Commercial FM Radio (Pre- emphasis and De emphasis network)

When white noise is passed through a FM detector;

SFM t + Ni t m t + No t
FM detector

Noise PSDF
at o/p of FM
detector

It is seen that noise power is concentrated in higher frequencies. But PSDF of message signal is
concentrated at lower frequencies. The noise is concentrated strongly where message is weakest.
At transmission end, weaker high frequency component of audio signal are boosted before
modulation by a pre-emphasis filter. At receiver the demodulator output is passed through a de-
emphasis filter, which attenuates the high frequency components. This process leaves the desired
signal untouched but reduces the noise power considerably. However this causes increase in
transmission bandwidth.

In FM transmitter, the pre-emphasis network (High pass filter) is present before FM modulator. This
is used to improve the SNR of high frequency audio signal.
The reverse process of pre-emphasis is known as de-emphasis. In FM receiver, the de-emphasis
network (Low pass filter) is included after FM demodulator.

Pre-emphasis: The noise suppression ability of Fm decreases with increase in the frequencies. Thus,
increasing the relative strength or amplitude of the frequency components of message signal before
modulation is termed as Pre-emphasis.
De-emphasis: Reducing the amplitude level of the received high frequency signal by the same amount
as increased in pre-emphasis, is termed as de-emphasis.
Radio Receiver
It is and electronic device which pick the desired signal, rejected unwanted signals, amplify desired
signals, demodulates the modulated wave to get back the original message signal.Types of radio
receiver:
 Depending on Application:
1. AM receiver
2. FM receiver
3. Communication receiver
4. Television receiver
5. Radar receiver
 Depending upon fundamental aspect
1. Tuned radio frequency receiver
2. Superheterodyne receiver

Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver

TRF receiver is a receiver where the tuning, i.e. selectivity is provided by the radio frequency stages.
The simplest tuned radio frequency receiver is a simple crystal set. Tuning is provided by a tuned coil /
capacitor combination, and then the signal is presented to a simple crystal or diode detector where
the amplitude modulated signal (in this case) is recovered. This is then passed straight to the
headphones. As vacuum tube / thermionic valve technology developed, these devices were added to
provide more gain. Typically a TRF receiver would consist of three main sections:
1. Tuned radio frequency stages: This consisted of one of more amplifying and tuning stages. Early
sets often had several stages, each proving some gain and selectivity.
2. Signal detector: The detector enabled the audio from the amplitude modulation signal to be
extracted. It used a form of detection called envelope detection and used a diode to rectify the
signal.
3. Audio amplifier: Audio stages to provide audio amplification were normally, but not always
included.

The tuned radio frequency receiver was popular in the 1920s as it provided sufficient gain and
selectivity for the receiving the broadcast stations of the day. However tuning took a little while as
each stage in the early radios needed to be adjusted separately. Later ganged tuning capacitors were
introduced, but by this time the superheterodyne receiver was becoming more widespread.

Limitations of TRF receiver:

i. Instability of receiver
ii. Selectivity is poor
iii. Bandwidth variation over tuning is high
AM radio receiver( Superheterodyne receiver)

Operation:
 Signals enter the receiver from the antenna and are applied to the RF amplifier where they are
tuned to remove the image signal and also reduce the general level of unwanted signals on other
frequencies that are not required.
 The signals are then applied to the mixer along with the local oscillator where the wanted signal
is converted down to the intermediate frequency. Here significant levels of amplification are
applied and the signals are filtered.
 This filtering selects signals on one channel against those on the next. It is much larger than that
employed in the front end.
 The advantage of the IF filter as opposed to RF filtering is that the filter can be designed for a
fixed frequency. This allows for much better tuning. Variable filters are never able to provide the
same level of selectivity that can be provided by fixed frequency ones.
 Once filtered the next block in the superheterodyne receiver is the demodulator. This could be
for amplitude modulation, single sideband, frequency modulation, or indeed any form of
modulation. It is also possible to switch different demodulators in according to the mode being
received.
 The final element in the superheterodyne receiver block diagram is shown as an audio amplifier,
although this could be any form of circuit block that is used to process or amplified the
demodulated signal.

There are some key circuit blocks within the design of the basic superheterodyne receiver. Although
more complicated receivers can be made, the basic RF circuit design is widely used; and further blocks
can add improved performance or additional functionality and their operation within the whole
receiver is normally easy to determine once the basic block diagram is understood.

RF tuning & amplification:

This RF stage within the overall block diagram for the receiver provides initial tuning to remove the
image signal. It also provides some amplification. There are many different approaches used within
the RF circuit design for this block dependent its application.
The RF circuit design presents some challenges. Low cost broadcast radios may have an amplifying
mixer circuit that gives some RF amplification. HF radios may not want too much RF gain because
some of the very strong signals received could overload later stages. The RF design may incorporate
some amplification as well as RF attenuation to overcome this issue. Radios for VHF and above will
tend to use more gain to have a sufficiently low noise figure to receive the signal.
If noise performance for the receiver is important, then this stage will be designed for optimum noise
performance. This RF amplifier circuit block will also increase the signal level so that the noise
introduced by later stages is at a lower level in comparison to the wanted signal.
Local oscillator:
Like other areas of the RF circuit design, the local oscillator circuit block within the superheterodyne
radio can take a variety of forms.Early receivers used free running local oscillators. There was a
considerable degree of RF circuit design expertise used with these oscillators in high performance
superheterodyne radios to ensure the lowest possible drift. High Q coils, low drift circuit
configurations, heat management (because heat causes drift), etc . .
Today most receivers use one or more of a variety of forms frequency synthesizers. The most
common approach in the RF circuit design is to use a phase locked loop approach. Single and multi-
loop synthesizers are used. Direct digital synthesizers are also being used increasingly. Whatever form
of synthesizer is used in the RF design, they provide much greater levels of stability and enable
frequencies to be programmed digitally in a variety of ways, normally using some form of
microcontroller or microprocessor system.

Mixer:
The mixer can be one of the key elements within the overall RF design of the receiver. Ensuring that
the mixer performance matches that of the rest of the radio is particularly important.
Both the local oscillator and incoming signal enter this block within the superheterodyne receiver. The
wanted signal is converted to the intermediate frequency.

IF amplifier & filter:

This superheterodyne receiver block provides the majority of gain and selectivity. Often
comparatively little gain will be provided int he previous blocks of the RF circuit design of the radio.
The IF stages are where the main gain is provided. Being fixed in frequency, it is much easier to
achieve high levels of gain and overall performance.
Originally the IF stage might have included a number of different transistors, FETs or thermionic
valves / vacuum tubes, but nowadays it is possible to obtain integrated circuits that contain a
complete IF strip.

Demodulator:
The superheterodyne receiver block diagram only shows one demodulator, but in reality many radio
RF designs may have one or more demodulators dependent upon the type of signals being receiver.
Even many broadcast radios will have AM and FM, but professional radios used for monitoring and
two way radio communications may require a larger variety in some instances. Having a variety of
demodulators will enable many different signal modes to be received and increase the capability of
the radio.

Automatic Gain Control, AGC:

An automatic gain control is incorporated into most superheterodyne radio block diagrams. The
function of this circuit block is to reduce the gain for strong signals so that the audio level is
maintained for amplitude sensitive forms of modulation, and also to prevent overloading.

Audio amplifier:
Once demodulated, the recovered audio is applied to an audio amplifier block to be amplified to the
required level for loudspeakers or headphones. Alternatively the recovered modulation may be used
for other applications whereupon it is processed in the required way by a specific circuit block.
In many ways, this circuit block within the superheterodyne radio is the most straightforward. For
many applications, the audio amplifier will involved some straightforward electronic circuit design,
especially if the audio is applied to simple headphones or a loudspeaker. For two way radio
communication applications, the audio bandwidth may need to be limited to the
"telecommunications" bandwidth of about 300 Hz to 3.3 kHz. Audio filters could be employed as well.
For applications requiring a higher quality output, more thought may need to be applied during the
electronic circuit design to achieving high fidelity performance.
Superheterodyne FM receiver

The RF amplifier amplifies the received signal intercepted by the antenna. The amplified signal is hen
applied to the mixer stage. The second input of the mixer comes from the local oscillator. The two
input frequencies of the mixer generate an IF signal of 10.7 MHz. This signal is then amplified by the IF
amplifier.

The output of IF amplifier is applied to the limiter circuit. The limiter removes the noise in the
received signal and gives constant amplitude signal. This circuit is required when a phase
discriminator is used to demodulate an FM signal.
The output of the limiter is now applied to the FM discriminator, which recovers the modulating
signal. However, this signal is still not the original modulating signal. Before applying it to the audio
amplifier stages, it is de-emphasized. De-emphasizing attenuates the higher frequencies to bring them
back to their original amplitudes as these are boosted or emphasized before transmission. The output
of the de-emphasized stage is the audio signal, which is then applied to the audio stages and finally to
the speaker.
It should be noted that a limiter circuit is required with the FM discriminators. If the demodulator
stage uses a ratio detector instead of the discriminator, then a limiter is not required. This is because
the ratio detector limits the amplitude of the received signal. In figure, a dotted block covers the
limiter and the discriminator and is marked as the ratio detector.
Commercial and stereo FM broadcasting and receiving technique

For better quality of signal reproduction (specially that of music signal at the receiving end , the
output of microphones located at various positions of a concert hall are combined into two groups
and the signal form each group is transmitted independently. The groups of signal are categorized at
left and right channels. The system capable of transmitting both left and right channel signal and
reproducing these two signal as separate signal at receiving end is called stereo system.

Transmitter:

From the matrix of resistor, L+R and L-R signals are generated from L and R signals. Since L+R signal is
directly passed to the modulator, only L-R signal undergo DSB-SC at 38 KHz. Some portion of the half
of the carrier frequency (19 KHz) is also added to the DSB-SC for synchronizing purpose at the receiver.
In this way, for audio signal L+R occupying bandwidth of 15 KHz, the baseband signal for FM is 53 KHz.
Since a maximum deviation of 75 KHz is allowed, the remaining frequency apace of 59-75 KHz can be
used for subsidiary communication purpose.

In stereo FM broadcasting system, two separate channel left(L) and right(R) are combined to
contribute the baseband FM signal as;
Sum of L and R channels
A pilot tone at 19 KHz as synchronizing signal and as indicator of stereo transmission system
DSB-SC of difference of signals (L-R) for the purpose of separation of L and R signals at receiver.
The baseband spectrum of FM stereo signal is given below:

For FM stereo broadcasting, channel in VHF band from 88 to 108 MHz with spacing between channels
200 KHz are allocated. The allowable peak deviation per channel is 75 KHz.
Receiver:

A non-stereo FM receiver can still receive stereo broadcast signal because there is baseband (L+R)
signal in the stereo baseband spectrum. Similarly, a stereo FM receiver can receiver non-stereo FM
broadcast signals. These two conditions are called forward and backward compatibility for FM stereo
transmission. Therefore FM receiver having stereo decoder built-in is called stereo FM receiver. A FM
receiver available in the market may not contain stereo decoder. Such FM receiver will reproduce
stereo FM signal in mono form (L+R).