9 m)
= 1.15 × 10−19 J

As the charges are both positive, the potential energy is a positive number and is inversely
proportional to r. So the potential energy decreases as r increases.

11. Derive an expression for the work required to set up the four-charge config-
uration of Fig. 4.5, assuming the charges are initially infinitely far apart.

The work required to set up these charges is the same as the potential energy of a set of
qq
point charges, given in Eq. 4.14. (That is, sum the potential energies k riijj over all pairs of
64 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

+q + a - -q

a a

-q - a + +q

Figure 4.5: Charge configuration for Example 11.

+q + a - -q +q + a - -q +q + a - -q

a a a

-q - -q - a + +q

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.6: (a) Second charge is brought in from ∞ and put in place. (b) Third charge is brought in. (c)
Last charge is brought in.

charges.) We can arrive at the same answer and understand that formula a little better if
we assemble the system one charge at a time.
Begin with the charge in the upper left corner of Fig. 4.5. Moving this charge from
infinity to the desired location requires no work because it is never near any other charge.
We can write: W1 = 0.
Now bring up the charge in the upper right corner (−q). Now we have the configuration
shown in Fig. 4.6(a). While being put into place it has experienced a force from the first
charge and the work required of the external agency is the change in potential energy of this
charge, namely
1 (+q)(−q) q2
W2 = =−
4π0 a 4π0a
Now bring the charge in the lower left corner (−q), √ as shown in 4.6(b). When put into
place it is a distance a from the first charge and 2a from the second charge. The work
required for this step is the potential energy of the third charge in this configuration, namely:

q2
!
1 (+q)(−q) 1 (−q)(−q) 1
W3 = + √ = −1 + √
4π0 a 4π0 2a 4π0a 2

Finally, bring in the fourth charge (+q) to give the configuration

√ in Fig. 4.6(c). The
last charge is now a distance a from two −q charges and a distance 2a from the other +q
charge. So the work required for this step is
1 (+q)(−q) 1 (+q)(+q)
W4 = 2 + √
4π0 a 4π0 2a
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 65

q1 - A

B + q2
Figure 4.7: Charge configuration for Example 12.

q2
!
1
= −2 + √
4π0a 2

So now add up all the W ’s to get the total work done:

WTotal = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4
q2
!
1 1
= −1 − 1 + √ − 2 + √
4π0a 2 2
2
!
q 2
= −4 + √
4π0a 2

This is a nice analytic answer; if we combine all the numerical factors (including the 4π) we
get:
(−0.21)q 2
WTotal =
0 a
This is the same result as we’d get by using Eq. 4.14.

12. In the rectangle of Fig. 4.7, the sides have lengths 5.0 cm and 15 cm, q1 =
−5.0 µC and q2 = +2.0 µC. With V = 0 at infinity, what are the electric potentials
(a) at corner A and (b) corner B? (c) How much work is required to move a
third charge q3 = +3.0 µC from B to A along a diagonal of the rectangle? (d) Does
this work increase or decrease the electric energy of the three–charge system?
Is more, less or the same work required if q3 is moved along paths that are (e)
inside the rectangle but not on the diagonal and (f) outside the rectangle?

(a) To find the electric potential due to a group of point charges, use Eq. 4.10. Since point
A is 15 cm away from the −5.0 µC charge and 5.0 cm away from the +2.0 µC charge, we get:
1 q1 q2
 
V = +
4π0 r1 r2
" #
2 (−5.0 × 10−6 C) (+2.0 × 10−6 C)
= (8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
) + = 6.0 × 104 V
(15 × 10−2 m) (5.0 × 10−2 m)
66 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

(b) Perform the same calculation as in part (a). The charges q1 and q2 are at different
distances from point B so we get a different answer:
" #
2 (−5.0 × 10−6 C) (+2.0 × 10−6 C)
V = (8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
) + = −7.8 × 105 V
(5.0 × 10−2 m) (15 × 10−2 m)

(c) Using the results of part (a) and (b), calculate the change in potential V as we move
from point B to point A:

∆V = VA − VB = 6.0 × 104 V − (−7.8 × 105 V) = 8.4 × 105 V

The change in potential energy for a +3.0 µC charge to move from B to A is

∆U = q∆V = (3.0 × 10−6 C)(8.4 × 105 V) = 2.5 J

(d) Since a positive amount of work is done by the outside agency in moving the charge
from B to A, the electric energy of the system has increased . We can see that this must be
the case because the +3.0 µC charge has been moved closer to another positive charge and
farther away from a negative charge.
(e) The force which a point charge (or set of point charges) exerts on a another charge
is a conservative force. So the work which it does (or likewise the work required of some
outside force) as the charge moves from one point to another is independent of the path taken.
Therefore we would require the same amount of work if the path taken was some other path
inside the rectangle.
(f) Since the work done is independent of the path taken, we require the same amount of
work even if the path from A to B goes outside the rectangle.

13. Two tiny metal spheres A and B of mass mA = 5.00 g and mB = 10.0 g have
equal positive charges q = 5.00 µC. The spheres are connected by a massless
nonconducting string of length d = 1.00 m, which is much greater than the radii
of the spheres. (a) What is the electric potential energy of the system? (b)
Suppose you cut the string. At that instant, what is the acceleration of each
sphere? (c) A long time after you cut the string, what is the speed of each
sphere?

(a) The initial configuration of the charges in shown in Fig. 4.8(a). The electrostatic potential
energy of this system (i.e. the work needed to bring the charges together from far away is

1 q1 q2 N·m2 (5.00 × 10−6 C)2

U= = (8.99 × 109 C2
) = 0.225 J
4π0 r (1.00 m)

We are justified in using formulae for point charges because the problem states that the
sizes of the spheres are small compared to the length of the string (1.00 m).
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 67

q = 5.00 mC q = 5.00 mC

1.00 m
mA=5.0 g mB=10.0 g

(a)

F F

mA=5.0 g mB=10.0 g

(b)

Figure 4.8: (a) Charged spheres attached to a string, in Example 13. The electrostatic repulsion is balanced
by the string tension. (b) After string is cut there is a mutual force of electrical repulsion F. Magnitude of
the force on each charge is the same but their accelerations are different!

(b) From Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of the mutual force of repulsion of the two charges
is
1 q2 9 N·m2 (5.00 × 10
−6
C)2
F = = (8.99 × 10 C2
) = 0.225 N
4π0 r2 (1.00 m)2
but since the masses of the spheres are different their accelerations have different magnitudes.
From Newton’s 2nd law, the accelerations of the masses are:
F (0.225 N)
a1 = = = 45.0 sm2
m1 (5.00 × 10−3 kg)
F (0.225 N)
a2 = = = 22.2 sm2
m2 (10.0 × 10−3 kg)
Of course, the accelerations are in opposite directions.
(c) From the time that the string breaks to the time that we can say that the spheres are
“very far apart”, the only force that each one experiences is the force of electrical repulsion
(arising from the other sphere). This is a conservative force so that total mechanical energy
is conserved. It is also true that there are no external forces being exerted on the two–sphere
system. Then we know that the total (vector) momentum of the system is also conserved.
First, let’s deal with the condition of energy conservation. The total energy right after
the string is cut is just the potential energy found in part (a) since the spheres are not yet
in motion. So Einit = 0.225 J.
When the spheres are a long ways apart, there is no electrical potential energy, but
they are in motion with respective speeds vA and vB so there is kinetic energy at “large”
separation. Then energy conservation tells us:
1
m v2
2 A A
+ 21 mB vB2 = 0.225 J (4.18)
68 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Momentum conservation gives us the other equation that we need. If mass B has x–
velocity vB then mass A has x–velocity −vA (it moves in the other direction. The system
begins and ends with a total momentum of zero so then:
mA
−mA vA + mB vB = 0 =⇒ vB = vA
mB

Substitute this result into 4.18 and get:

!
m2A 2
1
m v2
2 A A
+ 1
m
2 B
v = 0.225 J
m2B A

Factor out vA2 on the left side and plug in some numbers:

m2 (5.00 g)2
! !
1
2
mA + A vA2 = 1
2
5.00 g + vA2 = (3.75 × 10−3 kg)vA2 = 0.225 J
mB (10.0 g)

So then we get the final speed of A:

0.225 J 2
vA2 = = 60.0 ms2 =⇒ vA = 7.75 ms
3.75 × 10 kg
−3

and the speed of B: !

mA 5.00 g
vB = vA = 7.75 ms = 3.87 ms
mB 10.0 g

14. Two electrons are fixed 2.0 cm apart. Another electron is shot from infinity
and stops midway between the two. What is its initial speed?

The problem is diagrammed in Fig. 4.9(a) and (b). Since the electrostatic force is a
conservative force, we know that energy is conserved between configurations (a) and (b).
In picture (a) there is energy stored in the repulsion of the pair of electrons as well as the
kinetic energy of the third electron. (Initially the third electron is too far away to “feel”
the first two electrons.) In picture (b) there is no kinetic energy but the electrical potential
energy has increased due to the repulsion between the third electron and the first two. If
we can calculate the change in potential energy ∆U then by using energy conservation,
∆U + ∆K = 0 we can find the initial speed of the electron.
The potential energy of a set of point charges (with V = 0 at ∞) is given in Eq. 4.14.
When the third electron comes from infinity and stops at the midpoint, the increase in
potential energy the contribution given by the third electron as it “sees” its new neighbors.
With r = 1.0 cm, this increase is

1 (−e)(−e) 1 (−e)(−e) e2
∆U = + =
4π0 r 4π0 r 2π0r
4.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 69

-e
v0
2.0 cm
-e
-e

(a)

-e
1.0 cm
-e v=0

-e

(b)
Figure 4.9: (a) Electron flies in from ∞ with speed v0 . (b) Electron comes to rest midway between the
other two electrons.

The change in kinetic energy is ∆K = − 21 mv02. Then energy conservation gives:

e2
∆K = −∆U =⇒ − 12 mv02 = −
2π0r
Solve for v0:

e2
v02 =
π0mr
(1.60 × 10−19 C)2 m2
= C2
= 1.01 × 105 s2
π(8.85 × 10−12 N·m2
)(9.11 × 10−31 kg)(1.0 × 10−2 m)

which gives
v0 = 3.18 × 102 m
s
70 CHAPTER 4. THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
 NUMERICAL METHODS AND COMPLEX FUNCTIONS (U23MA202) (R 2023)
Slow Learners Question Bank
Unit – I Vector Calculus
Part-A
1) Find the directional derivatives of at in the direction of ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ .
2) Find the unit normal vector to the surface at
3) Find such that ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ is solenoidal.
4) Prove that .
5) Find ⃗ if ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗
6) If ⃗ ⃗⃗ are irrotational, prove that ⃗ ⃗⃗ is solenoidal.
Part-B
1) (i) Find the directional derivative of at in the direction of ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗.
(ii) Show that ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ is irrotational and hence find the
corresponding potential function  .
1
2) (i) Show that  2 r n  n(n  1)r n2 where r 2  x 2  y 2  z 2 . Hence find the value of  2  
r
(ii) Find the work done by the force ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ when it moves a particle from
to along any path.
3) (i) Verify Greens theorem in the plane for  [(3x 2  8 y 2 )dx  (4 y  6 xy )dy] where C is the boundary of
c

the region defined by the lines x  0, y  0 , x  y  1

(ii) Verify Stokes theorem for ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ where S is the rectangle in the xy-plane formed
by the lines x  0, x  a, y  0 and y  b
4) Verify Divergence theorem for ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ taken over the cube bounded by the planes
x  0, x  1, y  0 , y  1, z  0, z  1
Unit – II Solution of Linear Equations and Eigenvalue Problems
Part-A
1) Using Newton-Raphson method, find the iteration formula to compute√ .
2) Write the convergence condition and order of convergence for Newton-Raphson method.
3) Solve by the method of fixed point iteration
4) Compare Gauss Jacobi with Gauss Jordan.
1 2
5) Find the dominant eigenvalue of the matrix   by power method.
3 4
Part-B
1) (i) Solve the system of equations by Gauss- elimination method
x + 2y + z = 3; 2x + 3y + 3z = 10; 3x y + 2z = 13.
(ii) Solve the following system of equation by Gauss-Jordan method

2) (i) Solve the following system of equation by Gauss-Jacobi method

27 x  6 y  z  85; x  y  54 z  110; 6 x  15 y  2 z  72

1
 (ii) Solve by Gauss-Seidel iterative method to solve the equations
20x + y 2z = 17; 3x + 20y z = 18; 2x 3y + 20z = 25.
3) Using power method find the dominant Eigen value and the corresponding Eigen vector of the matrix
1 6 1
A  1 2 0 Find also the least latent root and hence the third Eigenvalue also.
0 0 3
4) (i) Find the Numerically largest Eigen value and its corresponding Eigenvector of a matrix
25 1 2 
A   1 3 0  by power method.
 2 0  4
(ii) Find the positive real root of 3x – cosx –1 by N-R method correct to 6 decimal places.
Unit – III Interpolation, Numerical Differentiation and Numerical Integration
Part-A
1) State Lagrange’s interpolation formula. What is its advantages.
2) Find the divided difference table for the following data:
x 2 3 5
y 0 14 102
3) Define Newton’s backward interpolation formula
1
4) Apply Trapezoidal method to evaluate I   e x dx , taking h = 0.2
2

5) What is the order of the error in Trapezoidal and Simpson’s one-third rules?
Part-B
1) (i) Using Lagrange’s interpolation formula, find y(10) given that
y(5) = 12, y(6) = 13, y(9) = 14, y(11) = 16.
(ii) From the following values, find f (x) and hence find f (6) by Newton’s divided difference formula
x 1 2 7 8
f (x) 1 5 5 4
2) From the following data, find θ at x = 43 and x = 83
x: 40 50 60 70 80 90
θ: 184 204 226 250 276 304

3) (i) By dividing the range into ten equal parts, evaluate  sin xdx by Trapezoidal and Simpsons rule.
0
6
1
(ii) Evaluate, 1 x
0
2
dx by (i) Trapezoidal rule (ii) Simpsons rule.

4) Evaluate ∫ ∫ with h = k = 0.5 by using (i) Trapezoidal rule (ii) Simpson’s rule

2
 Unit – IV Analytic Function
Part-A
1) Find the critical point of the transformation .
1
2) Find the fixed point of the bilinear transformation w 
z
3) Show that the function ̅ is nowhere analytic. 4) Is the ̅ is analytic?
5) Check whether the function is Harmonic or not.
Part-B
1) (i) Prove that an analytic function with constant modules is constant.
 2 2  2
(ii) If f(z) is a regular function of z, Prove that  2  2  f ( z )  4 f 1 ( z )
2

 x y 
2) (i) Find the image of the infinite strips (i) <y < (ii) < y < under the transformation w =
y
(ii) If u  x 2  y 2 , v  then prove that u and v are harmonic function but f ( z )  u  iv is not an
x  y2
2

analytic function.
3) (i) Find an analytic function whose real part is u = ex[xcosy-ysiny].
(ii) Show that imaginary part v = e-x(xcosy + ysiny) is harmonic function. Hence find the analytic
function f(z) = u+iv.
4) (i) Find the image of |z + 1| = 1 under the transformation w =
(ii) Find the bilinear transformation which maps z = 0, 1, in z-plane into w = i, –1, – i in w-plane
respectively.
Unit – V Complex Integration
Part-A
1) Find the poles of 2) Find the residue of at .
3) Find the image of the circle |z| = 3 under the transformation w=2z
4) Classify the singularity of the function .
5) Expand as a Taylor series about the point z = 0.
Part-B
1) (i) Evaluate using cauchy’s integral formula ∫ dz where C is |z| = 2.

(ii) If C is the circle C: |z| =4 then evaluate ∫ dz.

2) (i) Find the Laurent’s series expansion for f(z) = valid in the regions | | ,
(b) 1<|z|<2.
(ii) Evaluate f(z)= in Laurent series valid for the regions |z|> 3 and 1<|z|<3.

3) Using Cauchy’s residue theorem evaluate ∫ dz where c is |z – i|= 2.

4) (i) Evaluate by contour integration ∫

(ii) By contour integration evaluate ∫ d