Cells:

Fungi:

 Can be unicellular or multicellular

 Similar structure to a plant cell, but they do not have chloroplasts so cannot photosynthesise
 Cell wall is made of chitin, not cellulose

Algae:

 Unlike plants, they can be unicellular or multicellular

 They have all the same organelles as a plant cell, however their chloroplasts are a different
shape and size to plant chloroplasts
 Considered as protists as they lack leaves, stems, and roots

Structures found eukaryotic cells:

Organelle Description Function

Cell-surface  Phospholipid bilayer  Controls the entry and exit

membrane  Contains receptors of materials into and out of
(proteins) the cell
  Embedded protein  The receptor molecules
channels to allow for the allow it to respond to
transport of non-soluble chemicals
substances
Nuclear envelope  Double membrane that  Controls the entry and exit
(nucleus) surrounds the nucleus of materials into and out of
 Its outer membrane is the nucleus
continuous with the ER of  Encloses the reactions
the cell and often has taking place within the
ribosomes on its surface nucleus
Nuclear pores  Tiny openings present in  Allow small molecules to
(nucleus) the nuclear envelope travel out of the nucleus
and into the cytoplasm e.g.
mRNA, ribosomes, and
signalling molecules
Nucleoplasm (nucleus)  Granular, jelly-like  Suspending substance for
material, which contains DNA and RNA
nucleotides and enzymes
 Makes up the bulk of the
nucleus
Nucleolus (nucleus)  Small spherical region  Produces ribosomal RNA
within the nucleoplasm and assembles ribosomes
Mitochondria  Double membrane that  Site of aerobic respiration
controls the entry and  Production of ATP
exit of materials
 The inner membrane is
folded to form extensions
of the membrane known
as cristae
 Cristae provide a large SA
for the attachment of
enzymes and other
proteins involved in
respiration
 Matrix contains proteins,
lipids, ribosomes, and
DNA to allow for the
production of proteins
 Cells with a high
metabolic activity have
many cristae to provide a
plentiful supply of ATP
Golgi apparatus  A stack of membranes  Package and modify
that make up flattened proteins e.g. add
sacs called cisternae carbohydrates to proteins to
 Contains small, rounded, form glycoproteins
hollow structures called  Produce secretory enzymes
vesicles  Secrete carbohydrates
 Proteins and lipids  Transport, modify and store
produced by the ER are lipids
passed through it  Form lysosomes
Golgi vesicle  Small, rounded, hollow  Stores lipids and proteins
structures in the modified by the Golgi and
cytoplasm surrounded by transports them out of the
a membrane cell
 Produced by the Golgi
Lysosome  Formed when vesicles  Hydrolyse material ingested
produced by the Golgi by phagocytes
contain enzymes such as  Release enzymes to destroy
proteases and lipases unwanted material
 Can contain lysozymes  Digest worn out organelles
that hydrolyse the cell and reuse useful chemicals
walls of certain bacteria  Breakdown of dead cells
(autolysis)
Ribosomes  Small cytoplasmic  Site of protein synthesis
granules found in all cells
 May occur in the
cytoplasm or associated
with the RER
 There are two types: 80S
(bigger, found in
eukaryotic cells) and 70S
(slightly smaller, found in
prokaryotic cells)
 Ribosomes have two
subunits – one large and
one small – each of which
contains ribosomal RNA
and protein
Rough endoplasmic  Sheets of membranes  Provide a large SA for the
reticulum (RER) that spread throughout synthesis of proteins and
the cytoplasm glycoproteins
 Enclose a network of  Act as transport channels
tubules and flattened for substances throughout
sacs called cisternae the cell, especially proteins
 Ribosomes are present
on the outer surface of
the membranes
Smooth endoplasmic  Similar structure to RER,  Synthesise, store and
reticulum (SER) but without ribosomes on transport lipids and
its surface carbohydrates
 More tubular in
appearance
Cell wall  Consists of microfibrils of  Provide mechanical strength
cellulose embedded in a in order to prevent the cell
matrix bursting from osmotic
 Consist of a number of pressure
polysaccharides e.g.  Allow water to pass along it
cellulose and so contribute to the
 There is a thin layer, movement of water through
called the lamella, which the plant
marks the boundary
 between adjacent cell
walls and cements them
together
Cell vacuole  Fluid-filled sac bounded  Support plants, and parts of
by a single membrane, woody plants by making
called the tonoplast cells turgid
 Contains a solution of  Sugars and amino acids may
mineral salts, sugars, act as a temporary food
amino acids, wastes and store
sometimes pigments  Pigments may colour petals
to attract pollinating insects
Chloroplasts  Chloroplast envelope is a  Site of photosynthesis
double membrane that
surrounds organelle and
controls the entry and
exit of materials
 Grana are stacks of disc-
like structures called
thylakoids, which contain
chlorophyll for the first
stage of photosynthesis
(light absorption)
 Stroma is a fluid-filled
matrix where the second
stage of photosynthesis
takes place (synthesis of
sugars)
 Contains DNA, which is
shorter than nuclear
DNA, circular, and not
associated with histones,
that allows for the
synthesis of proteins

How are proteins produced and transported in a eukaryotic cell?

 DNA in nucleus encodes for proteins to be produced

 Ribosomes synthesise proteins
 Mitochondria produce ATP for the synthesis of proteins
 Golgi apparatus packages and modifies proteins e.g. adds carbohydrates to proteins to form
glycoproteins
 RER transports proteins throughout the cell
 Golgi vesicle stores proteins and transports them out of the cell

Differentiation = the process by which a less specialised cell develops or matures to become more
distinct in form and function

Tissues = a collection of similar cells that perform a specific function e.g. epithelial tissues and the
xylem
Organs = a combination of tissues that perform a variety of functions, although they have one
predominant major function in the organism e.g. the stomach

Organ systems = where multiple organs work together as a single unit to perform a particular
function e.g. the digestive system

Prokaryotic cells and viruses:

Prokaryotic cells are smaller than eukaryotic cells and have no nucleus, or other membrane-bound
organelles

Roles of structures found in prokaryotic cells:

Cell structure Role

Cell wall  Physical barrier that excludes certain substances and

protects against mechanical damage and osmosis lysis
Capsule  Protects bacterium from other cells and helps groups of
bacteria stick together for further protection
Cell-surface membrane  Controls the entry and exit of materials in and out of the
cell
Circular DNA  Possess the genetic information for the replication of
bacteria
Plasmid  Possesses genes that may aid the survival of bacteria in
adverse conditions e.g. produces enzymes that break
down antibiotics
Ribosomes  Smaller 70S ribosomes which synthesise proteins

Cytoplasm  Contains enzymes and other soluble materials

Flagellum  There may be more than one – it is used for locomotion

Structure of a bacteria cell:

 Cell wall and cell membrane

 Store food reserves as glycogen granules and oil droplets
  Contain plasmids, which can reproduce themselves independently and may give the
bacterium resistance to harmful chemicals e.g. antibiotics
 Capsule for further protection and to stick to other bacteria
 One or more flagella for locomotion

Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

No true nucleus – they only have circular DNA Distinct nucleus

in the cytoplasm
Smaller 70S ribosomes Bigger 80S ribosomes
No membrane-bound organelles e.g. Membrane-bound organelles e.g.
mitochondria and ER mitochondria are present
Cell wall made of murein Where present, cell wall is mostly made of
cellulose (or chitin in fungi)
May have plasmids or capsule No capsule or plasmids

Viruses:

 Viruses are acellular (non-living particles)

 They are smaller than bacteria
 Contain genetic material as DNA or RNA, which is enclosed within a protein coat called the
capsid
 Attachment proteins on outer surface which allows the virus to identify and attach to a host
cell

Methods of studying cells:

 Magnification = how many times bigger the image is when compared to the object
 Resolution = the minimum distance apart that two objects can be in order for them to
appear as separate objects
 Magnification = size of image/size of real object

Type Principles Advantages/Disadvantages

Light microscope  Light is focused through a A:

lens to form an image  Cheap and easy to use
 You can observe dense  Images are in colour
structures e.g. nucleus, cell  Can be used to observe living
membrane specimens
D:
 Produces 2D images
 Low resolution and
magnification due to the long
wavelength of light
Scanning electron  A beam of electrons is A:
microscope (SEM) focused onto the outer  Produces 3D images
surface of the specimen  Higher magnification and
using electromagnets resolution due to the short
  Allows the outside of wavelength of electrons
specimens to be observed  Specimens do not need to be
extremely thin as electrons
don’t penetrate
D:
 Lower magnification and
resolution than TEM
 Same disadvantages as TEM
Transmission  A beam of electrons is A:
electron transmitted through the  Highest resolution and
microscope (TEM) specimen using magnification due to the
electromagnets short wavelength of electrons
 Denser parts of the  Observe inside of organelles
specimen absorb electrons, D:
other parts allow the  High energy electron beam
electrons to pass through may destroy the specimen
 Specimen must be extremely
thin
 Produces 2D images
 A vacuum must be used, and
so living specimens cannot be
observed
 Image may contain artefacts,
which are things that result
from the way the specimen is
prepared

Cell fractionation = the process where cells are broken up and the different organelles they contain
are separated out, so that they can be studied in detail

Tissue is placed in a cold, isotonic buffered solution

 Cold – to reduce enzyme activity to prevent organelles being digested

 Isotonic (same water potential as the tissue) – to prevent organelles bursting or shrinking as
a result of osmosis
 Buffered – so that the pH does not fluctuate, to prevent denaturing of enzymes/proteins

Tissue is broken up in a homogeniser

 This breaks the cell wall and releases the organelles from the cell. The resultant fluid, known
as the homogenate, is then filtered to remove any complete cells and large pieces of debris

Homogenate is spun in a centrifuge at a low speed

 The filtered solution is transferred to a test tube and spun first at a low speed. The
centrifugal forces cause the denser organelles to form pellets at the bottom of the tube. The
fluid at the top of the tube, known as the supernatant, is removed, and transferred to
another tube

Supernatant is spun in centrifuge at a higher speed

 This is so that the next densest organelle is separated out. After each time the supernatant is
spun, the liquid is removed and spun at a higher speed and the pellets are left at the bottom
of the tube