LESSON NOTES/ COURSE MATERIALS BY NNADOZIE, .A . K.O(P h. D).

O8183293377, 08154904501 . akonnadozie at yahoo.com

AEM 313 : RESOURCE ECONOMICS

Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION
What is Environmental Degradation?
Environmental degradation is the disintegration of the earth or deterioration of the environment through
consumption of assets, for example, air, water and soil; the destruction of environments and the eradication of
wildlife. It is characterized as any change or aggravation to nature’s turf seen to be pernicious or undesirable.
Ecological effect or degradation is created by the consolidation of an effectively substantial and expanding
human populace, constantly expanding monetary development or per capita fortune and the application of
asset exhausting and polluting technology. It occurs when earth’s natural resources are depleted and
environment is compromised in the form of extinction of species, pollution in air, water and soil, and rapid
growth in population.
Environmental degradation is one of the largest threats that are being looked at in the world today. The United
Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction characterizes environmental degradation as the
lessening of the limit of the earth to meet social and environmental destinations, and needs. Environmental
degradation can happen in a number of ways. At the point when environments are wrecked or common assets
are exhausted, the environment is considered to be corrupted and harmed. There are a number of different
techniques that are being used to prevent this, including environmental resource protection and general
protection efforts.

efig 1: degraded forest near the NIKE lake, Nike ENUGU

Environmental issues can be seen by long term ecological effects, some of which can demolish whole
environments. An environment is a unique unit and incorporates all the living and non-living components that
live inside it. Plants and creatures are evident parts of the environment, but it also includes the things on which
they depend on, for example, streams, lakes, and soils.
Environmental surroundings get to be divided when technological advancement splits up areas of land. Some
examples of this can include streets which may slice through woods or even trails which wind through

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prairies. While it may not sound all terrible on the surface, there are bad results. The biggest of these results
are felt by particular animal and plant groups, the vast majority of which are specific for their bio-region or
need a large area in order to make sure that their genetic lines are kept intact.
ASSIGNMENTS:
1. What is environmental degradation?
2. List 4 components of a sound environment.

LESSON 2: factors of environmental degradation>

Causes of Environmental Degradation.
Some environmental life species require substantial areas to help provide food, living space, and other
different assets. These creatures are called area specific. At the point when the biome is divided, the vast
patches of living space don’t exist anymore. It gets to be more troublesome for the wildlife to get the assets
they need in order to survive. The environment goes on, even though the animals and plant life are not there to
help sustain it properly.
1. Land Disturbance:
A more basic cause of environmental degradation is land damage. Numerous weedy plant species, for
example, garlic mustard, are both foreign and obtrusive. A rupture in the environmental surroundings
provides for them a chance to start growing and spreading. These plants can assume control over nature,
eliminating the local greenery. The result is territory with a solitary predominant plant which doesn’t give
satisfactory food assets to all the environmental life. Whole environments can be destroyed because of
these invasive species.
2. Pollution:
Pollution, in whatever form, whether it is air, water, land or noise is harmful for the environment. Air
pollution pollutes the air that we breathe which causes health issues. Water pollution degrades the quality
of water that we use for drinking purposes. Land pollution results in degradation of earth’s surface as a
result of human activities. Noise pollution can cause irreparable damage to our ears when exposed to
continuous large sounds like honking of vehicles on a busy road or machines producing large noise in a
factory or a mill.
3. Overpopulation:
Rapid population growth puts strain on natural resources which results in degradation of our environment.
Mortality rate has gone down due to better medical facilities which has resulted in increased lifespan. More
population simple means more demand for food, clothes and shelter. You need more space to grow food and
provide homes to millions of people. This results in deforestation which is another factor of environmental
degradation.
4. Landfills:
Landfills pollute the environment and destroy the beauty of the city. Landfills come within the city due the large
amount of waste that gets generated by households, industries, factories and hospitals. Landfills pose a great risk to
the health of the environment and the people who live there. Landfills produce foul smell when burned and cause
huge environmental degradation.

5. Deforestation:
Deforestation is the cutting down of trees to make way for more homes and industries. Rapid growth in
population and urban sprawl are two of the major causes of deforestation. Apart from that, use of forest land
for agriculture, animal grazing, harvest for fuel wood and logging are some of the other causes of
deforestation. Deforestation contributes to global warming as decreased forest size puts carbon back into the
environment.
6: Natural Causes:
Things like avalanches, quakes, tidal waves, storms, and wildfires can totally crush nearby animal and plant
groups to the point where they can no longer survive in those areas. This can either come to fruition through
physical demolition as the result of a specific disaster, or by the long term degradation of assets by the

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presentation of an obtrusive foreign species to the environment. The latter frequently happens after tidal
waves, when reptiles and bugs are washed ashore.
Of course, humans aren’t totally to blame for this whole thing. Earth itself causes ecological issues, as well.
While environmental degradation is most normally connected with the things that people do, the truth of the
matter is that the environment is always changing. With or without the effect of human exercises, a few
biological systems degrade to the point where they can’t help the life that is supposed to live there.
Assignment: List & explain 4 causes of environmental degradation.
LESSON 3: IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

Savefig 2. water hyacinth- eichhnornia crassipes spp.

Effects of Environmental Degradation

1. Impact on Human Health:
Human health might be at the receiving end as a result of the environmental degradation. Areas exposed
to toxic air pollutants can cause respiratory problems like pneumonia and asthma. Millions of people are
known to have died of due to indirect effects of air pollution.
2. Loss of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is important for maintaining balance of the ecosystem in the form of combating pollution,
restoring nutrients, protecting water sources and stabilizing climate. Deforestation, global warming,
overpopulation and pollution are few of the major causes for loss of biodiversity.
3. Ozone Layer Depletion:
Ozone layer is responsible for protecting earth from harmful ultraviolet rays. The presence of
chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is causing the ozone layer to
deplete. As it will deplete, it will emit harmful radiations back to the earth.
4. Loss for Tourism Industry:
The deterioration of environment can be a huge setback for tourism industry that rely on tourists for their
daily livelihood. Environmental damage in the form of loss of green cover, loss of biodiversity, huge
landfills, increased air and water pollution can be a big turn off for most of the tourists.
5. Economic Impact:
The huge cost that a country may have to borne due to environmental degradation can have big economic
impact in terms of restoration of green cover, cleaning up of landfills and protection of endangered
species. The economic impact can also be in terms of loss of tourism industry.

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As you can see, there are a lot of things that can have an effect on the environment. If we are not careful, we
can contribute to the environmental degradation that is occurring all around the world. We can, however, take
action to stop it and take care of the world that we live in by providing environmental education to the people
which will help them pick familiarity with their surroundings that will enable to take care of environmental
concerns thus making it more useful and protected for our children and other future generations.
Assignment :
1. List 4 effects of environmental damages and discuss 2 listed.
2. Explain 2 economic importance of eichhnornia crassipes spp.

LESSON 4 & 5. FOOD SECURITY VARIABLES AND POLICY ISSUES

Food security
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines food security as existing when "all
people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their
dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life". The four qualifications that must be met for
a food secure system include physical availability, economic and physical access, appropriate utilization, and
stability of the prior three elements over time.
Of the 6.7 billion people on the planet, about 2 billion are food insecure. As the global population grows to 9
billion by 2050, and as diets shift to emphasize higher energy products and greater overall consumption, food
systems will be subjected to even greater pressure. Climate change presents additional threats to food security,
affecting crop yields, distribution of pests and diseases, weather patterns, and growing seasons around the
world.
Food security has thus become an increasingly important topic in agricultural policy as decision makers
attempt to reduce poverty and malnutrition while augmenting adaptive capacity to climate change. The
Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change listed high-priority policy actions to address
food security, including integrating food security and sustainable agriculture into global and national policies,
significantly raising the level of global investment in food systems, and developing specific programs and
policies to support the most vulnerable populations (namely, those that are already subject to food insecurity).
Food sovereignty : 'Food sovereignty', a term coined by members of Via Campesina in 1996, is about the
right of peoples to define their own food systems. Advocates of food sovereignty put the people who produce,
distribute, and consume food at the centre of decisions on food systems and policies, rather than the demands
of markets and corporations that they believe have come to dominate the global food system. This movement
is advocated by a number of farmers, peasants, pastoralists, fisher folk, indigenous peoples, women, rural
youth, and environmental organizations.
Policy tools- Agricultural subsidy: An agricultural subsidy is a governmental subsidy paid to farmers and
agribusinesses to manage the agricultural industry as one part of the various methods a government uses in
a mixed economy. The conditions for payment and the reasons for the individual specific subsidies varies with
farm product, size of farm, nature of ownership, and country among other factors. Enriching peanut farmers
for political purposes, keeping the price of a staple low to keep the poor from rebelling, stabilizing the
production of a crop to avoid famine years, encouraging diversification and many other purposes have been
suggested as the reason for specific subsidies.
Price floors or price ceilings set a minimum or maximum price for a product. Price controls encourage more
production by a price floor or less production by a price ceiling. A government can erect trade barriers to limit
the quantity of goods imported (in the case of a Quota Share) or enact tariffs to raise the domestic price of
imported products. These barriers give preference to domestic producers.
Objectives of market intervention/National security:
Some argue that nations have an interest in assuring there is sufficient domestic production capability to meet
domestic needs in the event of a global supply disruption. Significant dependence on foreign food producers
makes a country strategically vulnerable in the event of war, blockade or embargo. Maintaining adequate
domestic capability allows for food self-sufficiency that lessens the risk of supply shocks due to geopolitical
events. Agricultural policies may be used to support domestic producers as they gain domestic and
international market share. This may be a short term way of encouraging an industry until it is large enough to
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thrive without aid. Or it may be an ongoing subsidy designed to allow a product to compete with or undercut
foreign competition. This may produce a net gain for a government despite the cost of interventions because it
allows a country to build up an export industry or reduce imports. It also helps to form the nations supply and
demand market.
Assignment. 1. List 5 objectives of market intervention. B,. Distinguish between food security food
sovereignity.2. Explain agric subsidy & price control

LESSON 6: Environmental protection and management

Environmental protection and land management
Farm or undeveloped land composes the majority of land in most countries. Policies may encourage some
land uses rather than others in the interest of protecting the environment. For instance, subsidies may be given
for particular farming methods, forestation, land clearance, or pollution abatement.
Rural poverty and poverty relief
Subsidizing farming may encourage people to remain on the land and obtain some income. This might be
relevant to a third world country with many peasant farmers, but it may also be a consideration to more
developed countries such as Poland. It has a very high unemployment rate, much farmland and retain a large
rural population growing food for their own use.
Price controls may also be used to assist poor citizens. Many countries have used this method of welfare
support as it delivers cheap food to the poorest in urban areas without the need to assess people to give them
financial aid. This often goes at the cost of the rural poor, who then earn less from what is often their only
realistic or potential source of income: agriculture. Because in almost all countries the rural poor are poorer
than the urban poor, cheap food policies through price controls often increase overall poverty.
The same often counts for poverty relief in the form of food aid, which (unless while during severe drought)
drives small producers in poor countries out of production. It tends to benefit lower middle class groups (sub-
urban and urban poor) at the expense of the poorest 20 percent, who as a result remain deprived of customers.
Organic farming assistance
Welfare economics theory holds that sometimes private activities can impose social costs upon
others. Industrial agriculture is widely considered to impose social costs through pesticide
pollution and nitrate pollution. Further, agriculture uses large amounts of water, a scarce resource. Some
economists argue that taxes should be levied on agriculture, or that organic agriculture, which uses little
pesticides and experiences relatively little nitrate runoff, should be encouraged with subsidies. In the United
States, 65% of the approximately $16.5 billion in annual subsidies went to the top 10% of farmers in 2002
because subsidies are linked to certain commodities. On the other hand, organic farming received $5 million
for help in certification and $15 million for research over a 5-year time period.
Fair trade: Fair trade debate
Some advocate Fair Trade rules to ensure that poor farmers in developing nations that produce crops primarily
for export are not exploited or negatively impacted by trade policies, practices, tariffs, and agreements which
benefit one competitor at the expense of another - which advocates consider a dangerous "race to the bottom"
in agricultural labor and safety standards. Opponents point out that most agriculture in developed nations is
produced by industrial corporations (agribusiness) which are hardly deserving of sympathy, and that the
alternative to exploitation is poverty.
Fair trade steak? Much of what developing countries export to the rich world, also comes from industrial
corporations. The reason for that is, that rich countries have put up elaborate quality demands, most of whom
make no factual health contribution. Small farmers often in effect meet these demands, but are rarely able to
prove that in western standards. Therefore, the biggest impediment to growth of small farming and therefore
of fare trade in sectors beyond coffee and bananas, is these quality demands from the rich world.
Assignments

1. Explain two ways of rural poverty and poverty relief.

2. Differentiate organic farming from fair trade.

LESSON 7: Arguments against market intervention

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Dumping of agricultural surpluses
In international trade parlance, when a company from country A sells a commodity below the cost of
production into country B, this is called "dumping". A number of countries that are signatories to multilateral
trade agreements have provisions that prohibit this practice. When rich countries subsidize domestic
production, excess output is often given to the developing world as foreign aid. This process eliminates the
domestic market for agricultural products in the developing world, because the products can be obtained for
free from western aid agencies. In developing nations where these effects are most severe, small farmers could
no longer afford basic inputs and were forced to sell their land.
"Consider a farmer in Ghana who used to be able to make a living growing rice. Several years ago, Ghana was
able to feed and export their surplus. Now, it imports rice. From where? Developed countries. Why? Because
it's cheaper. Even if it costs the rice producer in the developed world much more to produce the rice, he
doesn't have to make a profit from his crop. The government pays him to grow it, so he can sell it more
cheaply to Ghana than the farmer in Ghana can. And that farmer in Ghana? He can't feed his family anymore."
(Lyle Vanclief, former Canadian Minister of Agriculture [1997-2003])
According to the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, corn, soybeans, cotton, wheat and rice are sold
below the cost of production, or dumped. Dumping rates are approximately forty percent for wheat, between
twenty-five and thirty percent for corn (maize), approximately thirty percent for soybeans, fifty-seven percent
for cotton, and approximately twenty percent for rice. For example, wheat is sold for forty percent below cost.
According to Oxfam, "If developed nations eliminated subsidy programs, the export value of agriculture in
lesser developed nations would increase by 24 %, plus a further 5.5 % from tariff equilibrium. ... exporters can
offer US surpluses for sale at prices around half the cost of production; destroying local agriculture and
creating a captive market in the process." Free trade advocates desire the elimination of all market distorting
mechanisms (subsidies, tariffs, regulations) and argue that, as with free trade in all areas, this will result in
aggregate benefit for all. This position is particularly popular in competitive agricultural exporting nations in
both the developed and developing world, some of whom have banded together in the Cairns Group lobby.
Canada's Department of Agriculture estimates that developing nations would benefit by about $4 billion
annually if subsidies in the developed world were halved.
Agricultural independence
Many developing countries do not grow enough food to feed their own populations. These nations must buy
food from other countries. Lower prices and free food save the lives of millions of starving people, despite the
drop in food sales of the local farmers. A developing nation could use new improved farming methods to grow
more food, with the ultimate goal of feeding their nation without outside help. New greenhouse methods,
hydroponics, fertilizers, R/O water processors, hybrid crops, fast-growing hybrid trees for quick shade,
interior temperature control, greenhouse or tent insulation, autonomous building gardens, sun lamps, mylar,
fans, and other cheap tech can be used to grow crops on previously unarable land, such as rocky,
mountainous, desert, and even Arctic lands. More food can be grown, reducing dependency on other countries
for food.
Replacement crops can also make nations agriculturally independent. Sugar, for example, comes from sugar
cane imported from Polynesia. Instead of buying the sugar from Polynesia, a nation can make sugar from
sugar beets, maple sap, or sweetener from stevia plant, keeping the profits circulating within the nation's
economy. Paper and clothes can be made of hemp instead of trees and cotton. Tropical foods won't grow in
many places in Europe, but they will grow in insulated greenhouses or tents in Europe. Soybean plant
cellulose can replace plastic (made from oil). Ethanol from farm waste or hempseed oil can replace gasoline.
Rainforest medicine plants grown locally can replace many imported medicines. Alternates of cash crops, like
sugar and oil replacements, can reduce farmers' dependency on subsidies in both developed and developing
nations.
Market interventions may increase the cost to consumers for agricultural products, either via hidden wealth-
transfers via the government, or increased prices at the consumer level, such as for sugar and peanuts in the
US. This has led to market distortions, such as food processors using high fructose corn syrup as a
replacement for sugar. High fructose corn syrup may be an unhealthy food additive, and, were sugar prices not
inflated by government fiat, sugar might be preferred over high fructose corn syrup in the marketplace.
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Assignment .
1. What is dumping of agricultural surpluses.
2. List 3 characteristics of free trade .

LESSON 8 :Developed world cases, An Overview: Europe & America.

Agricultural policy of the United States and Common Agricultural Policy
The farmer population is approximately five percent of the total population in the E.U. and 1.7% in the U.S.
The total value of agricultural production in the E.U. amounted to 128 billion euros (1998). About forty-nine
percent of this amount was accounted for by political measures: 37 billion euros due to direct payments and
43 billion euros from consumers due to the artificially high price. Eighty percent of European farmers receive
a direct payment of 5,000 euros or less, while 2.2% receive a direct payment above 50,000 euros, totaling
forty percent of all direct subsidies.
The average U.S. farmer receives $16,000 in annual subsidies. Two-thirds of farmers receive no direct
payments. Of those that do, the average amount amongst the lowest paid eighty percent was $7000 from 1995-
2003. Subsidies are a mix of tax reductions, direct cash payments and below-market prices on water and other
inputs. Some claim that these aggregate figures are misleading because large agribusinesses, rather than
individual farmers, receive a significant share of total subsidy spending. The Federal Agriculture
Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 reduced farm subsidies, providing fixed payments over a period and
replacing price supports and subsidies. The Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 contains direct
and countercyclical payments designed to limit the effects of low prices and yields.
In the EU, €54 billion of subsidies are paid every year. An increasing share of the subsidies is being decoupled
from production and lumped into the Single Farm Payment. While this has diminished the distortions created
by the Common Agricultural Policy, many critics argue that a greater focus on the provision of public goods,
such as biodiversity and clean water, is needed. The next major reform is expected for 2014, when a new
long-term EU budget is coming into effect.

Environmental programs.
The U.S. Conservation Reserve Program leases land from producers that take marginal land out of production
and convert it back to a near-natural state by planting native grasses and other plants. The U.S. Environmental
Quality Incentives Program subsidizes improvements which promote water conservation and other measures.
This program is conducted under a bidding process using a formula where farmers request a certain
percentage of cost share for an improvement such as drip irrigation. Producers that offer the most
environmental improvement based on a point system for the least cost are funded first. The process continues
until that year's allocated funds are expended.
World Trade Organization actions: Agreement on Agriculture
In April 2004 the World Trade Organization (WTO) ruled that 3 billion dollars in US cotton subsidies violate
trade agreements and that almost 50% of EU sugar exports are illegal. In 1997-2003, US cotton exports were
subsidized by an average of 48%. The WTO has extracted commitments from the Philippines government,
making it lower import barriers to half their present levels over a span of six years, and allowing in drastically
increased competition from the industrialised and heavily subsidised farming systems of North America and
Europe. A recent Oxfam report estimated that average household incomes of maize farmers will be reduced by
as much as 30% over the six years as cheap imports from the US drive down prices in the local markets. The
report estimates that in the absence of trade restrictions, US subsidized maize could be marketed at less than
half the price of maize grown on the Philippine island of Mindanao; and that the livelihoods of up to half a
million Filipino maize farmers (out of the total 1.2 million) are under immediate threat.
Assignment .
1. Discuss briefly 3 major benefits of the US environmental program.

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Fig3. Typical Nigerian established forest.

LESSON 9-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY RESOURCES IN NIGERIA.

The proper utilization of forest resources would act as support system for funding the nation’s annual
budget and boost economic development.

Forest resources had revamped Nigeria’s developmental activities before the discovery of oil on January 15,
1956 at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta area.

While timber accounted for a large proportion of total agricultural share in international trade, about 170, 000
persons were gainfully employed in 1933 through active engagement in various levels of forest activities.

The figure rose to 360, 000 in 1947 and 568, 000 in 1961 but presently, more than 2 million people are
engaged in both formal and informal forestry sector employment in Nigeria.

Regrettably, the present level of exploitation of forest resources is endangering the survival of some iconic
species and pushing others to the brink of extinction.

Nigeria is presently experiencing four per cent forest loss annually which is considered as the highest globally.

It is further estimated that 1.5 million trees were felled down daily through illegal logging, thereby leading to
3.5 percent deforestation annually.

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Surprisingly, the forest cover has been depleted to less than 10 per cent as against the mandate of the Food and
Agricultural Organizations’ (FAO) that each state is expected to keep its forest cover to a minimum of 25 per
cent of its land area.

Findings by LEADERSHIP indicated that worldwide, that forest loss through deforestation, forest degradation
and unsustainable land management contributed to about 20 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions especially
carbon that is linked to global warming and climate change.

Climate change is caused mainly by human activities such as burning of fossil fuel and fuel woods,
industrialization, urbanization, agriculture, deforestation and forest degradation.

These activities contributed to the emission of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere, that traps heat
radiation thereby increasing the atmospheric temperature.

According to United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Nigeria 2016 Annual report, different human
activities are responsible for the changing global climate especially the rise of carbon dioxide concentration in
the atmosphere mainly due to reduced sinks (forests).

Further investigation revealed that Nigeria’s forest cover reduced from 16 per cent in 2000 to 11 per cent in
2014, while areas covered by farmland increased from 25 per cent to 30 per cent in the same period.

Irrespective of the challenges, forests plays a vital role by providing shelter to both human and animals;
balance oxygen and carbon dioxide likewise in protecting waterways that supplied fresh water to rivers.

To further boost developmental activities, the federal ministry of environment would be collaborating with the
national bureau of statistics to ensure that forestry’s contribution is appropriately captured in the national
accounting system.

Worried by the negative development, stakeholders in the environment sector have suggested that investment
in forest resources would strengthen the economy.

The founder of Fight Against Desert Encroachment (FADE), Dr Newton Jibunoh, pointed out that forests
would play a critical role in helping countries meet their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) so as
to sustain the fight against climate change.

He maintained that rising temperatures made forests drier, more susceptible to fires, and vulnerable to pests
and diseases.

Jibunoh disclosed that climate scientists are optimistic that investment in forests and trees has the potential to
reduce poverty, drive sustainable development and provide vital local and global environmental services for
the planet.

He quoted the WWF Living Forest report as saying that failure to address climate change issues now could
lead to the destruction of 170 million hectares of forest as well as loss of biodiversity and livelihood by 2030.

Lending his voice, the director of forestry, Ministry of Environment, Mr Andrew David Adejoh, said the
department was partnering with stakeholders both at state and federal levels to return the forest back to its
prinstein state.

He said that funds is important in managing forest resources, which was why federal government established
the National Forestry Trust Fund (NFTF) to revive afforestation project.

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Adejoh stated that great green wall programme was primarily set up to address deforestation and afforestation
issues in the 11 frontline states.

He maintained that there were other programmes initiated by federal government to support forestry
communities meant to stop illegal logging of trees daily.

The director hinted that National Park Service (NPS) initiated support zone programme , expected to provide
alternative source of income for people living around the national parks to avoid illegal encroachment and
over-exploitation of forest resources.

He decried the rampant extraction of fuel-woods for cooking in the north, adding that government has started
the distribution of improved fuel-wood stoves, which he believed would reduce the volume of wood and
charcoal needed to cook meals.

The Great Green Wall (GGW) programme which is an African Union initiative was launched in 2013.

It was not only targeted at creating green wall of trees or barrier from Senegal in West Africa to Djibouti in
East Africa but for a set of integrated actions in addressing the multi-sectoral problems affecting the
livelihoods of the people in African Sahel-Saharan region.

The director -general of National Agency for the Great Green Wall (NAGGW), ), Dr Bukar Hassan, noted that
plans were underway to reinforce forest guards in the 11 frontline states, that would protect the animals and
plants cultivated in those areas.

The 11 states of Borno, Yobe, Adamawa, Bauch, Gombe, Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, Zamfara, Sokoto and Kebbi
also known as frontline states cut across the north-east and north- west region of Nigeria.

The states with a projected population of about 54 million and 394, 006 landmass are worst hit by
desertification.

He emphasised that the agency would prioritise advocacy visit to state governments affected by desertification
for better understanding of Great Green Wall (GGW) programmes and effective partnership with the agency
and relevant stakeholders.

Hassan noted that the visit would also provide another opportunity for the state chief executives to ensure the
success of the programme.

The DG maintained that the agency adopted monitoring and evaluation as a vital tool for appraising the
success of its programmes.

Federal government has revealed that the 2016-2020 environment sector strategic plan was targeted at
supporting the government and Nigerians in delivering economic, social and environmental change by
realigning the sector with key priorities of government and desires of the people.

The minister of environment, Suleiman Hassan Zarma, disclosed that the overall objective of forest
programmes in the environment sector master plan was to generate business and economic opportunities while
providing societal benefits as well as ensuring environmental sustainability.

He regretted that Nigeria was loosing huge taxable income and foreign exchange due to unregulated forest
exploitation, which he said were usually carried out below the radar and not captured in economic
development indices. Zarma however linked the 3.5 per cent annual rate of deforestation and its
accompanying loss of between 350, 000 and 400, 000 hectares yearly as the major cause of flooding, erosion,
desertification, biodiversity loss and food insecurity.
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The minister revealed that the need to value the forests cannot be overemphasized due to over- exploitation for
immediate economic gains and development planning.

He emphasized that government has entered into Public Private Partnership (PPP) agreement with the
Association of Charcoal Exporters of Nigeria (ACEN), Processed Wood Producers and Marketers Association
of Nigeria (PROWMPMAN) and the Tropical wood Association of Nigeria (TWEAN) for establishing
plantations across the country.

Zarma stated that the ministry has initiated strong administrative measures that would reduce the high rate of
exploitation and exportation of wood and its products. He listed the measures as the suspension of charcoal
export, abiding by the suspension of trade in Rosewood placed by the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) as well as developing new guidelines for wood export
and allied products from Nigeria. The minister pointed out that Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN)
was also involved in developing plantations across the various ecological zones in the country likewise in
producing improved tree seedlings to encourage tree planting and strengthen existing and new schools of
forestry.

Assignment.

1. List 5 factors of climate change.

2. Discuss 4 major contributions of Nigerian forests.

3. What are 3 main aims of great green wall project in Nigeria.

4. List 4 targets of 2016-2020 strategic plan in Nigeria

Lesson 10. Challenges in The Nigerian Water Sector .

May 2 2020. Photo Credit: Water Aid.

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Challenges in The Nigerian Water Sector – If the Problem is not Lack of Comprehensive Regimes, then
what is it?

Water is life and sufficient water supply is central to life and civilization. Water is part of the five basic human
needs and plays a key role in the other four. Nigeria is abundantly blessed with water resources. However, as
at 2015, only 69% of Nigerians have access to improved water supply with 57% of them being of rural
population. During the oil boom days of the 1970s and early 1980s, the country invested hugely in water
resources development, primarily in the construction of multipurpose dams which were meant to control
flood, provision of water for domestic and industrial uses, the environment, hydro-power generation, control
of riparian rights releases and for fishing, inland waterways, livestock and irrigated agriculture amongst
others.

The responsibility of water supply in Nigeria is shared between three tiers of government – federal, state and
local. While the federal government is in charge of water resources management and state governments have
the primary responsibility for urban water supply through state water agencies; local governments together
with communities are responsible for rural water supply. To improve manpower supply for the water
resources sector, the National Water Resources Institute, Kaduna was established in 1979, running certificate,
remedial and National Diploma and Higher National Diploma and professional post graduate courses in water
resources. Preceding this was the establishment of the Federal Ministry of Water Resources (FMoWR) in
1976 with the mandate of developing and implementing programs, policies and projects that will lubricate
sustainable access to safe and adequate water to meet the cultural, economic development, environmental and
social needs of all Nigerians. The FMoWR has 12 River Basin Development Authorities under the Ministry,
responsible for developing and planning irrigation work, water resources, and the collection of hydrological,
hydro-geological data.

The National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy was approved in 2000, encouraging private-sector
participation and provides for institutional and policy reforms at the state level. However, little has happened
in both respects. As at 2007, only four of the 36 states and the FCT (Cross River, Kaduna, Lagos and Ogun
States) have introduced public-private partnerships in the form of service contracts. While the federal
government has a decentralization policy in this regard, little decentralization has happened. In addition, the
policy also lays emphasis on rural water and sanitation through community participation. It targeted to
increase water coverage from 43% to 80% by 2010 and 100% by 2015. This was not met. In addition, the
capacity of local governments to plan and carry out investments, or to operate and maintain systems with
respect to rural water management has remained low despite efforts at capacity development. As a result, the
FMoWR and the river basin development authorities have been directly carrying off water facilities provision
such as boreholes in rural communities.

In 2003, a Presidential Water Initiative: Water for People, Water for Life, was launched by then President
Olusegun Obasanjo. The initiative had ambitious targets to increase water access (including a 100 percent
target in state capitals), 75% access in other urban areas, and 66% access in rural areas. However, little has
been done to implement the initiative and targets have not been met. The National Water and Sanitation
Policy was also launched in 2004 with emphasis on water management and conservation. Nigeria was also not
able to reach the Millennium Development Goal for water and sanitation. In June 2016, President
Muhammadu Buhari approved a Water Resources Roadmap (2016 – 2030) with the goal of reaching 100%
water supply to Nigerian citizens by 2030. The roadmap encompasses several priorities including: the
establishment of a policy and regulatory framework for the sector; development and implementation of a
National Water Supply and Sanitation Programme to attain the Sustainable Development Goals 6; identifying
alternative sources for funding the delivery of water supply and sanitation through improved collaboration
with development partners, states and local government authorities, communities and the private sector
[Partnership for Expanded Water, Sanitation & Hygiene (PEWASH)] etc. It’s hoped that this does not go
down history as one of the country’s numerous policies in the sector that was not thoroughly implemented.

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There have been enormous contributions of several external partners with respect to water supply in Nigeria,
rural water provision especially, and the Nigerian government welcomes such contributions. These partners
include the African Development Bank (ADB), the EU, JICA, UNICEF, USAID, WaterAid, Action Against
Hunger and the World Bank. The ADB and the World Bank provide loans to the federal government; the EU,
JICA and USAID provide grants to the government; the UNICEF and WaterAid receive donations from the
public and grants from governments to implement their projects in cooperation with, but not through the
government. Even many domestic NGOs all have programs on the provision of rural water supply to counter
the water crisis in many of such communities. This is through direct project implementation and advocacy.
This is where Connected Development comes in, using its Follow The Money program to track governmental
expenditure on rural water provision in rural communities to facilitate service delivery and provision of clean
water. The program also advocates for governmental intervention to address the aquatic needs of most of these
communities.

At this time, what is key is the provision of financial resources from all concerned parties to finance the Water
Supply Section of the PEWASH Phase I (2016 – 2020) of the FMoWR’s which is at the estimate of NGN 108
billion. There are also key challenges with respect to the management of water facilities around the country. In
many rural communities, water boreholes are abandoned and cannot be maintained over the lack of a
preceding regime for the funding and maintenance of such water facilities. This has continued for sometime
and has to be checked. Thus, it is imperative that the government encourages user participation in the
management of water facilities especially at the rural level with realistic water tariff structures. In addition,
there is a need for proper coordination between the different levels of government and the public. Ultimately,
a recurring challenge is the unavailability of adequate and reliable data upon which planning, analysis, and
water management can be based. Data on characteristic patterns in hydrological and meteorological changes
over time need to be monitored with utmost sense of duty. This is exceedingly important for efficient planning
and service delivery.

Assignment.
1. Explain 5 major roles of the multipurpose Dams constructed in Nigeria.
2. Name 5 external development partners in Nigeria.
3. List 2 challenges of effective water for all project 2020.

Note : lesson 11 -16 are in a PDF file , Nigeria forest laws , case of Edo state, Nigeria. It is about 22 pages.
The assignments are shown below:, each 5 pages comes up with assignments.
1. What is forestry law (Cap 59) as amended.
2. List 5 offences that are liable for punishment as prohibited .
3. Name 3 criminal offences that can be committed by people .
4. What is plea bargain or plea agreement or negotiated plea.
5. Define the term license.
6. List 3 duties of the state executive council on forestry,.

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FEDERAL COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, ISHIAGU, EBONYI STAE NIGERIA.

AEM HND 1 , AEM 313 RESOURCE ECONOMICS SEMESTER EXAMINATION.

SECTION A: NNADOZIE , A.K.O (Ph.D, FIIA).

Q1. Define environmental degradation and explain four(4) major components of a sound environment.

Q2. List and explain four (4) main factors responsible for degradation of our natural environment.

Q3. Discuss three (3) critical effects of damaged environment and two (2) economic implications of
eichhnormia crassipes spp.

Q4. Explain dumping of agricultural surpluses and three (3) characteristics of free trade.

Q5. List and explain five(5) economic importance of forest resources in Nigeria.

Q6. What is great green wall (GGW ) programme of 2013 targets and 11 focal frontline states in
Nigeria.

Q7. Discuss five (5) essential roles of the multipurpose Dams constructed in Nigeria.

Q8.explain plea bargain and five (5) offences that are liable for punishment as prohibited in forestry.

Q9. i. List three(3) duties of the state executive council on forestry. ii). Discuss two (2) challenges of
water for all by 2030 in Nigeria.

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