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ScienceVIC9 Ch03

Chapter 3 discusses the brain's role in coordinating responses through the nervous and endocrine systems, emphasizing the importance of neuroplasticity. It outlines the structure and function of the human nervous system, detailing how neurons transmit signals and how hormones regulate bodily processes. The chapter also explores the interaction between these systems in maintaining homeostasis and highlights the effects of various hormones produced by different glands.

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ScienceVIC9 Ch03

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80

Chapter 3 Response and

coordination

Chapter introduction
The brain is the master organ that controls the actions of nerves within the nervous system and is
also involved in the regulation of hormones within the endocrine system. Any thought, feeling or
behaviour that you undertake on a daily basis is ultimately controlled by the brain. The brain continually
reorganises itself by making new neural connections throughout life and this marvellous concept, known
as neuroplasticity, is explored later in this chapter. You will begin by looking at how the brain provides
a critical link between the nervous and endocrine systems, and then look in depth at the structure and
function of the human nervous system.

Curriculum

An animal’s response to a stimulus is coordinated by its central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord); neurons transmit electrical impulses and are connected by synapses (VCSSU118)
• identifying functions for different areas of the brain 3.4
• modelling the ‘knee jerk’ reaction and explaining why it is a reflex action 3.3
• identifying responses involving the nervous and endocrine systems 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
• researching the causes and effects of spinal cord damage 3.3

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
81

Glossary terms
action potential homunculus plasticity
cerebral cortex hormone reflex action
contralateral organisation interneuron sensory neuron
corpus callosum motor neuron synapse
endocrine system nervous system target cell
hemispheric specialisation neuron
homeostasis neurotransmitter

Concept map

3.1
Body systems are
3.2
regulated and
coordinated 3.3

3.4
By the

Endocrine Nervous
system system

Involves Involves

Hormones Neurons

Bloodstream Action potentials

Signals processed by

Brain Spinal cord

Cortex (outer layer): Within the brain: Involved in involuntary reflex

Cerebral cortex Hypothalamus actions, for example,
knee-jerk reflex
Left and right hemispheres Hippocampus
Lobes Amygdala
Cerebellum
Brain stem
Pons
Medulla

Damage in different regions causes different symptoms

3.1 Keeping in control

The brain controls all bodily functions by

communicating with different parts of the
body every second of every day. It does this
in two ways: by sending electrical signals and
neurotransmitters via the nervous system and
by communicating using chemical messengers
(hormones) via the endocrine system.

The nervous system

The basic building blocks of the nervous
system are our neurons. A neuron is
neuron
essentially an individual nerve
a specialised nerve cell cell. It is the network of these
nervous system neurons that allow signals
consists of the brain,
Figure 3.1 The neuron is the basic building block of
spinal cord and peripheral to move between the brain
nerves and receptors that the human nervous system.
communicate fast messages and body. These organised
within the body
networks, composed of up to (PNS), which is all of the neurons and
WORKSHEET
one trillion neurons, make up what is known nerve networks throughout the body that lie
as the nervous system. outside of the CNS. The PNS has multiple
roles including controlling voluntary muscle
The human nervous system is composed of movements and the self-regulating bodily
VIDEO
two main parts: the central nervous system functions that you have no conscious control What do
(CNS), which includes the brain and spinal over. Figure 3.2 shows the key components hormones do?

cord, and the peripheral nervous system of the human nervous system.

Brain
Central
nervous system
VIDEO
(CNS) Spinal cord
Parts of the
nervous
Nervous system.
system Somatic
Control of voluntary
muscle movements
Sympathetic
Contains sensory neurons
Fight–flight response
and motor neurons
Peripheral Activates bodily
nervous system functions responsible
Autonomic for the fight–flight
Self-regulatory control response
over internal muscles,
organs and glands

Parasympathetic
Maintains homeostasis
Conserves energy

Figure 3.2 The components of the human nervous system

hypothalamus. The hypothalamus links the

1 What is another name for an Quick check 3.1
individual nerve cell?
nervous system and endocrine systems. It
2 Which components make up the CNS (central nervous
is responsible for regulating an astonishing
system)? And the PNS (peripheral nervous system)? number of behaviours, such as sleep,
3 What role does the somatic nervous system play? Give hunger, thirst, managing sexual behaviour,
an example that illustrates the somatic nervous system and emotional and stress responses. The
in action. hypothalamus also controls the pituitary
gland for the release of several different
hormones.

The endocrine system Other important glands found throughout

The nervous system does not work in the body include the thyroid, thymus,
VIDEO isolation, but works with the body’s sense adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries and testes.
Identify
organs and the endocrine system. The These glands are involved in regulating our
parts of the
endocrine endocrine system utilises glands located metabolism, fight-or-flight responses and
system.
throughout the body, which secrete reproductive processes.
hormones that regulate a variety of bodily
endocrine system
processes such as metabolism,
the system of glands that digestion, blood pressure and growth.
controls hormones in the
body While the endocrine system is not
hormone directly linked to the nervous system,
a chemical messenger that
is secreted by endocrine the two interact in many ways. Some
glands and circulated in
the bloodstream to act on a of the most important endocrine
target cell
glands are found within the brain
target cell
a cell affected by a specific and include the pineal gland, the
hormone
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.

Figure 3.4 Female and male endocrine glands

throughout the body

Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers sent
by the endocrine system to communicate
with other parts of the body. They are
made by endocrine glands which secrete the
hormones directly into the bloodstream. The
Figure 3.3 A cross-sectional view of the brain blood carries the hormones around the body
showing the location of the pineal gland, pituitary
so in this way, hormones are transported and
gland and the hypothalamus
can effect change in a totally different part of
Located at the base of the forebrain is a the body to where they were made. The cells
tiny collection of neurons known as the they affect are called target cells.

Organisms are coordinated by many hormones and just small amounts of these chemicals can
have major effects. Table 3.1 shows where hormones are produced in the human body.

Organ Hormone Action of hormone

Pancreas Insulin Decreases blood glucose levels by increasing the uptake of glucose by the
liver and muscle cells
Glucagon Increases blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to release glucose into
the bloodstream
Adrenal gland Adrenaline Secreted at moments of fear, stress or excitement, and has the effect of
increasing the heart rate, constricting blood vessels close to skin, dilating
blood vessels to some muscles, raising blood pressure and causing a rise
in blood sugar. All these factors make the person ready for physical action
during the fight–flight–freeze process
Kidneys Erythropoietin Promotes the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow
Pituitary gland Growth hormone GH Stimulates cell division, growth and repair of the body
(GH) and others
Pineal gland Melatonin Responsible for regulating sleep patterns as it induces sleep. Melatonin is
secreted in dark conditions and ceases to be released under light
Hypothalamus Various Sometimes referred to as the ‘master switchboard’, the hypothalamus is part
hormones of the brain and is the main control for the endocrine system, operating via
the pituitary gland (the ‘master gland’) as well as via nerves to other glands
Testes Testosterone Promotes growth of bone, the development of muscle, growth of facial hair
and deepening of the voice in males during puberty
Ovaries Oestrogen Promotes development of breasts and hair and changes the shape of the
hip bones in females during puberty
Thyroid Various thyroid Controls the body’s rate of energy production and metabolism, and controls
hormones, how sensitive the body is to other hormones
including
thyroxine
Parathyroid Parathyroid Controls the amount of calcium in the blood and bones
gland hormone
Thymus Thymosin Stimulates the development of T cells that play an important role in the
maintenance of a healthy immune system
Table 3.1 Endocrine glands, their hormones and actions

Endocrine disrupting chemicals in plastics Explore! 3.1

How can the rising rates of cancer and metabolic conditions such as diabetes be explained?
What about declining fertility rates? Well one hypothesis is that exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals are
affecting our bodily functions. The scientific research behind this hypothesis has come from mainly rat and mice
studies, but some scientists believe it holds true for humans too. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals are commonly
found in plastics and many other everyday household products, but what are the safe levels of exposure?
Research the following questions.
1 Where might you find endocrine-disrupting chemicals in your house?
2 What everyday products might you find BPA (bisphenol A) in?
3 Discuss the stages of your life during which exposure to endocrine disrupting hormones might be
more harmful.
4 List some ways you could limit your exposure to endocrine disrupting hormones.

Melatonin and sleep Did you know? 3.1

An adolescent typically requires 9.25 hours of sleep per
night. However, an adolescent’s body clock is shifted forward
1–2 hours each day, which may cause a delay in feeling ‘sleepy’.
Due to melatonin not being released in adolescents until 1–2
hours later on average than a child or an adult, they may not
feel sleepy until 1–2 hours later at night. This can be further
exacerbated by social media and work, school or sporting
commitments. As a result, adolescents have irregular sleep
patterns, an accumulation of sleep debt and have difficulty
waking up in the morning.
The pineal gland is highlighted and secretes the
hormone melatonin, which controls the body’s
biological clock.

Step 1. Each morning, record the amount of sleep you have for a 7-day period. Try this 3.1
Step 2. The recommended number of hours of sleep for an adolescent is 9.25 × 7 days = 64.75
hours. Express the amount of sleep you got as a percentage by following this formula:
your hours
Percentage of required sleep 100
64.75
If the percentage is greater than 100, you are getting a sufficient amount of sleep. If it is below, you are
suffering from sleep debt. The lower the percentage, the greater the sleep debt. For example, if you get
56
8 hours of sleep each night for 7 days, then 8 × 7 = 56 so, 100 86.48%. This means you are only
64.75
getting 86.48% of required sleep for a week and are suffering a 13.52% sleep debt.
Step 3. Collect the results of the whole class and find the average sleep debt of one of your classmates.

Homeostasis is maintained through the

1 Which part of the brain is Quick check 3.2
located at the base of the
endocrine and nervous systems working
forebrain and controls many bodily functions such as
together. It involves the use of chemical
sleep, hunger and thirst? messengers to signal to cells, however the
2 Describe how hormones are transported around the body. speed of message transmission and the
3 Which hormone is responsible for regulating sleep length of the effects differ between the
patterns and induces sleep? two systems.
4 Define target cells.
5 Discuss the effects of oestrogen and testosterone. The key differences between the actions
of the endocrine and nervous systems are
shown in Table 3.2.
Two systems working together
As discussed in Chapter 2, the endocrine
homeostasis While the body does adapt to external and nervous systems work in a coordinated
the maintenance of a
relatively stable internal events, it also maintains a relatively way with all the other body systems
body environment, despite
changes in the external constant internal environment to maintain a relatively stable internal
environment
through a process called homeostasis. environment and protect the body from harm.

Feature Nervous system Endocrine system

Signals Electrochemical messengers Chemical messengers (hormones)
(via electrical impulses and
neurotransmitters)
Pathway Transmission by neurons Transported in bloodstream
Speed of information Fast Slow
Duration of effect Short lived Typically, longer lasting
Type of action and response Voluntary or involuntary Involuntary
Target cells Localised cells Often distant (many cells may be
affected)
Example of action Your friend throws a ball at you. When a male reaches puberty, the
Your sensory receptors detect the pituitary gland secretes a hormone
visual stimulus and the message is called luteinising hormone. This
transmitted via nerves to your brain. acts on the testes and stimulates
Further messages are then sent them to release testosterone. As
down the spinal cord and via motor the amount of testosterone builds
neurones and your skeletal muscle up in his system, it triggers sperm
is stimulated to contact. As a result, production, muscle development,
you reach out and catch the ball. hair growth and changes to his voice.
Table 3.2 A comparison of the nervous and endocrine systems

Section 3.1 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 What is the basic building block of the human nervous system called?
2 Name two endocrine glands found within the brain.

Understanding
3 Outline how hormones reach their target cells.
4 Explain the difference in speed of the transmission within the nervous and endocrine systems.

Applying
5 Construct a Venn diagram that shows the similarities and differences between the nervous
and endocrine system.

Analysing
6 Compare the somatic and autonomic divisions of the nervous system. How are they similar
and how are they different?
7 Classify the following events as being under somatic or autonomic control:
a Sweating c Pulling your hand away from a flame
b Walking d Contractions of intestine to move food along.

Evaluating
8 The contraceptive pill contains a chemical which acts like the hormone oestrogen, and it must
be taken daily by women. It attempts to stop sperm reaching an egg in several ways, including:
• suppressing ovulation so an egg is not released from the ovaries
• making the cervical mucus thicker and hence more difficult for sperm to reach an egg
• decreasing the thickness of the lining of the womb so it is not thick enough to allow an
egg to attach to it.
Deduce some reasons why the pill is not guaranteed to work 100% of the time.

3.2 Neurons and the

nervous system

Types of neurons 2 Interneurons transmit sensory neuron

a nerve cell that transmits
neural information within messages from the sensory
The brain and nervous system are made of
WORKSHEET the spinal cord and brain. receptors to the central
approximately 100 billion specialised nerve nervous system
Interneurons connect interneuron
cells, known as neurons. Neurons transmit
the sensory and motor a nerve cell that transmits
neural information to, from and within the information within the brain
neurons and can only be and spinal cord (central
central nervous system. There are three types nervous system)
found in the CNS.
of neurons: motor neuron
3 Motor neurons transmit a nerve cell that transmits
1 Sensory neurons transmit neural neural information from
messages from the central
nervous system to the
information from sensory receptor sites the CNS to the PNS.
effectors

in the PNS to the CNS. The sensory This information is designed to initiate
information being transmitted could be a response in the effector which could be
from any of your five senses. muscles, organs or glands.

Figure 3.5 The different sensory neuron receptors associated with your five senses. Their shape is closely associated with their
specialised functions.

To help remember the three types of neurons, think of a SIM (Sensory, Inter, Motor) card
that is stored in mobile phones in order for it to work.
Figure 3.6 The three types
Interneuron
of neuron (sensory, inter
Axon and motor) form an arc.
Axon terminals Note how the sensory
neuron has receptors to
detect a stimulus and the
Cell body
motor neuron causes your
Nucleus response.
Dendrites

Sensory Myelin Motor

Myelin
neuron neuron

Axon
Myelinated
Axon
axon

Axon
terminals

Touch Response

Structures of a neuron
The key structures of the neuron include the dendrites, cell body, axon, myelin sheath, axon
terminal and the synapse. Although the synapse is not a true structure, it is the small gap that
exists between neurons, where the neurotransmitters pass the information from one neuron to
the next or to an effector.

Structure of neuron Function

Dendrite Contains receptor sites that receive neurotransmitters from
neighbouring neurons
Cell body Contains most of the cell’s organelles including the nucleus
Nucleus The control centre of the cell and contains its genetic material
Axon Transfers electrical impulses from the cell body to the synapse. It is
the axons of neurons that are called nerves when they are all grouped
together in a bundle
Axon terminal Found at the end of the axon and contains neurotransmitters that are
held in vesicles. Neurotransmitters that are released once an electrical
impulse is received
Myelin sheath An insulating layer that covers the axon. It helps keep the electrical
signals inside the cell, allowing faster transmission
Synapse Electrical messages are passed along the neuron, but neurons do synapse
not touch each other. There is a small gap between the neurons the gap between two neurons

called a synapse. When an electrical impulse is received, the neurotransmitter

the chemical messenger
signal diffuses/travels across this gap but as chemical signals that is released from one
neuron and travels across
called neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters then bind to the the synapse to bind to the
next neuron
receptors on the dendrites of the neighbouring neurons.
Table 3.3 Structure of the neuron
Cambridge Science ISBN 978-1-108-62918-8 © Ardley et al. 2019 Cambridge University Press
Victorian Curriculum Year 9 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party. Updated September 2023
90 Chapter 3 RESPONSE AND COORDINATION

Making model neurons Try this 3.2

Dendrite
Create a poster showing models of
Nucleus two neurons, their structure and function. Make sure
your poster has the following features: a title, a model
Cell body of two adjacent neurons, labels for every structure on
Axon one of the neurons (along with a dot point explaining
their function) and a label for the synapse.
You will need a piece of A3 paper and your
teacher will provide you with a selection of materials
to make the model neurons. Some suggestions
include: pipe cleaners, aluminium foil, pom-poms,
straws, modelling clay/plasticine or similar.
Myelin
sheath Suggested method:
1 Take a pom-pom, and then cut one of your pipe
cleaners into three pieces. These will be the
dendrites and the pom-pom will be the soma (the
cell body of a neuron). Wrap the pipe cleaners
Direction
of impulse around the pom-pom.
2 Now you will make the axon. For this, wrap
another pipe cleaner around the soma just at the
end of it, so you have a long piece coming down.
3 Around the axon there is a fatty substance called
the myelin sheath. To represent this, you are
Axon terminal going to use a straw. Cut pieces of straw about
Synapse 2.5 cm long each and thread them onto your axon
with gaps between the lengths of straw. You
Figure 3.7 The key structures of a neuron showing the neural impulse should have a bit of string left at the end.
travelling in one direction only along the neuron, from the dendrites to 4 Put the end of the pipe cleaner near the bottom
the axon terminal.
of the last myelin and twist to make a hoop and
cut so it splits – or add more small pipe cleaner
pieces. You are beginning to make your axon
1 Name the three different types Quick check 3.3 terminals.
of neurons. 5 Repeat steps 1–4 for the next neuron.
2 Where are interneurons found in the body? 6 Label the parts of the neuron with a dot point
3 Interneurons are sometimes called connector neurons. explaining the function of each structure
Explain why you think that is an appropriate name. (including the synapse).
4 What is the function of the myelin sheath that covers 7 Stick the neuron onto the sheet of paper, and
the axon? hang up your posters in the classroom so that the
5 A fly lands on someone’s face and they brush it off. List axon terminals of one person’s poster connect to
the three types of neurons in the order they would be the dendrites on the next poster. You should have
activated when the stimulus is detected. a chain of neurons forming a nerve!

Communication within and

messengers (neurotransmitters) arrive from
between neurons
other neurons, and the threshold is reached,
Communication within: action an action potential can begin and will move
potential along the axon, like a wave. If the threshold
An action potential is another name for is not reached, no action potential can start.
the electrical impulse or neural impulse that This is known as the ‘all or none’ principle.
moves along a neuron. It travels only the Once an action potential has been triggered,
length of the neuron and once the action it is self-sustaining, meaning that it will
potential reaches the axon terminal, it relies continue to the end of the axon without
action potential on a chemical messenger to further stimulation.
the electrical impulse
(message) that is pass the action potential on to
transmitted along a neuron
the next neuron. The speed of an action potential moving
along an axon can vary between neurons.
When a neuron is not sending a neural The fastest travel over 100 m/s, with the
impulse along its axon, it is considered to slowest traveling at about 1 m/s. The speed
be ‘at rest’. Each neuron requires a minimal depends upon two factors: the larger the
level of stimulation – called the neuron’s diameter (width) of the axon, the faster the
threshold – to be activated and an action impulse and if the axon has a myelin sheath
potential to begin. When enough chemical it travels faster than unmyelinated axons.

Multiple sclerosis Explore! 3.2

Multiple sclerosis is
a degenerative neurological condition,
characterised by the development of
scleroses (Greek for ‘scars’) forming on
neurons of the central nervous system.
These scars result in damage to the
myelin sheaths, which insulate the
neurons, meaning they do not transmit
messages effectively. This can lead to a
variety of symptoms such as problems
with motor (muscle) control, visual
problems if the damage occurs in the
optic nerves, problems with coordination
and balance, and memory loss. Research
multiple sclerosis and answer the
following questions.
1 Which of the following neurons can
be affected: interneurons in the
brain, motor neurons, interneurons
in spinal cord, sensory neurons?
2 Outline treatments that exist for
Figure 3.8 Multiple sclerosis affects many areas of the body.
multiple sclerosis.

Communication between neurons: is known as the pre-synaptic neuron. These

the synapse specialised chemical messengers then move
When neurons communicate with each other, across the gap between neurons (called the
the action potential travelling down the axon synaptic gap). Scientists have managed to
causes neurotransmitters to be released from identify over 100 different neurotransmitters in
the vesicles (tiny sacs of neurohormone) within the human brain alone, but evidence suggests
the axon terminal. This side of the synapse there are significantly more than this number.

Neurotransmitter Role What can go wrong?

Dopamine Acts within the brain on A lack of dopamine-producing cells
pathways associated with motor in the brain can cause Parkinson’s
functions (movement) and disease, a neurological condition
emotional arousal and motivation characterised by tremors, stiffness and
uncoordinated movements.
Acetylcholine Transmits the message from the Curare is a plant-based toxin that was
axon terminals of a motor neuron used by South American Indigenous
to a skeletal muscle people to paint onto the arrows of
blow-darts. When shot at a victim, this
toxin prevented acetylcholine from
binding to the post-synaptic neuron,
causing paralysis.
Serotonin Produced in the intestine Some scientists theorise that low levels
and central nervous system; of serotonin are linked to depression.
it regulates appetite, mood,
memory and behaviour
Glutamate Major excitatory neurotransmitter High glutamate levels are involved
in the CNS; involved with with depression, anxiety and DHD-
memory and learning like symptoms such as the inability to
concentrate. Low levels of glutamate
are linked to insomnia, lack of
concentration and low energy levels.

Table 3.4 Some common neurotransmitters and their roles

Once the neurotransmitters cross the

synaptic gap, they bind to special receptor Pre-synaptic Post-synaptic
sites on the dendrite of the next neuron – neuron neuron
also called the post-synaptic neuron. The
receptor sites convert the information into
electrical signals, which are then transmitted
to the cell body of the post-synaptic neuron
and along the axon. This process continues,
until the last neuron in the pathway connects
to a muscle or gland, causing a response. This Pre-synaptic neuron
process is shown in Figures 3.9 and 3.10.

Figure 3.9 Communication between neurons

involves the action potential triggering the release
of neurotransmitters from their vesicles in the Post-synaptic
pre-synaptic neuron, moving across the gap and neuron
binding to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron.

a b

Figure 3.10 (a) A vesicle in the axon terminal storing neurotransmitters and the neurotransmitters (yellow) crossing
the synapse to be received by the receptor sites (red) on the neighbouring neuron’s dendrite. (b) Neurotransmitters
(yellow) being released across the synapse and being received by the receptor sites (red) of the dendrite if they
share the same distinct size and shape as each other.

The longest Did you know? 3.2 Calculate the time it Try this 3.3
neuron would take for an action
The sciatic nerve contains the longest potential to travel from your brain to your
neuron in the human body. It extends from toes using the fastest and slowest speeds
the spine to the tip of the toe and can be up to obtain a range. Use a calculator and
to 1 m in length. rounded approximate values to make the
calculation easier.

1 Is an action potential a signal between two neurons or along a neuron? Quick check 3.4
2 What does the ‘all or none’ principle mean?
3 What is a neurotransmitter?
4 What is the role of the post-synaptic neuron?
5 List three common neurotransmitters and describe their function.
6 Rewrite these stages of the flow chart in the correct order, showing how an action potential passes from one
neuron to another.

Neurotransmitters
Action potential Action potential
Neurotransmitters bind to receptor
stimulates initiated once Action potential
released into sites on post-
vesicles to release threshold is travels along axon
synaptic gap synaptic neuron’s
neurotransmitters reached
dendrites

You know that the human body produces they can do this is by only binding to specific
many different types of neurotransmitters and receptor sites. A neurotransmitter binds to a
each neurotransmitter has a specific role to receptor in much the same way that a key fits
play in the functioning of the brain. The way into a lock, as Figure 3.11 shows.

Neurotransmitter 1 Neurotransmitter 2
Will not bind Binds
Figure 3.11 A specific
neurotransmitter will bind only to
its corresponding receptor, and in
Receptor Receptor this way ensures it only causes the
desired response.

Neurotransmitter messages can be decreases the likelihood of the

categorised as either excitatory or action potential being sent along the
inhibitory. An excitatory neurotransmitter next neuron. They are both considered
increases the likelihood of the action important, as they can initiate a response or
potential being sent along the next neuron, to stop something from happening at the
whereas an inhibitory neurotransmitter effector site.

Neurotransmission at the synapse Try this 3.4

Using the ‘Stop motion’ App, create a short animation that clearly represents
how neurotransmission occurs between neurons. Alternatively, you could construct a comic
book style outline or poster.
You must label:
• pre-synaptic neuron (axon terminal) • receptor sites
• vesicles • synapse
• neurotransmitters • action potential.
• post-synaptic neuron (dendrites)
Your animation should show the movement of vesicles binding with the cell membrane and
releasing neurotransmitters to the next neuron, with reference to the lock-and-key theory.

Drugs Did you know? 3.2

Drugs are substances that have an effect on the brain. They
can change the way neurons send, receive and process information. Some drugs, such as
marijuana and heroin, mimic naturally occurring neurotransmitters to activate neurons. Other
drugs, such as cocaine and amphetamines, induce neurons to release greater amounts of
naturally occurring neurotransmitters, greatly amplifying signals, preventing recycling of the
chemicals and disrupting communication channels.

Parkinson’s disease Science as a human endeavour 3.1

Neurodegenerative disease is an umbrella term
for a range of conditions that primarily affect the neurons in the human brain. Neurons are
cells that do not reproduce or replace themselves, so when they become damaged or die they
cannot be replaced by the body. Examples of neurodegenerative diseases include Parkinson’s
disease, Alzheimer’s disease and multiple sclerosis.
Parkinson’s disease is a progressive, degenerative neurological condition that affects
a person’s control of their body movements, resulting in motor and non-motor symptoms.
Parkinson’s disease results from the loss of cells in various parts of the brain, including a
region called the substantia nigra. This is a part of the brain where the production of the
neurotransmitter dopamine is very common. When dopamine production is depleted, the
motor system nerves are unable to control movement and coordination. The dopamine-
producing cells are lost over a period of years resulting in the appearance of motor-type
symptoms, such as tremours and rigidity.

continued…

…continued
Currently, there is no known cure
for Parkinson’s disease, but motor
symptoms may be relieved by medications
that increase the level of dopamine
or mimic dopamine, in the brain. The
future of diagnosis and treatment of
neurodegenerative disease is dependent
upon technological advances in brain
imaging. For example, in 2015, scientists
developed new wearable sensor networks
and mobile phone applications that have
the potential to monitor and manage
patients with Parkinson’s disease. They
hope that the use of low-cost wearable
sensors means that the symptoms of the Figure 3.12 This enhanced scan of the brain of a
patient can be continuously detected and patient with Parkinson’s disease uses yellow to
highlight the area near the substantia nigra and blue
quantified. The information can then be
and green to highlight the fibres of the motor system.
sent to hospital to generate a daily report Compare the left and right sides. (Active areas would
that will alert the doctor if there is any be shown in red or orange.)
unusual data.

Parkinson’s disease Explore! 3.3

Research into either one of the following topics. Summarise your findings
by explaining how technologies have improved knowledge and understanding of Parkinson’s
disease, or have helped Parkinson’s sufferers live better lives.
• An imaging technique that allows us to identify and learn about Parkinson’s disease (for
example, PET scans or DaT/SPECT imaging)
OR
• A technology developed to aid sufferers of Parkinson’s disease have better quality of life
(for example, the wearable sensor networks mentioned above; MagnaReady’s line of men’s
and women’s shirts with magnetic buttons; MouseCage’s Steady Mouse)

Section 3.2 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 List the three different types of neurons found within the human nervous system.
2 Draw a motor neuron and label all the key structures.
3 What is the function of dendrites?

Understanding
4 Describe how an action potential is triggered and transmitted from one neuron to the next.
5 How does the function of the motor neuron and sensory neuron differ?
6 Describe the synapse.
continued…

…continued
Applying
7 Using the stimulus–response model, construct a flow chart showing the steps involved in
the following scenario. Be sure to include these terms on your flow chart: stimulus, motor
neuron, muscle, interneuron, sensory neuron, receptor.
A person is standing in a crowd and hears someone call their name. They turn their head to
look for who it might have been.
8 Using the ‘lock-and-key’ analogy, explain how neurotransmitters work across the synapse.
9 If a drug blocks the receptor sites, explain the effect it could have on neurotransmission
across the synapse.

Analysing
10 Caffeine is known to increase alertness levels. You usually feel tired when the
neurotransmitter adenosine is released. Discuss how caffeine may affect the
neurotransmitter adenosine.
11 Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is involved in making us feel good. Caffeine works by
slowing down the rate of dopamine leaving the brain to your body, while at the same time
not affecting the rate at which it is released into your brain. This leads to an increased level
of dopamine in the brain for a short time. Deduce how this might affect your feelings and
behaviour.
12 The figure below shows how an impulse moving along an interneuron causes an impulse to
be sent along another type of neuron, neuron X.

Synapse

Interneuron
Neuron X

Impulse

Chemical

Impulse

a What type of neuron is neuron X?

b Describe how information passes from the interneuron to neuron X.
Use the diagram to help you. continued…

…continued
Evaluating
13 Compare and contrast the structure of a neuron with the structure and function of a goblet cell (secretes
protective mucous and can be found in the intestinal wall). What can you conclude about how a cell’s
structure relates to its function?

Microvilli

Secretory
vesicles

Nucleus

Mitochondrion

14 Compare the role of two important neurotransmitters found within the brain – serotonin and dopamine.

3.3 The spinal cord

Reflex actions brain actually registers the stimulus and the

response, after the response has occurred.
A reflex action or spinal reflex is a quick
WORKSHEET
automatic involuntary action that protects the A reflex action therefore involves no more
body from danger. Sometimes it is necessary than three neurons. The signals travel to the
for the body to react very fast, without waiting spinal cord and back to the muscle which
for instructions from the brain. It is therefore contracts quickly. This can also be called a
the spinal cord that is primarily involved in reflex arc. Figure 3.13 shows an example of
responding to the stimulus and initiating a reflex arc.
reflex action a response. A message will
a fast, involuntary motor
action that protects the body be sent to the brain but not You may have noticed terms from Chapter 2
from harm until shortly afterwards - the such as ‘stimulus’ and ‘response’ also appear

in this chapter. This is because Chapter When the brain is involved in detecting
2 looked at homeostasis and the nervous and responding to a stimulus, the process is
system as a key player in regulating our body called the stimulus–response model.
systems in response to change.

Stimulus

Sensory
receptors
Skin
Sensation
Dorsal root
relayed to
ganglion
the brain

Sensory
neuron

Pain

Interneuron

Motor
neuron

Response Ventral root

White Grey
matter matter

Muscle tissue
Spinal cord

Effector organ
Figure 3.13 An example of a reflex arc. You touch a pointy cactus with your finger, a receptor in a sensory neuron detects the pain
and initiates an action potential. The impulse is carried to the spinal cord where the sensory neuron connects to an interneuron.
The interneuron then connects to a motor neuron that sends an action potential through to the muscle tissue. Your muscles
contract and you move your hand away from the sharp cactus.

Copy and complete the table below, with reference to the following scenario. Try this 3.5
A person sees a can of soft drink sitting on the bench. They feel quite thirsty, so they reach
out and pick up the can to have a drink.

Part of the stimulus–response Definition of this part Use example scenario to

model complete this column
Stimulus Change in the environment
Receptors Detect the stimulus and stimulate
the sensory neuron
Sensory neurons Transmit an action potential (nerve
impulse) to the integration area
(the CNS – central nervous system)
continued…

…continued
Part of the stimulus–response Definition of this part Use example scenario to
model complete this column
CNS Brain coordinates an appropriate
response by sending nerve impulse
along interneurons which connect
to motor neurons
Motor neurons Transmits an action potential
(nerve impulse) to the effector
organ (muscle or gland)
Effectors Act to cause the response

Response Body’s reaction to the stimulus

The knee-jerk reflex the quadriceps, triggering the muscle to

A common reflex action is known as the contract which then makes you kick. This
‘knee-jerk’ reflex. To test your knee-jerk kick is the product of a lightning-fast knee-
reflex, a medical professional taps a reflex jerk reflex arc. A kick only indicates that a
hammer on the quadriceps tendon below particular section of the spinal cord and the
your kneecap. The tap of the hammer associated nerves are working properly. A
causes a slight stretch within the quadriceps series of different reflex tests are required
muscle (front of your thigh) which is for a more precise health indicator of the
connected to the tendon. This stretch is whole nervous system.
detected by stretch receptors in the muscle
and communicated via a sensory neuron to A ‘knee-jerk’ reflex can be represented with a
the spinal cord. There, interneurons will reflex arc. It is important to note that there is
connect the sensory to a motor neuron no brain involvement. The CNS integration
that will send an impulse right back to takes place in the spinal cord.

Figure 3.14 A reflex arc of the knee-jerk reflex

Practical 3.1

Testing your reflexes and response times

Aim
To explore the speed of some of your automatic reflexes and response times.

Materials
• stopwatch • ruler • well-lit room

Method
Part 1: Testing your pupillary reflex
1 Look closely at the eyes of your partner, estimating the diameter of their pupils in millimetres.
2 Ask them to close their eyes for 60 seconds and tilt their head down towards the floor. Record this on the
stopwatch.
3 Observe closely as you ask them to tilt their head up towards a light before opening their eyes. Record your
observations of how their pupils react.

Part 2: Testing your knee-jerk reflex

1 Have your partner sit on a chair with one leg crossed over the other.
2 Using your hand or a ruler, gently strike the patellar tendon just below the kneecap and observe what
happens. Note: You may need to repeat this experiment several times to get a response.

Part 3: Ruler drop

1 Have your partner lean their forearm on a bench with their hand extending over the edge. Ask them to make a
pincer grip with their thumb and index finger with a gap of about 2 cm between them.
2 Dangle the ruler so that the end marked 0 cm is hanging between their thumb and index finger.
3 Instruct them to catch the ruler with their thumb and index finger when they notice you have released it.
Release it without warning.
4 Take note of the measurement on the ruler where they have caught it. This is the number of centimetres that
the ruler fell before the person responded.
5 Repeat the experiment several times for each person and average their results.

Results
Tabulate your results as follows.

My results My partner’s results

Part 1: Pupillary reflex Describe Describe

Part 2: Knee-jerk reflex Describe Describe

Part 3: Ruler drop _______ cm dropped through on average _______ cm dropped through on average

Evaluation
Part 1
1 Explain what you observed when your partner opened their eyes, noting the stimulus and the response.
2 How might this reflex assist us in everyday life?
3 Is pupil size under voluntary or involuntary control?

Part 2
1 Draw a reflex arc for the knee jerk reflex, showing the stimulus and response.
2 Label the neurons that are involved. continued…

…continued
Part 3
1 The ruler drop experiment is not really testing a reflex. Draw a stimulus–response flow chart, highlighting the
part that proves this is not a simple reflex. Explain why this is the case.
2 What did you notice with repeated trials? Did people improve? Give one reason why this may be the case.
3 Suggest two ways the experimental design could be improved (for any of the three parts).
4 Suggest one potential source of error in this experiment (any of the three parts).

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding reflexes and response times.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Conscious and unconscious responses Did you know? 3.3

A reflex action is an unconscious process as the brain is not initially
involved in activating a response. This is different from a conscious process where the brain is WIDGET
involved in activating a response. The differences are shown in the table below. Reaction
times
Conscious response to stimuli Unconscious response to stimuli
• Reaction involves the brain and a level of • Reaction does not involve a level of
awareness awareness by the brain
• Paid attention to stimulus • Do not have to pay attention for it to happen
• Voluntary or intentional reaction • Involuntary or unintentional
• Often goal directed or purposeful • Reflexive or automatic, increasing
• Can be a more complex response chances of survival
• Tend to vary • Most are simple responses
• Can be learned • Tend to occur in the same way each time
• Can control it • Do not require learning
• May not be able to control it

1 True or false? Quick check 3.5

The brain is
not immediately involved in a reflex arc.
2 Draw a reflex arc for a person touching
a flame.
3 Compare a reflex arc and the stimulus
response models of the nervous system.
In what ways are they similar and
different?

Causes and effects of spinal

cord damage
Figure 3.15 Light micrograph (LM) of a cross-section
The spinal cord is a bundle of nerves that through the human spinal cord in the lumbar region. The
carries messages between the brain and the spinal cord consists of a butterfly-shaped core (yellow)
known as grey matter, which consists of nerve cells.
rest of the body. It contains both white matter Surrounding the grey matter is a larger region of white
and grey matter, as shown in Figure 3.15. matter, made up of myelinated nerve fibre bundles or tracts.

Figure 3.16 Spinal cord showing all sections – cervical spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum and
coccyx, along with a diagram of the vertebrae

The spine consists of 33 vertebrae: Classification Description

• 7 cervical (neck) Quadriplegia Four limbs affected by
• 12 thoracic (upper back) (‘quad’ means four) impaired sensation and
• 5 lumbar (lower back) movement. If spinal injury
• 5 sacral (sacrum – located within the pelvis) is high up the spine, then
• 4 coccygeal (coccyx – located within chest muscles, such as the
the pelvis). diaphragm, can also be
By adulthood, the five sacral vertebrae fuse affected
to form one bone, and the four coccygeal Paraplegia Two limbs affected (left
vertebrae fuse to form one bone. (‘para’ means two) and right legs) by impaired
sensation and movement
The level where the injury occurs determines Triplegia Rare incomplete spinal cord
the effects that the person suffers (see (‘tri’ means three) injury leads to three limbs
Figure 3.17). Spinal cord damage is classified (one arm, two legs) affected
according to the person’s type of loss of by impaired sensation and
motor and sensory function. Table 3.5 lists movement
the main types of classification. Table 3.5 Classification of spinal cord injuries

Site of spinal
cord injury

Figure 3.17 The effects the person suffers depend upon the location
and severity of the injury – the higher up the spine, the more severe
the effects.

The types of symptoms experienced by a • problems regulating their heart rate and
person with spinal cord injury depend upon blood pressure
the location and severity of the injury. They • loss of control over bowel and bladder
may include: function.
• muscle weakness or paralysis (including
difficulty breathing if the diaphragm Prognosis of spinal cord injuries
muscle is affected) The level that the spinal cord injury occurs at
• sensory dysfunction such as loss of will determine the extent of symptoms and
sensation or pins and needles the prognosis for rehabilitation. Figure 3.19
• sexual dysfunction shows the levels of spinal cord injury and the
• digestive problems rehabilitation potential.

Figure 3.18 Paralympic Winter Games 2018: paraplegic competitors in the Men’s 7.5 km
Sitting Classic

Level of
Possible impairment Rehabilitation potential
injury
Unable to breathe,
C2 - C3 potentially fatal
Dependant for care

Quadriplegia and Dependant for care, may need

C4 breathing difficulty ventilator
May need some respiratory support.
Quadriplegia with little shoulder
C-5 and elbow function
May be able to self-feed with assistive
devices or technology
Quadriplegia with shoulder, May be able to use wheelchair, feed and
C6 elbow, and some wrist function dress. Usually needs help with bowel
and bladder.
Quadriplegia with shoulder, May be able to assist with bowel
C7 elbow, wrist, and some hand function and bladder management
May be able to drive a car with
Quadriplegia with normal arm function;
C8 hand weakness
modifications and assist with bowel
and bladder management.
Paraplegia with loss of function below
T1 - T6 mid-chest; full control of arms
Quite independent with wheelchair

Paraplegia with loss of function below May be able to participate in athletic

T6 - T12 the waist; good control of torso activities with wheelchair.

Paraplegia with varying degrees of May be able to walk short distances

L1 - L5 muscle involvement in the legs with braces or other assistive devices

Figure 3.19 Spinal cord injury and potential for rehabilitation

1 What are the names of the different regions of the spine? Quick check 3.6
2 Define the terms ‘quadriplegia’ and ‘paraplegia’.
3 List three ways a spinal cord injury might occur and name three symptoms that might result
from that injury.

Spinal cord injury Explore! 3.4

There is currently no cure for spinal cord injuries, however, stem cells have
presented some possibilities for treatment. Research the following questions to discover how
harnessing these unspecialised cells might assist in the recovery from a spinal cord injury.
1 What are stem cells?
2 How have they showed promise for use in spinal cord injuries?
3 What are some of the positives and negatives of using stem cells in treatment of spinal
cord injuries?

Practical 3.2

Garfi sh dissection – investigating the spinal

cord
Aim
To observe the spinal cord of a garfish and how it is
protected by the spine.

Materials
• garfish
• Petri dish
Figure 3.20 A catch of silver garfish
• forceps
continued…

…continued
• scalpel Be careful
• probe • Scalpels are extremely sharp.
• newspaper • Extreme care is required when
• dissection microscope handling the scalpel.
• dissection board • Proper cutting technique should be
• disposable gloves demonstrated before student use.
• Never use the scalpel by cutting
Method
towards any part of your body.
1 Working in pairs, place garfish on a clean board.
• Use forceps – not your fingers – to
2 Using forceps and scalpel carefully make an incision
cut towards and away from.
down the underbelly from pectoral fins to anus.
• User discretion is advised.
3 You may need to remove the guts.
4 Remove as much flesh as possible surrounding the
backbone so it is ‘clean’.
5 Place spine/backbone onto a Petri dish.
6 Discard flesh (wrap in newspaper before placing in bin).
7 Using the microscope, sketch the backbone showing the individual vertebrae. Include a title, labels and
magnification.
8 Once this first sketch is completed, remove the dish from under the microscope for the next part of the activity.

Separating the spinal cord from the spine

9 You are now to carefully try and separate the vertebrae from each other to try to locate and examine the spinal
cord. If you are careful you will be able to feel the resistance of the spinal cord. Do not rush this, as the spinal
cord is very fine and will break easily.
10 Once you have a section of the spinal cord, place it (with the vertebrae, if it is still attached) under the
microscope and sketch. Include a title, labels and magnification.

Results
Record your observations and include your two sketches.

Evaluation
1 Comment on the appearance of the garfish’s spine. Decide whether or not there was sufficient protection to
the spinal cord.
2 Differentiate between the appearance of the garfish’s spinal cord and spine.
3 Discuss whether you expect fish to require a backbone as strong as land creatures.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding the spinal cord of garfish.
2 Support the statement by using your observations.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Section 3.3 questions

Remembering
QUIZ
1 A person suffers a spinal cord injury whilst surfing and loses motor control and sensation in
their legs. How would this spinal cord injury be classified?
2 Define what is meant by reflex action. Include its role in defending the body against
damage.
3 Provide an example of a reflex action. continued…

…continued
Understanding
4 Extend your understanding of causes of spinal cord damage, by listing four different activities (perhaps
activities you take part in!) that could pose a potential risk.
5 Distinguish between the stimulus and the response in the knee jerk reflex.
6 What are two differences between conscious and unconscious responses?

Applying
7 Construct a hypothesis for this experiment: Ask a friend to stand on the other side of a glass window and
look straight ahead. Throw a cotton wool ball at their eyes from a close distance (about 20 cm away). Did they
blink? Describe the type of action you predict.
8 Imagine this: if you sneak up behind someone and make a sudden loud noise, they may respond by blinking,
twitching, moving their head suddenly, screaming or throwing their hands up. Using your knowledge of
reflexes, discuss whether their response is voluntary or not and give some reasons why this reflex might be a
helpful mechanism to have.

Analysing
9 Joshua has been diagnosed with quadriplegia. Infer which part of his spinal cord is likely to have been
damaged and suggest possible symptoms he might show.
10 Luke has damage to his spinal cord at L3. Classify his injury as paraplegia or quadriplegia.

Evaluating
11 Assess the following sentences and change one word to make them true.
A sensory neuron carries information from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system.
Unconscious responses to stimuli are often the most complex actions.
A spinal cord injury in the cervical region is likely to result in paraplegia.
12 A person picks up a very hot cup of coffee and immediately drops it, breaking the mug. Draw a flow chart,
beginning at stimulus and ending in response and highlight the section of the flow chart that demonstrates
whether this is a reflex, or a response that is coordinated by the brain.

3.4 The brain

Cerebral cortex
it would be the size of a cerebral cortex
outer layer of the brain
The cerebrum is the largest part of the pillow case! The cerebral
WORKSHEET corpus callosum
human brain. Its outer layer of the brain cortex is divided into two a bundle of nerve fibres
connecting the left and right
is called the cerebral cortex. It is only hemispheres (left and right) hemispheres of the brain
2–3 mm thick, yet it contains three- which each contain four
quarters of the brain’s neurons. It is folded lobes. The left and right hemispheres are
VIDEO to increase cortical surface area, and connected by a thick band of nerve fibres
Glands in the
brain. amazingly, if you were able to unfold it, called the corpus callosum.

The hemispheres functions. This is known as hemispheric

Each of the left and right hemispheres is specialisation. Yet it is a simplistic view of
responsible for movement and sensation the two hemispheres, as with any activity
in the opposite side of the body. This is both hemispheres are always active.
known as contralateral organisation. Each
hemisphere is also involved in The scientific approaches to studying
contralateral organisation specific functions; for example, hemispheric specialisation include:
each hemisphere of the brain
is responsible for the motor the left side specialises in • studying people with brain damage
function and sensation in the
opposite side of the body your ability to formulate and • studying people who have had a ‘split-
hemispheric specialisation understand language. Each brain’ operation
each hemisphere of the brain
can exert greater control hemisphere can specialise or • studying people with intact, undamaged
over specific functions
exert greater control in various brains.

Figure 3.21 Both the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere of the brain are responsible for
specialised functions.

The lobes
The cerebral cortex is responsible for many processes such as language, memory, learning,
thinking, problem solving and personality traits. There are four lobes of the cerebral cortex on
each side of the brain and they are called the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe
and the temporal lobe. They each have their own specialised functions.

CLEAR AND
FLUENT
BEHAVIOUR SPEECH

BEHAVIOUR
UNDERSTANDING
SPEECH

BREATHING BLOOD
PRESSURE

SWALLOWING HEARTBEAT

Figure 3.22 Specialised functions of the different lobes of the brain, as well as the cerebellum and brain stem, which are located
below the cerebral cortex

Brain poster Try this 3.6

Make a poster/slideshow that would be suitable for teaching Year 7 students about the brain.
Use information from this chapter, but you may also search for additional information online. Your poster
should include:
• a side view of the brain clearly showing the frontal lobe (and motor cortex), parietal lobe (and somatosensory
cortex), occipital lobe, temporal lobe and their functions
• Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area and describe their special roles
• a dorsal view of the brain (looking down from the top) showing the left and right hemisphere, corpus callosum
and detail their roles in processing of sensory information and control of activities on each side of the body.

1 What are the names of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex? Quick check 3.7
2 Define the roles of the following areas:
a Corpus callosum
b Left and right hemispheres
c Brain stem
d Cerebellum
3 List two structures found in the temporal lobe.
4 What is the role of the primary visual cortex?
5 Where in the brain is Broca’s area found and what is its function?

Structures within the brain

There are other important brain structures involved with behaviour that are not found on the
cortex (outer) of the brain, but within the brain, as shown in Figure 3.23.

Hippocampus
• involved with learning
and memory
Hypothalamus
• controls body temperature,
hunger, and thirst

Amygdala
• plays an important role
Cerebellum in emotional behaviour
• Controls posture, movement,
Pons
and the sense of balance
• Regulates sleeping, breathing and some
sensations

Brain Stem
• Controls simple reﬂexes, such as
coughing, breathing and digestion, Medulla
and has two main parts— Regulates breathing, heart rate, respiration
pons and medulla and blood pressure

Figure 3.23 A cross-section of the brain, revealing the hidden structures within

Practical 3.3

Dissecting a sheep’s brain

Aim Be careful
To observe the different regions within a sheep’s brain. Ensure gloves are worn
Materials at all times during the
• sheep’s brain • dissecting board dissection.
• disinfectant • disposable gloves
• scissors • newspaper
• forceps • paper towel
• probe
• Optional: pre-prepared slides of a cross-section of the brain tissue for observation under a microscope

Method
1 Place a few sheets of newspaper on the workstation.
2 Put the dissecting board on top of the paper together with the dissecting implements.
3 Collect the brain and carefully place it on the board. Take care as it will be slippery.
4 Using the scissors, cut the brain into two symmetric halves (hemispheres). Identify the corpus callosum,
cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem.
5 Observe the colour and appearance of each section.
6 Cut one of the hemispheres lengthways to observe the cerebellum.
7 Draw and label a diagram of the brain.
continued…

…continued
8 Ensure dissection is discarded appropriately and the work area is disinfected.
9 Optional: view a pre-prepared cross-section of the brain under a microscope.
Corpus callosum

Cerebrum
Cerebellum

Brain stem

Results
Draw and label the diagram of the brain.

Evaluation
1 Why is the brain encased in the skull?
2 What is the difference between white and grey brain matter?
3 The brain stem is located at the base of the brain. What is it responsible for?
4 Explain why there are two hemispheres and detail their roles.
5 What connects the left and right hemispheres?
6 Can you easily differentiate between the lobes of the cerebral cortex?
7 What is the role of the cerebellum?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding sheep brains and human brains.
2 Support the statement by using the structures you observed.
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Brain freeze Did you know? 3.4

Have you ever experienced a ‘brain freeze’ when drinking
a very cold drink or eating ice cream? When something
extremely cold touches the upper palate (roof of the mouth),
it can lead to a feeling of a headache. Harvard University
scientists have found that the headache stems from the
constriction of the capillaries in your sinuses when a cold
stimulus is applied. As they dilate (relax) again when
warmer air touches the palate, there is a rush of blood
through the brain’s anterior cerebral artery. This rapid
change near the sensitive nerves in the palate creates the
‘brain freeze’ phenomenon.

Figure 3.24 Any cold stimulus can result in the painful

sensation of a brain freeze.

Practical 3.4

Does talking interfere with right-hand motor tasks?

Humans are the only animals which are predominantly right-handed. Don’t believe me? Do a quick survey
in your class! The part of the brain responsible for speech and language is in the left hemisphere of the
cerebral cortex. It is also known that the left and right hemispheres control the movement in the opposite
sides of the body.

Aim
To investigate whether talking will interfere with a balancing (motor) task.

Materials
• a 30 cm wooden rod or similar • stopwatch

Method
1 Construct a hypothesis: ‘Will people be better at balancing
the rod when they are talking or silent? Will there be a
difference between balancing on the left or right-hand side?’
2 Each person should practise balancing the rod on the left and
also the right index finger. Ensure that the person balancing
is standing, and that the rod is i the same position between
the middle knuckles (as shown in the image).
3 Form groups of three and record whether each person is left- or right-handed.
4 Take it in turns: To begin with, the person being tested should balance the rod on
their right finger and remove the steadying hand when instructed. Time how long they
can balance it on their left and right hands. Record these results in the table.
5 Now repeat this experiment, but as the person removes the steadying hand and the clock starts, the third
person should start saying words the person must spell. Use the words suggested below. Record these
results in the table.
Words to spell:
brain, conclusion, cerebral cortex, hemisphere, frontal, neuron, receptor, vision, sensory, spinal cord,
vertebrae, parietal, occipital, experiment, reflex, hypothesis, cerebellum
6 Repeat the experiment with the other two group members.

Results

Which is their Time balanced Time balanced Time balanced Time balanced
dominant (secs): Left (secs): Right (secs): Left hand, (secs): Right
hand? hand, silent hand, silent speaking hand, speaking
Person 1
Person 2
Person 3
Average N/A

7 Create a graph of your results, showing each individual and their four times.

Evaluation
1 Do the results confirm your hypothesis?
2 Explain the average results obtained using the facts stated prior to the Aim.
3 Do you think the order the tasks were completed in might have affected the results of the experiment?
Suggest a way the experimental design could be improved.
4 Suggest two potential sources of error in this experiment.
continued…

…continued
Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding left- or right-handedness and speaking.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

Sensitivity of body parts discovered by Penfield and Rasmussen.

They mapped the primary somatosensory
Figure 3.25 shows a homunculus, which
cortex by electrically stimulating different
is Latin for ‘little man’. It represents how
areas on the somatosensory cortex of
sensitive the different parts of the
homunculus
patients whose skulls were opened for
a representation of the body
body are by representing them as
parts in the brain where size tumor removal. They asked the patients to
shows level of sensitivity large if they are highly sensitive,
identify where on their bodies they felt the
and small if the body part is not very
sensation.
sensitive. This representation of touch was

Figure 3.25 In the sensory homunculus the fingers,

thumb, tongue and lips, are disproportionately Figure 3.26 The pictorial representation of where
represented to show that they are more sensitive the body parts are located along the actual primary
and so more space in the primary somatosensory somatosensory cortex. The larger the space along
cortex is devoted to these body parts. the cortex, the more sensitive the body part.

Practical 3.5

Determining the sensitivity of body parts

Aim
To determine whether the fingertip, upper arm or the back is the most sensitive body area.

Materials
• ruler with millimetres or • paperclip
centimetres • paper and pencil
continued…

…continued
Method
1 Construct a hypothesis for this experiment: Predict which part of the body (fingertip, upper arm or back) will
be the most sensitive and why.
2 Decide who will be the experimenter and who will be the participant.

3 Open your paperclip.

4 Spread the ends and use the ruler to measure the distance between them.
5 Adjust them until they are exactly 4 cm apart.
6 The experimenter alternates touching with either both ends of the paperclip or one end of the paperclip to
the participant’s fingertip. (A gentle touch is all that is required.)
7 If they correctly feel whether one or both ends were used, tick the column (√), or place a (x) if they do not feel
the number of ends correctly.
8 Repeat step 6 on the participant’s upper arm and back and record your results in your table.
9 Repeat steps 5 and 6, bringing the paperclip ends closer each time until they are touching.
10 Complete the results table below using following ranges of distances and record in the table below.

Results
Distance between Fingertip Fingertip Upper arm Upper arm Back Back
paperclip ends One point Two point One point Two point One point Two point
(cm) (√) (√) (√) (√) (√) (√)
4 cm
3 cm
2 cm
1 cm
0.5 cm
Ends touching

Evaluation
1 Which body parts proved to be the most sensitive? Did this support your hypothesis?
2 Why do you think different parts of the body have different levels of sensitivity? What function does this
serve?
3 Looking back at the somatosensory cortex, suggest one other body part that would have tested as highly
sensitive and one other body part that would have shown low sensitivity.
4 Suggest two ways the experimental design may have been improved.
5 What were two potential sources of error in this experiment?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim from this experiment regarding sensitivity of various areas of the body.
2 Support the statement by using your observations (include potential sources of error).
3 Explain how your observations support your claim.

1 What is the main role of the hippocampus? Quick check 3.8

2 A person suffers a brain stem stroke. What vital body functions might be affected?
3 What is the main role of the cerebellum of the brain?
4 Define the term ‘homunculus’ in your own words.

Alzheimer’s disease Science as a human endeavour 3.2

Alzheimer’s disease is an example of a neurodegenerative disease.
It occurs when neurons in the brain shrink and eventually ‘die’ at a greater rate than normal. This causes the
brain to shrink, which is especially seen in the ventricles of the brain. Over time, amyloid plaques (deposits
of protein around other neurons) and neurofibrillary tangles (twisted fibres built up inside the neuron) form,
preventing the neurons of the brain from communicating properly.

Figure 3.27 On the left is half of a healthy brain with normal neurons, while on the right the Alzheimer’s brain shows amyloid
plaques and brain shrinkage.

Early symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include the inability to form new memories, impaired recent
personal memories. impaired memory for names, difficulty finding the right word when speaking, confusion,
unusual irritation and impaired decision-making. Progressive symptoms include frequent repetition of stories
or questions and the failure to recognise family members. There is no cure for Alzheimer’s disease, but
medications can slow the progression of symptoms.
In 2016, scientists found a new way to use brain imaging technology called positron emission tomography
or PET scans. These scans are able to look at changes in the brain at a cellular level, while current scans only
looked for a decrease in brain cells. PET scans involve the injection of a radioactive solution into the patient’s
brain. The amount of radiation measured in particular regions of the brain indicates how active those regions
are at a particular time.
continued…

…continued
This new way of using technology was tested on 53 adults
and 33 pensioners without any neurodegeneration and 15 who
had suspected Alzheimer’s disease. The scientists were able
to prove definitively which were clear, at risk and those who
had the condition. The findings also have helped scientists
understand more about how the neurofibrillary tangles and
amyloid plaques build up as the brain ages.

Figure 3.28 Computer graphic of a vertical slice

through the brain of an Alzheimer’s patient (left half)
compared with a normal brain (right half).

The brain’s plasticity amplifies and records the electrical activity

of the brain, which allows scientists to make
Plasticity is the term used to describe the
assumptions based on the readings.
ability of the brain’s neural structure or
function to be changed through
plasticity A four-week-old foetus forms new neurons
the ability of the brain to experience at any time during
change its neuron structure at a rate of 250 000 every minute. When
and function over time, in your life. This refers to the
response to experiences a child is three years old, their brain will
brain’s ability to be modified (it
process close to 1000 trillion connections
is flexible, pliable and malleable). Plasticity is
between neurons. It is no surprise then
necessary for learning.
that a baby’s brain uses three times the
amount of energy that an adult’s brain uses –
The development of the brain is an amazing
that’s a busy brain! By late childhood the
process. We know that babies are born
number of connections increases to around
with approximately 100 billion neurons
with each neuron having the capacity to
connect with around 2500 other neurons.
A child’s environment and experiences
determine the connections each neuron
makes, and the number of connections
each neuron has ranges from thousands of
connections to just a few. Some studies on
infants use electroencephalograms (EEG)
to study their brain activity while the infants
complete different tasks. The scientists use
various experiments, often based on simple
games, and test the babies’ physical or
cognitive (mental) responses with sensors
including eye-tracking, brain activation
and motion capture. Despite the lack of Figure 3.29 This infant is wearing an EEG during studies of
verbal communication, the EEG detects, cognitive development. By three years of age a child’s brain will
have grown to 80% the volume of an adult brain.

parts of the brain to form alternative neural

connections, which can compensate for any
missing or damaged part of the brain. This
is also why it is easier to learn new skills and
languages at a younger age.

One of the most famous plasticity

findings occurred when Jody Miller, aged
three-and-a-half, survived an 11-hour
hemispherectomy, or the removal of the
defective right hemisphere of her brain. The
plasticity of a child’s brain is what allowed
for new neural connections to be made
Figure 3.30 Each neuron can transmit 1000 nerve impulses per second
and make tens of thousands of synaptic contacts with other neurons.
in Miller’s left brain that would perform
functions once handled by her right brain.
15 000 per neuron. Yet, by adulthood this For example, when she left the hospital
number decreases to around 8000 as unused 2 weeks following the surgery, she was
connections are destroyed. walking on both legs, despite the whole
right side of her brain being removed.
As a child’s brain has greater plasticity Eight months later she was also completely
than an adult’s, it is able to utilise other free of seizures.

1 Define the term ‘brain plasticity’. Quick check 3.9

2 What is brain plasticity useful for?
3 How much more energy does a baby’s brain use compared to an adult’s brain?
4 Explain what an EEG stands for and what it is used for.

Bones in the human brain Did you know? 3.5

The brain is protected by the solid bones of the skull, which is actually composed of
22 bones that are fused together. Newborns have soft spots on their head called fontanelles, where the areas of
bone making up the skull have not hardened. To avoid brain damage, you must be extremely careful to protect a
baby’s head. It is not until the age of one when the skull begins to fuse together and harden, forming visible lines
called sutures.

Figure 3.31 A medical professional gently feels the Figure 3.32 The skull of a 4-month old baby is not
fontanelle. yet fused together completely.

Addiction and the activity (such as gambling or shopping) that

adolescent brain can be pleasurable, but the continuation of
which becomes compulsive and interferes
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
with the functioning of the person’s life.
technology has given us an insight into why
This leads to dysfunction, which is a major
teenagers are prone to impulsive, risk-taking
characteristic of any mental illness. Engaging
behaviours. A teenage brain is still developing,
in the activity or substance actually triggers
and continues to do so until around age 25.
the release of the ‘pleasure’ hormone called
When you consider teenagers who have
dopamine. Addiction is preventable and
developed addictions to substances such as
treatable if intervention is early enough.
drugs and alcohol, it is necessary to remember
that teenagers are not just ‘less-experienced
Neural connections that are activated on a
adults’ but are still a work in progress. They
regular basis become strengthened in the
are prone to errors in judgement and reliance
brain. This can be a positive thing in the case
on more primitive, emotion-driven areas of
of learning and memory formation, but it can
the brain such as the limbic system (thalamus,
have negative consequences in terms of the
hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala).
forming of habits. At the same time, as your
This is why adolescents are more at risk for
brain develops, unnecessary or underutilised
substance addiction than any other age group.
neural connections are ‘pruned’ or disconnected
Unfortunately, the use of these substances
in a process known as ‘synaptic pruning’, which
can also have dramatic effects on their brain
continues from childhood through to early
development, with risks for permanent
adulthood. Repeated actions become a habit,
intellectual and emotional damage.
so for teenagers who develop a dependency on
alcohol, this habit can slowly become ingrained
Addiction is a condition that results
in the wiring of the brain, for life.
when a person ingests a substance (such
as alcohol, or nicotine) or engages in an
So why are teenage brains wired for risk-
taking? From an evolutionary perspective,
this would have had advantages, as it is
around this age that offspring would need to
leave the safety of the home and head out to
make lives of their own.

As the brain is developing during

adolescence, there are sections of the brain
that are highly sensitive to alcohol, as shown
in Figure 3.34.

Heavy drinking during adolescence can lead

to disruptions in some or all of these areas
of the brain. Unfortunately, regular and
excessive amounts of alcohol can even cause
permanent brain damage. It is not surprising
then that research shows that a hangover
Figure 3.33 Incorporating imaging techniques can allow a great can be just as damaging to the brain as heavy
deal of information to be gathered on patients. This image shows
the composite of a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan of drinking, compromising a person’s ability to
the brain and 2D and 3D computed tomography (CT) scans. learn new information and recall memories.

Pre-frontal cortex Frontal lobe

- memory, personality, rational - speech, movement,
thought process emotions

Parietal lobe
- sensations
(touch, pain)

Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe - vision
- interpreting
language and
sounds

Cerebellum
Hippocampus (hidden) - coordination,
- memory balance

Brain stem
- vital functions (physical growth,
body communication)

Figure 3.34 Areas of the adolescent brain that are susceptible to the effects of alcohol

Addiction Explore! 3.5

Choose from one of the following diagnosable substance-use addictions:
caffeine; cannabis; methamphetamine; cocaine; tobacco. Research and answer the following
questions in any multimedia format: poster, video clip, PowerPoint (with or without voiceover),
Prezi, website or similar.
1 Describe the addiction you are investigating and what it involves on a biological level.
That is, explain the activation of specific neurotransmitters or brain areas when taking the
addictive substance – especially in the developing adolescent brain.
2 Define the term ‘withdrawal’ in the context of addiction. List some symptoms that may be
shown and explain why they occur.
3 What treatments are available? Describe one in detail.

1 Define the term ‘addiction’. Quick check 3.10

2 Why are adolescent brains particularly vulnerable to addiction?
3 What symptoms would you expect to see in someone who has damaged their hippocampus
and prefrontal cortex through excessive alcohol consumption during adolescence?
4 Which neurotransmitter is released when the reward pathway is activated?

Section 3.4 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Name the outer layer of the brain and state how thick it is.
2 Where does the word ‘homunculus’ come from and what does it mean?
3 Name the brain’s most primitive part and state its functions.

Understanding
4 Explain what you might see if you were to remove the cerebral cortex.
5 Interpret the term ‘brain plasticity’.
6 Outline reasons why adolescents are more vulnerable to addiction.
7 Explain why humans have a thick skull.

Applying
8 Why is it incorrect to say that someone is ‘right-brained’ or ‘left-brained’?
9 Apply your knowledge of the sensitivity of body parts in order to explain the unusual
dimensions of the ‘homunculus man’ on the primary somatosensory cortex.

Analysing
10 Mariam has suffered brain damage to her frontal lobe. List three symptoms she may display.

Evaluating
11 Evaluate whether you think it is easier for a child to learn a new language or skill compared
to an adult. Justify your response.

Review questions

Remembering
1 Redraw and label the key structures of a neuron.
SCORCHER

2 What is the synapse?

3 State the four lobes of the brain and one function for which they are responsible.

Understanding
4 List the steps involved in neurotransmission across a synapse.
5 How do paraplegics differ from quadriplegics?
6 How does the right side of the brain control the movement of the left side of the body?

Applying
7 Ali had a motorcycle accident and suffered brain damage in his left temporal lobe. Discuss
three possible symptoms he may display.
8 If a particular drug blocked the receptor sites on the dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron,
how may this impact the neurotransmitters?

9 Sophia accidentally touches a hot pan and automatically snatches her hand away from it.
The diagram shows the structures involved in this action.
a Label the diagram below.

b Draw a stimulus–response model referring to the diagram above.

10 Construct a continuum showing these terms going from smallest to largest:
molecule, atom, nervous system, neuron, brain, lobe, receptor.

Analysing
11 How does a neurodegenerative disease differ from brain damage due to an accident?

Evaluating
12 Taking the drug cocaine causes a build-up of dopamine in the synapse. Based on what you
have read about dopamine, give your opinion on the statement, ‘I will just take it a couple of
times, it won’t affect me’. Justify your response by discussing the effects that taking cocaine
could have.
13 Broca’s area is involved in speech and motor
movement. Damage in that area results in the Broca’s area Wernicke’s area
inability to speak fluently and affects grammar.
Wernicke’s area is involved in language
comprehension and damage to the area may
result in difficulties comprehending speech.
Individuals may have trouble producing
meaningful speech. Based on the information
above, match which of the following would be
more appropriate to aid talking to an individual
suffering from each condition.
In your answer, refer to using:
• gestures
• questions that require yes/no answers.

STEM activity: Texting and reaction times – what

do the numbers say?

Background information
VCDSTS054 VCDTCD050 VCSSU117
Many people might consider that reacting to a
stimulus is an automatic process, however, that
could not be further from the truth. Imagine that you
are in a car driven by a friend, you are all having a
VCSSU118 VCSIS134 VCSIS136
great time and getting ready to enjoy your outing
when suddenly, a dog runs in front of the car.
The driver reacts quickly and the dog manages to
escape unharmed.
The example above can be used to illustrate the the nervous system with the correct combination of
powerful cooperation between many sensors in our contraction and expansion of very specific muscles;
bodies and the brain. First, light sensors (your eyes) this is when your friend presses the brake pedal.
recognise the sudden change in light conditions In the meantime, your brain sends an instruction
on the road, that information is sent for processing, to the light sensors asking them to keep feeding
then your brain can decide what that information data while the whole process takes place, in case a
is and if any action is required. Then, your brain different action is required.
compares the information coming from your light This whole process described above takes
sensors to information contained in a vast collection place during 0.25 seconds on average. However,
of images (memory), the brain finds a match and that value will considerably change, depending on
determines that something stored under the name your state of alertness! For example, imagine if your
‘dog’ is very likely the same thing that is running in friend was texting while driving, do you think the
front of your car. Finally, the brain sends signals via outcome could have been different?

Figure 3.35 In Victoria there are penalties for using a mobile device while driving or stationary but not properly parked.

Evaluate and modify

Design brief: Investigate whether texting is a
distraction to people performing tasks. 1 Imagine that you received a table with reaction
time values (t) for a laboratory experiment.
Activity instructions Knowing that a (gravitational force) is almost
constant and does not need to be worked out,
In this activity, you will use materials, a very elegant how could you rework the equation below
mathematical formula and your imagination to to estimate the distance value used in that
create an experiment that produces: experiment? In other words, how could you
1 at least three sets of data rework the equation below to solve for distance
2 at least three bar graphs instead of time?
3 a conclusion that clearly answers the following
2d
scenario: t=
a
Victoria’s Transport Accident Commission
where t = time, d = distance and a = 9.80 cm/s2
(TAC) is so worried about young people’s
(acceleration due to gravity).
attitudes towards texting while driving that it
2 Discuss with at least three of your colleagues the
hired your young startup company to conduct
challenges you have encountered throughout
a sequence of experiments in the community
this project. List the strategies or actions that
to determine whether texting can slow down a
allowed you to overcome each challenge.
person’s reaction times.
3 Reflection is an integral and vital aspect of any
project out there in the real world. How could
Suggested materials
you use ICT tools (for example, apps, video, slow
• 30 cm ruler motion camera) to enhance this experiment?
• scissors 4 The results may change when a different type
• cardboard of ruler is used, such as metal, plastic or timber.
• paper Predict how the size or length of the ruler might
• pen have impact on the results.
• mobile phone to record amazing slow 5 Repeat this activity and compare your results
motion videos when you use your dominant hand (the one you
• Microsoft PowerPoint for presentations write with) and when you use your other hand. Is
• video editing software for making short there any difference in reaction times between
documentaries hands?
Consider adding other distracting sounds and
Mathematical formula sights during the activity, such as turning on a
TV set or flicking a flashlight on and off. Do your
2d responses slow with so many sensory signals?
t=
a 6 Create a PowerPoint presentation to relay your
where t = time, d = distance and a = 9.80 cm/s 2 findings to the TAC.
(acceleration due to gravity).

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ScienceVIC9 Ch03

Uploaded by

ScienceVIC9 Ch03

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80

Chapter 3 Response and

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

Bloodstream Action potentials

Brain Spinal cord

Cortex (outer layer): Within the brain: Involved in involuntary reflex

Damage in different regions causes different symptoms

3.1 Keeping in control

The brain controls all bodily functions by

The nervous system

Figure 3.2 The components of the human nervous system

hypothalamus. The hypothalamus links the

The endocrine system Other important glands found throughout

Figure 3.4 Female and male endocrine glands

Organ Hormone Action of hormone

Endocrine disrupting chemicals in plastics Explore! 3.1

Melatonin and sleep Did you know? 3.1

Homeostasis is maintained through the

Feature Nervous system Endocrine system

Section 3.1 questions

3.2 Neurons and the

Types of neurons 2 Interneurons transmit sensory neuron

Sensory Myelin Motor

Structure of neuron Function

called a synapse. When an electrical impulse is received, the neurotransmitter

Making model neurons Try this 3.2

Communication within and

Multiple sclerosis Explore! 3.2

Communication between neurons: is known as the pre-synaptic neuron. These

Neurotransmitter Role What can go wrong?

Table 3.4 Some common neurotransmitters and their roles

Once the neurotransmitters cross the

Figure 3.9 Communication between neurons

Neurotransmitter messages can be decreases the likelihood of the

Neurotransmission at the synapse Try this 3.4

Drugs Did you know? 3.2

Parkinson’s disease Science as a human endeavour 3.1

Parkinson’s disease Explore! 3.3

Section 3.2 questions

a What type of neuron is neuron X?

3.3 The spinal cord

Reflex actions brain actually registers the stimulus and the

Response Ventral root

Part of the stimulus–response Definition of this part Use example scenario to

Response Body’s reaction to the stimulus

The knee-jerk reflex the quadriceps, triggering the muscle to

Receptor: receptor sites

Figure 3.14 A reflex arc of the knee-jerk reflex

Testing your reflexes and response times

Part 2: Testing your knee-jerk reflex

Part 3: Ruler drop

My results My partner’s results

Part 2: Knee-jerk reflex Describe Describe

Conscious and unconscious responses Did you know? 3.3

1 True or false? Quick check 3.5

Causes and effects of spinal

The spine consists of 33 vertebrae: Classification Description

Quadriplegia and Dependant for care, may need

Paraplegia with loss of function below May be able to participate in athletic

Paraplegia with varying degrees of May be able to walk short distances

Figure 3.19 Spinal cord injury and potential for rehabilitation

Spinal cord injury Explore! 3.4

Garfi sh dissection – investigating the spinal

Separating the spinal cord from the spine

Section 3.3 questions

3.4 The brain

The hemispheres functions. This is known as hemispheric

Brain poster Try this 3.6

Structures within the brain

Dissecting a sheep’s brain

Brain freeze Did you know? 3.4

Figure 3.24 Any cold stimulus can result in the painful

Does talking interfere with right-hand motor tasks?

Sensitivity of body parts discovered by Penfield and Rasmussen.

Figure 3.25 In the sensory homunculus the fingers,

Determining the sensitivity of body parts