Etymology

• “Ethos”– Characteristic way of acting, habit, or custom

• “Mos”, “s. Moris, pl. Mores”– Latin equivalent from which the words Moral and Morality
are derived.
• For the Greeks, ethics dealt with the development of a virtuous and moral character.
They believed that developing such a character would make one know the right thing to
do and live the right way of life
• “The practical science of the morality of human acts.” ORIGIN OF WORDS
• Science - Systematized body of knowledge.
• Practical Science – beneficial only when it is put into practice
• Art– “The art of correct living” – puts order and harmony in our lives
• Morality– The quality of being good or bad.
• Human Acts– actions done consciously, freely, and voluntarily
What is Philosophy?
• The word philosophy is derived from the Greek words philos (love) and sophia
(wisdom), which if taken together means love of wisdom.
• Philosophy is a science that is concerned with man’s quest for the ultimate reasons,
causes, and principles of beings.
• The aim of philosophy is to know the truth.
• The starting point of philosophy is inquiry
Pre-Socratics (6th, 5th, and 4th BC)
• Group of early Greek philosophers, most of whom were born before Socrates, whose
attention to questions about the origin and nature of the physical world has led to their
being called cosmologists or naturalists
• They rejected traditional mythological explanations of the world in favor of more
rational explanations.
• They sought to identify the First Cause for the creation of the world
Milesians
• Thinkers from the little colony of Miletus on the coast of Asia Minor, today’s Turkey.
• The Milesian philosophers departed from the traditional cultural understanding of their
time that the universe was created by the gods and operated according to their will. For
them, there was a simpler, and more rational, explanation for how the universe operated
as it did.
Thales
• First Philosopher
• (Father of Philosophy)
• belongs to the group of Philosophers called Pre-Socratics
Thales of Miletus (624 BCE)
• Everything is water
• Water is the arche (first element)
Other Pre-Socratic Philosophers
■ Anaximander ■ Anaximenes ■ Pythagorians– Pythagoras ■ Heraclitus ■ Empedocles ■
Anaxagoras ■ Atomists– Leucippus– Democritus
The Great Greek Philosophers
-Socrates
-Plato
-Aristotle

Socrates
The Father of Moral Philosophy
What makes a good and happy life?
“Eudaimonia”
• Developed of critical a system reasoning (Socratic Method) in order to work out how to
live properly and to tell the difference between right and wrong.
o Knowledge comes from asking questions
• “The unexamined life is not worth living.”
o (A life that is guided and enriched by self-awareness)
• Gnothi Seauton (Know Thyself)
Plato
• Ignorance is solely responsible for committing immoral acts, once one knows the good,
one will inevitably do the good.
• Knowledge is virtue
• Virtue (arête)– how a thing fulfills its function (ergon) in accordance with its nature or
simply excellence.
• The soul’s unique function is the art of living.
• The art of living requires a knowledge of limits and of measure.
Plato’s Idea of Soul
• Temperance– Appetite
• Courage- Spirit
• Wisdom–Reason
{Justice}
Aristotle
• We become what we are by what we do and not merely by what we know.
• His ethics is grounded in the formation of one’s character– a way of being and living in
harmony with the human person’s proper end (cultivating one’s potential).
Eudaimonia
• An activity of the soul in accordance with virtue
• Achieved through virtue
How do we become virtuous?
Principles:
• Principle of the mean (mesotes)
o Intermediary between excess and deficiency.
• Prudence (phronesis) – practical wisdom
o Actions driven by reason and not by passion.
Moral Virtue
Ergo:
Moral virtue consists of cultivating habits which will spontaneously incline us to take the
middle course of action
Why do we need to study Ethics?
• “Ethics as part of Philosophy examines all human conduct. It delves into every
human facet of human existence: actions, problems, experience, aspirations and destiny.
To live and to have a fuller life, one must know what he/she is living for. This is one of the
most important considerations of ethics to investigate the meaning and purpose of
human life in order to attain HAPPINESS.”
Importance of Ethics
1. Helps us to know and internalize the meaning of ethical and moral principles.
2. Helps us understand and uphold moral standards in order to have a just and orderly
society.
3. Inculcates among us the true values of living a good life.
4. Ethics simply means right living and the development of good moral character since it is
in good moral character that man finds his true worth and perfection as a member of
society.
Ethics and Religion
• Both are concerned with moral education
• Ethics relies on reason
• Religion– system of beliefs and practices based on faith and revelation, or truths
revealed to man by God
Ethical Norms and Law
• “What is legal is not necessarily moral.”
• Human Laws regulate external actions.
• Ethical Norms cover thoughts and feelings.
Ethical Approaches
• Atheistic
• Theistic
1. Atheistic Approach
• Matter is the only reality
• Manis matter and does not have spiritual soul
• Man is free and must exercise his freedom to promote the welfare of society.
• There is no life after death
• Manis only accountable to the state
2. Theistic
• God is the Supreme Creator and Lawgiver.
• Man is free and must use his freedom to promote his persona; interest along with that
of others.
• Man has an immortal soul
• Man is accountable for his actions, both good and evil
Division
• General Ethics- deals with the principles of morality
• Special Ethics – application of the principles of General Ethics into different problems
and issues that confront a person
Lesson 2

RATIONAL ANIMAL
• ACTS WITH PURPOSE AND KNOWS THEREASONFORACTING.
• AWARE OF OUR INTENTIONS AS WELL AS THE CONSEQUENCES OF OURACTIONS.
• CAPABLE OF JUDGMENT BETWEEN RIGHTANDWRONG
HIERARCHY OF BEINGS
God
Human
Beings
Animals
Plants
Minerals
HYLOMORPHISM – substantial union of body and soul (matter and form)

HUMAN NATURE
• BIOLOGICAL POWERS-NUTRITION, LOCOMOTION, GROWTH, AND REPRODUCTION
• PSYCHOLOGICAL POWERS-SENSES AND ACTS OF EMOTIONS
• RATIONAL POWERS-INTELLECT (COMPREHENSION AND THE WILL (VOLITION)

HUMAN NATURE AS A NATURAL LAW

NATURAL LAW:
• ALL HUMAN POWERS OR FACULTIES AS OPERATIONAL TENDENCIES TOWARDS
WHAT IS GOOD TO A HUMAN BEING AS A RATIONAL ANIMAL IS A NATURAL LAW SINCE
IT DIRECTS HUMAN BEINGS IN ALL THEIR ACTIVITIES
LAWS OF NATURE:
• FORCES GOVERNING THE NATURAL WORLD
A MORAL BEING
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. MAN BY NATURAL INSIGHT IS ABLE TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL, RIGHT
AND WRONG, MORAL AND IMMORAL.
2. MAN FEELS HIMSELF OBLIGED TO DO WHAT IS GOOD AND TO AVOID WHAT IS EVIL.
3. MAN FEELS HIMSELF ACCOUNTABLE FOR HIS ACTIONS SO THAT HIS GOOD DEEDS MERIT
REWARD, WHILE HIS EVIL DEEDS DESERVE PUNISHMENT
A PERSON
• THE WORD PERSON COMES FROM THE GREEKWORD “PROSOPHON” WHICH IS THE
MASK WORN BY STAGE ACTORS.
• IN LATIN, “PERSONARE”
• DEFINITION: AN INDIVIDUAL EXISTING SEPARATELY AND INDEPENDENTLY FROM OTHERS,
CAPABLE OF KNOWING AND LOVING IN AN INTELLECTUAL WAY AND DECIDING FOR
HIMSELF THE PURPOSE OR END OF HIS ACTIONS
PERSONALITY AND CHARACTER
PERSONALITY
• THE SUM OF THOSE PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES AND TENDENCIES OR MANNERISMS
(TALENTS, ABILITIES, HABITS) WHICH DEFINE A PERSON’S DISTINCTBEHAVIOR
• ANASPECT OF THE BODY
CHARACTER
• PERSON’SCHOICEOFVALUES
• AN ASPECT OF THE SOUL
MORAL CHARACTER
• DISCIPLINED TENDENCY TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT THING IN AN GIVEN CIRCUMSTANCE
o IT ADHERES TO WHAT IS TRUE, BEAUTIFUL, AND GOOD IN US
SOCIAL DIMENSION
“MAN BY NATURE IS A SOCIAL ANIMAL”-ARISTOTLE

LESSON 3- HUMAN ACTS

Attributes of Human Act
• Human acts are those performed by a person who is acting knowingly, freely, and
willfully
• It is differentiated from acts of man which are instinctive and are not under the control
of the will.
1. Knowingly (Knowledge)
• When the doer is conscious and aware of the reason and the consequences of his
actions.
2. Freely (Freedom)
• When the doer acts by his own initiative and choice without being forced to do so by
another person or situation.
3. Willfully (Will)
• When the doer consents to the act, accepts it as his own, and assumes accountability for
its consequences
Kinds of Human Acts
A. Elicited
B. Commanded
A. Elicited Acts – performed by the Will but are not bodily externalized.
■ Wish–the tendency of the Will towards an object, without considering whether it is attainable
or not.
■ Intention –the tendency of the Will towards an object which is attainable, without necessarily
committing oneself to get it.
■ Consent–The acceptance of the Will to carry out the intention.
■ Election – The selection of the Will of the means necessary to carry out the intention.
■ Fruition – The enjoyment of the Will due to the attainment of the intention

B. Commanded Acts –Mental and Bodily actions performed under the command of the Will.
These are either internal or external.
 ■ Internal actions– performed mentally, such as reasoning, recalling, imagining, and
reflecting.
■ External actions– performed bodily, such as walking, talking, dancing, writing.
Moral Distinctions
■ Moral actions – those in conformity with the norm of morality. They are good and
permissible actions.
■ Immoral actions – those which are not in conformity with the norm of morality. They
are evil and prohibited actions.
– Intrinsically evil – when its wrongfulness is part of the nature of such act.
– Extrinsically evil – when its wrongfulness from an outside factor. Actions that are good
or neutral may become evil due to the motive of the person or the circumstances of the
act.
■ Amoral actions – stands neutral or indifferent to the norm of morality. These acts are
neither good nor evil. But they may become good or evil because of circumstances.
Voluntariness (volition)
■ Comes from the Latin word “volsuntas” which means the will. ‘
■ An acts is voluntary because it is done under the control of the will
Kinds of voluntariness
1. Perfect Voluntariness – possessed by a person who is acting with full knowledge,
complete freedom, and full consent.
2. Imperfect voluntariness – possessed by a person who acts without full understanding
of what he is doing, or without complete freedom.
3. Simple voluntariness – disposition of a person performing any activity regardless of his
liking or not liking.
1. Positive – when the act requires the performance of an activity.
2. Negative – when it requires the omission of an activity.
4. Conditional voluntariness – disposition of a person who is forced by circumstances to
perform an activity which he would not do, under normal circumstances
Directly and indirectly voluntary
■ Directly voluntary – when the result of the act is directly intended.
■ Indirectly voluntary– when the result of the act follows or goes along with the
primarily intended act.
Ex. A student watches a movie to entertain himself (directly), but in doing so, he misses
school (indirectly)
Are we accountable for actions indirectly willed?
1. When the doer is able to foresee the evil result or consequence though in a general way.
2. The doer is free to refrain from doing that actions which would result in the foreseen evil.
3. The doer has the moral obligation not to do that which would result in something evil
Acts with Double Effect
■ A person is held morally responsible for any evil effect which flows from the action directly
willed and as a natural consequence of such action, though such evil effect is not directly willed
or intended.
■ A human act with double effect, one good and another evil, is morally permissible under four
conditions. A violation of any of these conditions makes an act unjustifiable
Principles of double effect
1. The action which produces double effects must be good in itself, or at least morally
indifferent. (The end does not justify the means)
2. The good effect must not come from the evil effect. It is never justified to do evil in order to
attain something good.
3. The purpose of the doer is the attainment of the good effect, with the evil effect being
tolerated as an accidental result.
4. The good effect must outweigh in importance the evil result

LESSON 4- MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY

Human acts, because they are voluntary, are accountable acts. Actions are attributed on the doer as its
principal cause and therefore deserving of either reward or punishment

The Subject of Human Acts

■ Any person who is capable of acting intelligently and freely
■ Business organizations, institutions, associations, or unions which are constituted by law as
juridical person
The Modifiers of Human act
■ Factors that influence the intellect and will so that actions are not perfectly voluntary. They
interfere with the application of the intellect and will. They either reduce or increase accountability

Ignorance– Absence or privation of knowledge that is ought to be them

■ Invincible– one which is not easily remedied
■ Vincible– can easily be corrected through ordinary diligence.
–Affected ignorance– vincible ignorance which is intentionally kept in an effort to escape
responsibility.
Axiom: “Ignorance of the law excuses no one.

Principles:
■ Invincible Ignorance renders an act involuntary. A person is not morally liable if he/she is not
aware of his state of ignorance.
■ Vincible Ignorance does not destroy, but lessens the voluntariness and the corresponding
accountability over an act.
■ Affected Ignorance, though it decreases voluntariness, increases the accountability of an act
Passions (concupiscence)– bodily appetites or tendencies, or psychic responses
■ Ex. Love, desire, delight, hope, bravery, hatred, horror, sadness, despair, anger, fear
■ Antecedent– natural reaction to an object or stimulus without being stimulated intentionally.
It is an act of man
■ Consequent– result of an act which causes it to be stimulated. Fault of the agent for it is
willed.
Principles:
■ Antecedent Passions do not always destroy voluntariness but they diminish accountability over
an act.
■ Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, and may even increase accountability

Fear– the shrinking or disturbance of the mind from and impending danger
■ Acting with fear– an accompanying circumstance to actions that are difficult or dangerous .
 ■ Acting out of fear- when fear causes a person to act
Principles:
■ Acts done with fear are voluntary and are accountable
■ Acts done out of fear, however great, is simply voluntary, although it is also conditionally
voluntary
Violence
■External force applied by a free agent for the purpose of compelling a person to perform an act
which is against his/her will.
Principles:
■ External, or commanded acts, performed by a person subjected to violence to which
reasonable resistance has been offered, are involuntary and not accountable.
■ Elicited acts, or those done by the will alone, are not subject to violence and are therefore,
voluntary.
Habits– the readiness, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a certain manner
■Good habits – virtue
■Bad habits - Vice
Principle:
■ Actions done by force of habit are voluntary in cause, unless a reasonable effort is made to
counteract the inclination.

LESSON 5- THE ENDS OF HUMAN ACT

End- The purpose or goal of an act

■ End of the Act – The natural termination or completion of an activity.
■ End of the doer – the motive or reason why a person performs an act
Kinds of End
1. Proximate End– The purpose which the doer wishes to accomplish immediately.
2. Remote End– the purpose which the doer wishes to accomplish sometime later.
3. Intermediate End– That which is sought as a means for obtaining another thing
4. Ultimate End- Desired for its own sake
Principles that describe human activity:
1. Every action is performed for the sake of a definitive end or purpose.
2. Every action is intended towards an ultimate end.
3. Every doer moves himself towards an end which he thinks suitable to him.
The end as good
Man acts in order to obtain something good to himself. Only what is good could be the end or
purpose of an act.
Good– anything which fits or suits a function

Kinds of good
1. Essential Good- satisfies the basic needs of a person such as food, clothing, shelter, etc.
2. Accidental or non-essential Good– are those which satisfies the want of a person because of his
particular situation such as sports cars, expensive houses, private planes, etc.
3. Real Good– anything which has intrinsic value such as persons, relationships, activities.
4. Apparent Good– An evil which is viewed subjective as something of value such as cigarettes,
prohibited drugs, vices.
5 Perfective Good– that which develops the potentials of a person such as education, sports, arts, etc.
6. Non-perfective– Anything which simply contribute to the external appearance like jewelries,
expensive clothes, car, title.
7. Perfect Good– Complete in all aspects or the highest good (SummumBonum)- satisfies all human
desires.
8. Imperfect Good– Lacking in some qualities or not complete. Ex. material objects as an object of
happiness such as money, sex, “rock and roll”, etc.

■The Ultimate End or purpose of human existence can be subjective or Objective. The subjective aspect
is the attainment of happiness and the objective aspect is the possession of the object which can bring
happiness. For what ends or purposes human acts are performed or What is the purpose of human
existence under which human acts are performed from sunrise to sundown?

■Happiness- a state of being or a state of perfection which consists in the possession of an object what is
perceived as good, beautiful and desirable.

Happiness
■ Objectively– it refers to something having an intrinsic value and capable of satisfying a human
need.
■ Subjectively– It is the psychological state of feeling contented resulting from the attainment of
that which is good itself

Popular Ethical Practices in the Contemporary World

1. Hedonism- pleasure is the ultimate goal of human existence (Epicurus)
2.Utilitarianism– pleasure that which gives happiness for the greatest number of people (John
Stuart Mill).
3. Aristotelianism– A happy life is that which is in accordance with virtue.
4. Thomism– The ultimate purpose consists in the Beatific Vision.
5. Evolutionism-- The greatest good(happiness) is the rearing of the greatest number of
individuals with perfect faculties, under given circumstances (Charles Darwin). Implications:
Survival of the fittest and the fastest during pandemic and in global trade.
6. Existentialism- Personal fulfilment is the ultimate goal of human existence and largely
dependent upon a persons will power and personal convictions

LESSON6- THE DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY

■The determinants of morality are so called because they are the basis for judging whether an act is
good or evil, moral or immoral.

I. End of the Act

■ The end of the act determines whether an act is intrinsically or extrinsically good or evil. Any act which
is consistent with the natural tendencies of human nature is intrinsically good but those which are not
are intrinsically evil.
■ E.g.– Murder, abortion, kidnapping, robbery, rape.

II. End of the doer

■ Refers to the motive or purpose which the doer wishes to accomplish by his action
Motive and Action
1. An evil act which is done on account of an evil motive is grievously wrong.
2. A good action done on account of an evil motive become evil itself.
3. A good action done on account of a good purpose acquires an additional merit.
4. An indifferent act may either become good or bad depending on the motive
III. Circumstances of the Act
■ Historical elements surrounding the commission of an act, such as the status of the doer, the
place, the time, or the intensity of an act

1. Who
■ Refers to either the doer of the act or the recipient of the act. It has to do with the age, status,
relation, schooling, social standing, an economic situation of those involved in an act.
■ E.g.
1. Mentally challenged, senile, and children below the age of reason are incapable of voluntary
acts and are not morally accountable.
2. Educated persons have greater accountability.
3. Persons constituted in authority have accountability for actions of those under them
(Command responsibility).
4. Legal or blood relation of people involved in act may modify the nature of such act
2. What
■ Refers to the act itself, or to the quality and quantity of the results of such act as aggravating
factors.
■ E.g.
– What was stolen, how much is stolen
– Number of victims
3. Where
■ Refers to the place where the act is committed.
– E.g.
■ Crime committed inside a church
4. With whom
■ Refers to the companion or accomplices in an act. The more people are involved in the
commission of an act, the more serious is the crime.
5. Why
■Refers to the motive of the doer
6. How
■ Refers to the manner the act is perpetrated
■ E.g.– Homicide committed with much cruelty is a heinous crime.
7. When
■ Refers to the time of the act.
■ E.g.– When the victim is sleeping.

Circumstantial Factors:
1. Circumstance may either increase or decrease the wrongfulness of an evil act.
■ E.g. Killing of innocent people in public places constitutes crime against humanity vs. Killing of
dictator.
2. Circumstances also may either increase or decrease the merits of good act.
■ E.g.– Helping another at the risk of one’s life is an act of heroism while helping someone in
exchange of a reward or a fee is a business transaction
3. Circumstances may exempt temporarily someone from doing a required act.
■ A debtor may not pay his debts when he does not have the money or if paying up would cause
great hardships.
4. Circumstances do not prove the guilt of a person
■ The presence of a person when a crime is committed does not prove he is the criminal

IV. Law

Relevance:
■ Mandate some actions as prohibited and others as permitted and required.
■ Society adopts laws to protect its members from themselves or from those who might want to hurt
them.
■ Prescribes punishments for transgressions, laws compel people to act for the good of all.
■ “Dura lex, sed lex!

What is Law?
■ Law– An ordinance of reason, promulgated for the common good by one who has charge of the
society.
Kinds of Law
■ 1. Divine positive laws – made known to people by God.
■ 2. Human positive laws – made by legitimate human authority intended to preserve peace and
order and to direct members to work towards the common good.
■ 3. Affirmative and Negative Laws
– Affirmative – requires the performance of an act.
– Negative – prohibits the performance of the act

Properties of a just law

1. Human law must confirm with the divine laws.
2. A human law must promote the common good
3. A human law must not discriminate against certain groups or individuals
4. A human law must be practicable
5. A human law must be flexible
6. A law must be amendable

LESSON7- NORMS OF MORALITY

What is Norm?
■ A norm is a standard of measurement.
– E.g., Size, weight, length
■ The moral qualities of human acts are measured with the use of a norm or standard to support a
judgment

Norms of Morality
■ The criteria of judgment about the sort of persons we ought to be and the sorts of actions we ought
to perform
■ Moral Norms are the criteria for judging
– 1. The quality of character
■ What sort of person we ought to become
– 2. quality of an act
■ What sort of action ought to be done

Basis for Moral Judgment

■1. The Eternal Law
■2. The Natural Law
■3. Conscience

1. The Eternal Law

■The plan of God in creating all creatures both animate and inanimate, giving to each of them
its respective nature
2. Natural Law
■ Refers to the operational tendencies of the human nature– the chemical, biological,
physiological, psychological, and rational properties of human beings as organisms.
■ Anything contributing to the actualization of a person’s potential is morally good. And anything
that contradicts the self-realization of a person as person is morally evil

Characteristics of Natural Law

■ 1. Universal– shared by human beings, though realized differently according to their respective
cultures.
■ 2. Obligatory– the tendencies of our human nature are the laws of our desires and actuations which
we cannot ignore without dire consequences.
■ 3. Recognizable– a human being is aware of his nature, of what he is capable of, and what is expected
of him by his own kind
■ 4. Immutable and unchangeable– human nature in its essentiality and substantiality is permanent and
unchangeable

3. Conscience
■The practical judgment of reason, telling us what should be done and what should be avoided

Types of conscience
1. Correct– sees the good as good, evil as evil
2. Erroneous– sees evil as something good
3. Doubtful– Indecisive, unsure of itself
4. Scrupulous– overly cautious
5. Lax– indifferent, unmindful of right and wrong