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Because of Ae changes umn Archmology , Comuntis ones % Sfgalifin Ccomonne Apo tle pulrabe posites Caen also ome over Jame» So, pore dicel hadisina 4, Adviabildy Shandords ovr fnguired « esesey Fin} pertanity Verws Cos m oplirnuan Rel sabi byrT “The Aokal cosk of, oubbling detriey js Pu Sum 4 Syshum cosk | — Comsummnor ouksge casks. The Lowest Pont om he fokaltccusve — dajsimer the apbmel Apohamcing, 4 syster costs & Consume Coste, and. dubevmins — the opbeaval — Aalialarbly fovel- We pilowing omalyse i consud out fon cade ¢ Seytrol sprtstleded peew/e ims, On orphamurant Arsource| cnt yy ast dakevemined- Next, fron each fusourte Mt, -prodsschare cosking hevemue pequistenont> , ama talaabaLly calculate» ms que mode fo estimate otal cost Ou (revenue fag sinements) + expecked emerge mot Subpled CEENS) FUNCTIONAL ZoNES :- — The thu asic fpndisonal foots OM guewiatin. G — dustadbubiom: Amokher ee + - dudue pom System 8 Ad olbtaimad by combining Bu pumdaindl gone» nts hinrsachial avd Adequacy sludiss © cam be peagotomal om ache stance Jade Thee dsisochiesl Jove CH) om the fla HLT Comsishe of the aha fprcdutice aba» The Joel syst Gemmahem 48 examin deo cebernine [pts adequate anak dle syslent Load demand:2) HUT imdudes bob guarolcen © tromernssion feet Adequacy amalysis ok HLT & also Anwed oudk- pow Septem ade quot assussaemnt - 3) HLT skudus oe amok usually dome diseclty become of Me emonerily of, tee prsblum im a pha chcal spelen The overctl paoblirn 4 HET adequacy assessment cam be quite Complect tm mosh Syohicms as wb tmvoliles tosh at the qensation pombe cnt bamunolingy at the indi yadual Comsumer Lends. (AEN ERATION RELIABILITY PLANNING CRITERIA D Resowe Masgin :- ; - The daquved Cafpacty jusowes ar AckomuncL cee JPprobadbdarke Approach. Aol oramines dhe parbabildes + oe oulages of gensaterg unis met ae ee fprdedid natin. mm ie gan de - Resowe genoa capac vy alto mucdad do Supply on aenetbecked. howth im the pee ran dadiicly alll, ~ comumess Aha coyaih extud the +2) hoss- of - Lod Eapecbobson. (LOLE)*- - Lole pp O pobobldy wder Yok dertdos Ve y Sduhood tht qian i beat teed Ae nd, beh. Qomourd dung Oo pot On GE wo ae - Th obbasinnel bg caledlaleng Be pices, 4 duly pork demand creding de osodobh Capac cack doy ound. addamg Mase probalsltus i oll de days in Be qor 2) Grugy Mok Subplial CEs) -- Any cakage of Qpasraling Grbac catalan Ba str will esull in curtail ment 4 Syeern poets ECens)- ZB+60L PL liz hood curtailment in He sestane dob t be Pro bale set $ Spslen Bhake éTRANSMISSION RELIABILITY CRITERIA: ‘Nel criterion is used in transmission planning, This is single contingency. © Asanational approach, N-2 criteria may be adopted for large generating complexes and multiline corridors. CEA RELIABILITY PLANNING CRITERIA: ‘The Central Electricity Authority(CEA) uses the following reliability criteria on deterministic basis. 1. Lines: Loading under Normal Operating Conditions for Lines: 400 kV SIC line: 360-800 MW 220 KV SIC line: 160-200 MW 132 KV SIC line:50-70 MW 2. Generation: For the transmission system configurations, transmission planning studies are carried out ‘depending on the generation scenarios worked out by the CEA. 3. Scheduled maintenance: ‘The maintenance schedule of generating units shall be done based on the availability of gross ‘operating reserve margins: ‘The maintenance schedule shall take into account the monthly variations in system peak load and hydro availability. ‘As far as possible, hydro units shall be taken out for maintenance during the periods of low water conditions. DISTRIBUTION Ri AABILITY: Distribution indices for reliability are : ‘+ SAIDI(SYSTEM AVERAGE INTERRUPTION DURATION INDEX): © It is the average total duration of interruptions of supply per annum that a consumer experiences in the period. + SAIFI(SYSTEM AVERAGE INTERRUPTION FREQUENCY INDEX): (© It is the average number of interruptions of supply in the year for consumers who experience interruption of supply in the period. + CAIDI(CONSUMER AVERAGE INTERRUPTION DURATION INDEX): (© Itis the average duration of an interruption of supply in the year for consumers who experience interruption of supply in the period. © MAIFI: ‘© Itis the average number of momentary interruptions that a consumer would experience during a given period. © Electric power utilities may define momentary interruptions differently, with some considering a momentary interruption to be an outage of less than 5 minutes in duration.© MAIFI=(Total_ number of consumers interrupted less than defined timey! (Total number of consumers served) ‘+ ASAI(AVERAGE SERVICE AVAILABILITY INDEX) ASAI (Consumer hours service availability) (Consumer hours service demand) RELIABILITY EVALUATION: + Long-term reliability evaluations may be performed to assist i + Short-term reliability predictions may be undertaken to assist + The main steps in reliability studies are the following: + Define the system + Define the criteria for system failure + List the assumptions to be made + Developing the system model + Perform failure-effects analysis and compute the system reliability indices + Analyse and evaluate the results long-range system planning. ‘day-to-day operating decisions. RELIABILITY DATA: ‘The scope of reliability engineering in power systems depends upon the following: {The collection and evaluation of component failure data and load curve model of the system. * The definition of reliability measures and determination of reliability requirements of standards for the various applications. Development of mathematical models for system reliability, + Verification of results and solution of these models. Evaluation of results and preparation of recommendations. SENSITIVITY STUDIES: Several sensitivity studies are carried out to examine the effect parameters: ‘Variations in the electricity demand projection by 10% and 20% Low level of hydro development Improvement in performance of thermal power plants, Improvement inthe system load factor by employing available load management techniques GRID RELIABILITY: The National Reliability Council for Electricity was constituted by the Central Electricity Napetory Commission on 21 February, 2014, which is looking into all aspects of etcbin ¥y of the National Power Grid. of the variations in various power planning, The following general planning criteria for reactive power compensation need to be observed: Reactive power should not be transported over long distances. In normal intact network situations, reactive power should be produced and consumed locally.* The network should be operated at upper voltage limits in high load conditions to achieve higher stability margins. ; * The amount of reactive power resources should be sufficient to ensure acceptable transmission capacities in the network during system disturbance cot + Voltage stability RELIABILITY TARGET: + Due to lack of financial resources, many utilities planners are facing a new situation as new lines, and stations are not being built to the same extent as planned. + The emphasis is on renewal of existing installations which calls for new strategies. + Not all consumers are dissatisfied with the supply and many, such as agricultural consumers, would accept a lower level of reliability ifthe price was reduced. + Therefore, a lot of work needs to be done to find optimum reliability for different consumers and ‘adopt standard measurements for reliability in our systems. SECURITY REQUIREMENT: ‘The security levels differ from utility to utility depending upon the policy of quality of supply. Inorder to ensure proper quality and continuity of power supply to consumers, power system security requirements broadly fall under 3 stages. i + Power system planning + Power system operating planning + Power system control At the planning stage, the requirements are as following: * Analysis of demand and energy forecasts/past power cuts during peak/off-peak con + Reserve margin planning in generation and transmission. + Protection system design to ensure fault clearance. + Fast-acting load-shedding system which should be based not only on frequency but also on other operating conditions. : * Reinforcement of reactive power devices wherever required. + Interconnected power system planning. DISASTER MANAGEMENT: (WOl TiueLu DED) . Disaster management groups should be constituted at the power utility level. * Control rogms shall have a list of minimum Yganpower required for contin maintenance ofa panicular 2- or 3- shift operations) * A complete lit.of personneVexperts for operatiohand maintenance of the uKities shall be (in case of emergency, the expert\nay be sent for quick fault\finding and restoration of power Yypply. ‘operation and sees meant for tackling the dd i available to the concerned mem! . coal td for traction, defence I , * The power backup facilities ke DG sets and inverters should\ge maintained Properly ant checked periodically for teadinesS ef operation in case of any emergency,+ The tran arrangements incase of ebergency should be decid in advance. + Spates available with various power utilities ahd their locations should\ee identified so tht these could be pressed into service within the shortest possible time, QUALITY OF SUPPLY: Half the PQ(Power Quality) problems result from the transmission and distribution system and other 50% arise from consumers. + Different consumers have different power-qualty needs. ‘Acceptable power quality for electronic loads combines all of the elements of reliability with ‘udditonal factors of voltage regulation, voltage disturbances and wave shape distortion. + Voliage disturbances are frequently caused by weather related problems. Lighining strikes are the principal cause of overvoltage transients Underground systems are better protected against weather related problems, although such surges can enter underground systems at improperly protected cables Switching of large loads and motor starting also cause voltage dips. ty capacitors causes transient spikes. of various types of distribution systems to volage disturbances vary widely. Consumers on radial, primary and secondary selective systems experience large: magnitude voltage disturbances caused by witching of large loads and motor stating “The greater the number of parallel transformers, the less the voltage will dip during switching \Waveshape distortions are the result of harmonics superimposed on the fundamental frequency + Switching of ut sine wave, Investigations have revealed tat the single most potent cause of end-user power-qualty problems is vollage sog or swell, + The second most vigorous contributors harmonics. (QUALITY PROBLEMS: For consumers, the quality problems are caused by the following: DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS: + System transformers’ magnetsing current cause harmonies. Heavily loaded transmission and distibution system and system faults produce voltage sags, swells and magnify unbalance in the system. + Grid connected renewable generation may create harmonies, voltage fluctuations et, OTHER CONSUMERS: Non linear loads of other consumers such as welding sets, rectifiers, variable speed drives, arcfinduction furnaces requiring variable high reactive power, large motor starting, heavy unbalance loading ee, create harmonics, voltage swings and unbalance, + These are transmitted to nearby consumers through the distribution system. CONSUMER'S OWN EQUIPMENT: + Equipment malfunction or failure. * Power fictorcorection capacitor flue + Frequent replacement of consumables.Types of voltage disturbances: a) ») 9 4) ° Spikes: Spikes are usually caused by on-and-off switching of heavy loads. Lightning can cause even larger spikes. Although a voltage spike usually lasts less than 200 ms, it can damage unprotected equipment with amplitudes ranging from 150% to 1500% of rated LT Tine voltage. Voltage surges: This problem relates to voltage increases that typically last from 15 ms to % s. Surges are ‘commonly caused by the switching of heavy loads and power-network switching, Surges don't reach the magnitude of sharp spikes, but generally exceed the line voltage by 20%. This deviation ccan cause computer data loss, equipment damage and erroneous readings in monitoring systems. Voltage sags: Undervoltage conditions can also last from 15 ms to 1/2s. Such sags often fall to 20% below nominal voltage and are caused by faults on the power system and/or when large loads are connected to the power line. Sags can cause computer data loss, alteration of data in progress, and ‘equipment shutdown, Electrical noise: This phenomenon is high frequency interference in the frequency range of 7000 Hz to 50 MHz ‘These disturbances can be generated with frequencies produced by radios, TV sets, microwave transmission, radar, are welding equipment ete. Power Interruptions: ‘A loss of normal power can last from several ms to several hours, or even longer: Cause of interruptions include construction activity, vehicle accidents, small animals, and adverse weather conditions. =SIN nAf ELIABILITY AND QUALITY ROADMAP: ‘The consumer needs to recognize that perfect power is not a realistic goal. Therefore, consumer loads need to accommodate some power failures and power quality imperfections. 1. Improvements: Some typical improvements that a predi » 2) 3) 4) 3) 6) 7 ive reliability model can explore include: Load transfers between feeders Building of new substations and substation expansions Addition of intelligent electronic devices such as line reclosers, sectionalizing switches etc. ‘Adding new feeder tie points ‘Automating feeders Undergrounding of circuits Replacement of aging equipmentsm. ‘Outages Cost In power system cost-benefit analysis, the outages eost forms a major part in the total system crs These costs are associated with the power demanded but cannot be served by the system duc to severe outages and is known as expected power not served( FNS) Cost-effective and Achievable reliability/quality targets: ‘The main steps involved in achieving cost-effectiveness and reliability/quality targets are the following: Identity possible projects Estimate the cost of each configuration or option. Estimate the improvement in reliability/quality with each option Rank the projects based on cost-benefit rat Target to improve by 10% per year until it becomes comparable with world-class power Develop and enforce standards to ensure reliability/quality of power systems