WASTE INCINERATION FACILITIES

SUMMARY

Waste incinerators are identified in the Minamata Convention as one of the major industrial sources of
mercury emissions. The category is listed in its Annex D.
The potential purposes of waste incineration include volume reduction, energy recovery, destruction or
at least minimization of hazardous constituents, disinfection and the recovery of some residues.
To achieve best results for environmental protection as a whole, it is essential to coordinate the waste
incineration process with upstream activities (e.g. waste management techniques) and downstream
activities (e.g. disposal of solid residues from waste incineration).
When considering proposals to construct new waste incinerators, consideration should be given to
alternatives such as activities to minimize the generation of waste, including resource recovery, reuse, Comment [D[1]: Government of Prince
recycling, and waste separation and promoting products that contribute less or no mercury to waste Edward Island: with this in mind and given
that the described facilities are small,
streams. Consideration should also be given to approaches that prevent mercury entering waste which operated intermittently, and would be
will be incinerated. difficult and costly to retrofit, they haven’t
been considered as candidates for mercury
The environmentally sound design and operation of waste incinerators requires the use of both best emissions reductions.
available techniques and best environmental practices (which are to some extent overlapping) in order Comment [D[2]: Government of Prince
to prevent or minimize the emissions of harmful substances like mercury. Edward Island: A municipal solid waste
incinerator (energy from waste plant),
Best environmental practices for waste incineration include appropriate off site procedures (such as coupled to a district heating system, is
located in Charlottetown. It is equipped
overall waste management and consideration of environmental impacts of siting) and on site proce- with an all-dry scrubber that circulates the
dures which include waste inspection, proper waste handling, incinerator operation and management combustion gases, hydrated lime and
practices and handling of residues. powdered activated carbon in a venturi
reactor. A pulse jet fabric filter captures
Best available techniques for waste incineration include appropriate selection of site; waste input and particulate matter.
control; techniques for combustion, flue gas, solid residue and effluent treatment. For small medical Comment [D[3]: Government of Prince
waste incinerators, application of best available techniques is often difficult, given the high costs Edward Island: Although the EFW facility
has been operating since the early 1980s
associated with building, operating, maintaining and monitoring such facilities. and is not of the most modern design,
regular stack testing has shown that
Releases of mercury from municipal solid waste incinerators designed and operated according to best mercury emissions average 10 µg/m3 at
available techniques and best environmental practices occur mainly via fly ash, bottom ash and filter 11% O2. This is consistent with the
statement in this paragraph.
cake from wastewater treatment. Therefore, it is of major importance to provide for a safe sink of
these waste types, for example, by pre-treatment and final disposal in dedicated landfills, which are So, the BAT/BEP strategies described in
designed and operated according to best available techniques. the body of the document are comprehen-
sive, realistic, and useful, and are shown to
With a suitable combination of primary and secondary measures, mercury emission levels in air deliver the expected results in our
experience.
emissions not higher than 1-10 µg /m3 (at 11 per cent O2) are associated with best available tech-
niques. It is further noted that under normal operating conditions emissions lower than this level can Comment [dl4]: For batch waste
incinerators, some of the BAT/BEP
be achieved with a well-designed waste incineration plant. presented may apply, particularly the more
general practices. This document seems to
focus mainly on continuous systems. More
specific information for batch systems
should be included.
Comment [dl5]: This could cause some
confusion that these are target emission
limit values. Please add a footnote to
clarify that emission limit values (ELVs)
mentioned in the guidelines are meant as an
indication of emission performance that can
be achieved using BAT, and are not
requirements or targets.
Table of Content
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................4

2 PROCESSES USED IN WASTE INCINERATION FACILITIES, INCLUDING

CONSIDERATION OF INPUT MATERIALS AND BEHAVIOUR OF MERCURY IN
THE PROCESS ...........................................................................................................................5

2.1 General Description Of Wastes That Could Result In Emissions Of Mercury Or

Mercury Compounds When Incinerated ......................................................................................5
2.1.1 Waste Hierarchy ............................................................................................................................5
2.1.2 Introduction to different types of waste with regard to mercury emissions from waste
incinerator facilities .......................................................................................................................6

2.2 Incineration Process .....................................................................................................................8

2.2.1 Introduction to general incineration technique ..................................................................................8
2.2.2 Pre-treatment of waste for incineration ............................................................................................9
2.2.3 Description of incinerator types ........................................................................................... 111110
2.2.4 Incineration of specific waste streams ............................................................................................14

3 EMISSION CONTROL TECHNIQUES ....................................................................................20

3.1 Dust (particulate matter) removal techniques.............................................................................20

3.2 Wet scrubbing techniques ..........................................................................................................21

3.3 Activated carbon injection .........................................................................................................22

3.4 Boiler Bromide Addition ............................................................................................................24

3.5 Static bed filters .........................................................................................................................25

3.6 Treatment techniques for solid residues from incineration .........................................................26

3.6.1 Bottom and boiler ash treatment techniques ...................................................................................26
3.6.2 Treatment of solid flue gas residues ...............................................................................................26
3.6.3 Residue reuse ..............................................................................................................................27
3.6.4 Stabilization and solidification ......................................................................................................27
3.6.5 Final disposal of residues..............................................................................................................28

3.7 Alternative treatment techniques for waste streams that can generate emission of
mercury and mercury compounds when incinerated ..................................................................28

4 EMERGING TECHNIQUES .....................................................................................................29

4.1 High Efficiency Activated Carbon Adsorber ..............................................................................29

4.2 Coconut char as an alternative to coal based activated carbon ...................................................31

5 BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES AND BEST ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES

FOR WASTE INCINERATION FACILITIES...........................................................................32

5.1 Introduction to Best Available Techniques (BAT) for Incineration of Waste ..............................32

5.2 Pre-treatment of waste before incineration .................................................................................32

5.3 Best available techniques for waste input and control .................................................................32

5.4 Best available techniques for waste incineration .........................................................................33

5.4.1 General combustion techniques .....................................................................................................33
5.4.2 Municipal solid waste incineration techniques ................................................................................34
5.4.3 Hazardous waste incineration techniques .......................................................................................34
5.4.4 Sewage sludge incineration techniques ..........................................................................................34
5.4.5 Medical Waste Incineration ..........................................................................................................35

5.5 Best available techniques for flue-gas treatment .........................................................................35

5.5.1 Upgrading and improvement of existing treatment techniques .........................................................37
5.5.2 Performance levels associated with the use of BAT ........................................................................37

5.6 Introduction to Best Environmental Practices (BEP) ..................................................................39

5.6.1 Waste management practices ........................................................................................................40

6 Monitoring Techniques of Mercury ................................................................................... 464645

6.1 Direct Methods ................................................................................................................. 464645

6.2 Indirect methods ............................................................................................................... 484847

6.3 Most appropriate techniques for monitoring in the waste incineration sector .................... 484847

7 References......................................................................................................................... 505048

3
1 Introduction

This section addresses only the dedicated incineration of wastes and not other situations where waste
is thermally treated, for example, co-incineration processes such as cement kilns and large combustion
plants, which are dealt with in the sections relating to those processes.
Open burning (the burning of any type of waste in the open air or in open dumps, and in incineration
devices that do not allow for complete combustion) is considered ‘bad environmental practice’ and
should be discouraged as it can lead to emissions of toxic substances into the environment. Open
burning is not covered further in this guidance.
Mercury is volatized in the incineration process and, therefore, specific action should be taken both
before, during and after incineration to reduce these emissions. The only relevant primary technique
for preventing emissions of mercury into the air before incinerating are those that prevent or control, if
possible, the inclusion of mercury in waste.
For existing incinerators, Parties shall implement one or more of the measures listed in paragraph 5 of
Article 8 of the Convention. The Party may apply the same measures to all relevant existing sources,
or may adopt different measures in respect of different source categories. The objective for the
measures applied by a Party shall be to achieve reasonable progress in reducing emissions over time.
This can include the use of best available techniques and best environmental practices, a multi-
pollutant control strategy that would deliver co-benefits for control emissions or other possible
measures, with the objective being to achieve reasonable progress in reducing emissions over time.
However, for new incinerators where construction or substantial modification starts at least one year
after the date of entry into force for the Party, Parties shall be required to use best available techniques
and best environmental practice to control and, where feasible, reduce emissions.
2 PROCESSES USED IN WASTE INCINERATION FACILITIES, INCLUDING
CONSIDERATION OF INPUT MATERIALS AND BEHAVIOUR OF MERCURY IN
THE PROCESS

Comment [D[6]: David Lean, Lean

2.1 General Description Of Wastes That Could Result In Emissions Of Mercury Or Environmental: Waste incineration also has
high emissions but few people realize what
Mercury Compounds When Incinerated it is in the waste that releases mercury. One
source is sewage sludge that is commonly
incinerated. Without incineration this high
level of mercury (5 to15 ug Hg per gram
2.1.1 Waste Hierarchy dry weight (which is equivalent of course to
mg/kg as used in the report) is otherwise
released in one form or another.
The hierarchy captures the progression of a material or product through successive stages of waste
management, and represents the latter part of the life-cycle for each product. The primary aim of the
waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the mini-
mum amount of waste. The proper application of the waste hierarchy can have several benefits. It can
help prevent emissions of mercury from waste materials that may contain mercury or are contaminated
with mercury, reduce greenhouse gas production, reduce other air pollutants, save energy, conserves
resources, create jobs and stimulate the development of green technologies. The waste hierarchy is
divided into the following stages:

Prevention: The prevention of waste is the most vital point in the waste hierarchy. Prevention or
reduction minimizes the generation of waste products in the first place. Prevention usually results in
the least environmental and economic life cycle costs because it does not require collecting or pro-
cessing of materials. Prevention also typically produces significant benefits in terms of production
efficiencies and the use of resources. It involves using less material in design and manufacture, trying
to keep products for longer, and using less hazardous materials.

Reuse: The reuse of waste is the next most desirable option. It is any operation where products or
materials that are not waste are used again for the same purpose for which they were intended. Reus-
ing waste often requires collection but relatively little or no processing. It involves checking, cleaning, Comment [s7]: This is often referred to
repairing, and/or refurbishing, entire items or spare parts. Care should, however, be taken with reuse of as “direct reuse”, as reuse may require
repair or refurbishment of an end-of-life
wastes containing or contaminated with hazardous substances such as mercury. product.

Recycle: Recycling of waste is the next step in priority. It is any activity that includes the collection of
used, reused, or unused items that would otherwise be considered waste. Recycling involves sorting
and processing the recyclable products into raw material and then remanufacturing the recycled raw
materials into new products.

Recovery: The recovery of waste is further separated into categories: the recovery of materials and the
recovery of energy. Whichever of these two choices is better for the environment and human health is
the preferred option. The recovery of materials is most often preferred and includes activities such as
recycling and composting. These management activities generally require a collection system and a
method of material processing and conversion into a new product. Recovery of energy, such as
incineration, is usually the less preferred option. The conversion of non-recyclable waste materials
into usable heat, electricity, or fuel is done through a variety of processes, including anaerobic diges-
tion, gasification, and pyrolysis. Comment [dl8]: These definitions will
need to be re-visited after the Basel
Convention review of definitions is
Disposal: The last resort is disposal and is only considered once all other possibilities have been completed.
explored. Disposal is any operation that involves the dumping and incineration of waste without

5
energy recovery. Before final disposal, pre-treatment may be necessary depending on the nature of the
waste. Landfilling is the most common form of final waste disposal and the final disposal option.

2.1.2 Introduction to different types of waste with regard to mercury emissions from
waste incinerator facilities

2.1.2.1 Municipal Waste

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), more commonly known as trash or garbage, consists of everyday
items that are used and then thrown away, such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture,
clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, batteries and others. These come from
households, schools, hospitals, and businesses. The municipal solid waste industry can be divided into
four components namely: recycling, composting, landfilling, and waste-to-energy via incineration. The
primary steps are generation, collection, sorting and separation, transfer, and disposal. A number of
municipal wastes contain hazardous substances as well as organic chemicals such as pesticides.
Traditional medicine, cosmetics and other items may also contain hazardous substances.
In order to ensure that hazardous substances such as mercury that may be present in municipal solid
waste do not contaminate the environment, the generation and handling of such waste should be
managed in a manner which establishes priorities based on sustainability. To be sustainable, waste
management cannot be solved only with technical end-of-pipe solutions; instead an integrated ap-
proach is necessary. This approach may be described as a hierarchical approach, as set out in section
2.1.1.
The sources of mercury in municipal solid waste may include the following: household batteries,
electric lighting, paint residues, thermometers, thermostats, pigments, dental uses, special paper
coating, mercury light switches, film pack batteries and others. Typical mercury concentrations in
municipal solid waste range from 0.15 to 2 mg/kg (Muenhor et al. 2009).

2.1.2.2 Hazardous Waste

Hazardous waste is a waste that has the potential to adversely affect human health and the environ- Comment [D[9]: Government of
ment, and therefore must be managed in an environmentally sound manner. Hazardous wastes can be Manitoba: this paragraph needs some
references to sources of mercury in
liquids, solids, gases, or sludges. They can be discarded in commercial products, such as cleaning hazardous wastes.
fluids or pesticides, or the by-products of manufacturing processes. The Basel Convention can provide
further guidance and information on wastes considered hazardous, and the scope of mercury waste
covered under that convention. Comment [dl10]: This should be more
more specific. Also the Basel Convention
technical guidelines for mercury wastes
should be added.
2.1.2.3 Waste from electrical and electronic equipment

Electrical and electronic equipment may contain mercury along with other materials that are hazard-
ous. Often, electrical and electronic waste is collected separately, and is not usually incinerated but is
the subject of recovery and recycling processes – these processes to recover materials are not the
subject of this guidance. Electrical and electronic equipment may be collected together with municipal
waste. Such equipment, if known to contain mercury and entering the waste stream, should be dealt
with in accordance with Article 11. However, sometimes electrical and electronic equipment is
incinerated along with municipal waste, and can contribute to mercury emissions.

2.1.2.4 Medical waste containing mercury or contaminated with mercury

Medical waste is generally defined as any solid waste that is generated in the diagnosis, treatment, or
immunization of human beings or animals, in research pertaining thereto, or in the production or
testing of biologicals. The World Health Organization classifies medical waste into; sharps, infectious,
pathological, radioactive, pharmaceuticals and others (often sanitary waste produced at hospitals)
(WHO, 2014). Specific categorizations of medical waste may vary in different countries (e.g., sharps
are not classified as hazardous waste in all countries).
Hazardous medical waste has the possibility to affect humans in non-infectious ways. This type of
waste includes sharps, which are generally defined as objects that can puncture or lacerate the skin,
and can include needles and syringes, discarded surgical instruments such as scalpels and lancets,
culture dishes and other glassware. Hazardous medical waste can also include chemicals, both medical
and industrial. Some hazardous waste can also be considered infectious waste, depending on its usage
and exposure to human or animal tissue prior to discard. Old pharmaceuticals are sometimes hazard-
ous, and may contain mercury.
Mercury is used in a variety of ways specific to the medical sector and these include:
Mercury in measuring devices
Mercury is contained in many common medical measuring devices such as sphygmomanometers
(blood pressure devices), thermometers (specifically body temperature thermometers but also others)
and a number of gastro-intestinal devices, such as cantor tubes, esophageal dilators (bougie tubes),
feeding tubes and Miller Abbott tubes. As in other types of instruments, mercury has traditionally been
used in these devices because of its unique physical properties, including the ability to provide highly
precise measurements.
Mercury in some types of traditional medicines
Some traditional medicines may contain mercury, although a number of regulatory authorities have
introduced controls.
Mercury in dental amalgams
Dental amalgam, sometimes referred to as “silver filling,” is a silver-colored material used to fill
(restore) teeth that have cavities. Dental amalgam is made of two nearly equal parts: liquid mercury
and a powder containing silver, tin, copper, zinc and other metals. Amalgam has been one of the most
commonly used tooth fillings. If the dental amalgam is incinerated, mercury may be emitted to the air
from the incinerator stacks.
Mercury compounds in certain preservatives, fixatives and reagents used in hospital
Some mercury compounds are used as preservatives in medicines and other products including
vaccines.

2.1.2.5 Sewage Sludge

Sewage sludge is a direct by-product of the treatment of domestic sewage at a wastewater treatment
facility. Dental amalgam can contribute to the mercury load of sewage sludge if the amalgam waste is
put into the wastewater stream, rather than being separated out. Due to the physical-chemical process-
es involved in the treatment, the sewage sludge tends to concentrate heavy metals such as mercury,

7
cadmium, lead and others and poorly biodegradable trace organic compounds as well as potentially
pathogenic organisms (viruses, bacteria etc.) present in waste waters. Typical level of mercury in
sewage sludge range between 0.6-56 mg/kg dry sludge (Hisau; Lo, 1998). However, concentrations
ranging from 1-4 mg/ kg dry matter have also been reported (Werther; Saenger 2000).

2.1.2.6 Scrap Wood

Scrap wood is generated at residential and commercial wood frame construction sites, and may
include such items as window frames painted with mercury-containing paint. Demolition operations
usually generate wood waste which, as a result of its non-uniform nature, compounded by commin-
gling with other materials is not as reusable. If not contaminated with hazardous substances such as
mercury (e.g. window frames painted with mercury-containing paint) the wood can still be reused, e.g.
for wood panels. Contaminated wood should be burned in an incineration plant.

2.2 Incineration Process

2.2.1 Introduction to general incineration technique

Incineration is used as a treatment for a very wide range of wastes. Incineration itself is commonly
only one part of a complex waste treatment system that altogether provides for the overall manage-
ment of the broad range of wastes that arise in society. The objective of waste incineration is to treat
wastes so as to reduce their volume and hazard, whilst capturing (and thus concentrating) or destroying
potentially harmful substances that are, or may be, released during incineration. Incineration processes Comment [s11]: Some substances may
be created during incineration. Although,
can also provide a means to enable recovery of the energy, mineral or chemical content from waste. not in the case of mercury.

Incinerators come in a variety of furnace types and sizes as well as combinations of pre- and post-
combustion treatment. There is also considerable overlap among the designs of choice for municipal
solid waste, hazardous waste, medical waste and sewage sludge incineration.
Incinerators are usually designed for full oxidative combustion over a general temperature range of
850–1,200 °C. This may include temperatures at which calcinations and melting may also occur.
Gasification and pyrolysis represent alternative thermal treatments that restrict the amount of primary
combustion air to convert waste into process gas, which may be used as a chemical feedstock or
incinerated with energy recovery. However, compared to incineration, these systems are used less
frequently and operational difficulties have been reported at some installations. Waste incinerator
installations can be characterized by the following: waste delivery, storage, pre-treatment, incinera-
tion/energy recovery, flue gas cleaning, solid residue management, and wastewater treatment. The
nature of the input waste will have a significant bearing on how each component is designed and
operated.
Waste is generally a highly heterogeneous material, consisting essentially of organic substances,
minerals, metals and water. During incineration, flue gases are created that will contain the majority of
the available fuel energy as heat. In fully oxidative incineration the main constituents of the flue gas
are water vapor, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen. Depending on the composition of the material
incinerated, operating conditions and the flue gas cleaning system installed, acid gases (sulfur oxides,
nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride), particulate matter (including particle-bound metals), and volatile
metals, as well as a wide range volatile organic compounds are emitted. Incineration of municipal
solid waste and hazardous waste has also been shown to be a major potential emitter of mercury.
Emissions can be substantially high when the input from possible sources (waste containing mercury,
e.g., in products, treated waste wood) is not controlled and/or removed before incineration. It should
be noted that mercury is present in elemental, oxidized and particulate forms in the flue gas. Mercury
present in oxidized form - predominantly as mercury (II) chloride in incinerator flue gases – is gener-
ally easier to remove than elemental mercury.
Depending on the combustion temperatures during the main stages of incineration, volatile metals and
inorganic compounds (e.g. salts) are totally or partly evaporated. These substances are transferred
from the input waste to both the flue gas and the fly ash it contains. A residue fly ash (dust) and
heavier solid ash (bottom ash) are created. The proportions of solid residue vary greatly according to
the waste type and detailed process design. Other releases are residues from flue gas treatment and
polishing, filter cake from wastewater treatment, salts and releases of substances into wastewater. It is
therefore of major importance to provide for a safe sink of these waste types containing mercury. (see
section 3.63.7). Figure 1 presents a simplified flow scheme of an incinerator. Comment [dl12]: Please check the
reference. Section 3.7 does not seem to
address sinks for mercury waste.

Figure 1 Simplified flow scheme of an incinerator

2.2.2 Pre‐treatment of waste for incineration

Mixing of waste
Techniques used for mixing may include:

9
 • mixing of liquid hazardous wastes to meet input requirements for the installation
• mixing of wastes in a bunker using a grab or other machine
Mixing of waste may serve the purpose of improving feeding and combustion behavior and can help to
avoid high mercury concentrations in the burned waste. Mixing of hazardous waste can involve risks.
Mixing of different waste types may be carried out according to a recipe. In bunkers, the mixing
involves the mixing of wastes using bunker cranes in the storage bunker itself. Crane operators can
identify potentially problematic loads (e.g. baled wastes, discrete items that cannot be mixed or will
cause loading/feeding problems) and ensure that these are: removed, shredded or directly blended (as
appropriate) with other wastes. Identifying of mercury containing waste by crane operators is difficult.

Shredding of mixed municipal wastes

Untreated mixed municipal waste can be roughly shredded by passing delivered waste through either
crocodile shears, shredders, mills, rotor shears or crushers. The homogeneity of the waste is improved
by shredding, resulting in more even combustion and reduction and more stable emissions from the
furnace. Having a more even raw gas composition may allow closer optimization of the flue-gas
cleaning process. Many wastes contain appreciable quantities of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. These
can be an inherent part of the waste itself (e.g. food and drink containers in MSW) or arise from the
packaging of waste in drums (e.g. hazardous wastes) or other metal containers.
Where the incoming wastes are shredded, metals can be removed before incineration to allow recy-
cling. Metal separation can be achieved by using:
• over-band magnets for large ferrous materials e.g. shredded drums;
• drum magnets for small and heavy ferrous items such as batteries, nails, coins, etc.,
• eddy current separators for non-ferrous metals – mainly copper and aluminum used for packag-
ing and electrical components.

Shredding of drummed and packaged hazardous wastes

The pre-treatment of liquid packaged waste and packed or bulk solid waste to produce a mixture for
continuous feed to the furnace can be carried out. Suitable wastes may be treated to a pump-able state
for pumped injection to the kiln or shredded for adding to the storage burner where solids and liquids
separate and are then fed to the kiln separately using grabs and pumping respectively.
Pallets containing packaged liquid wastes of low to medium high viscosity are shredded to 5 to 10 cm.
The shredded waste may then be screened before being transferred to tanks. Screened out plastics are
passed for incineration, and ferrous metals removed using magnets for washing and recycling. In other Comment [dl13]: Not clear what this
means
cases, the waste is not screened, and is pumped as a mixture of liquids and shredded solids to the kiln
with thinning liquids e.g. waste oils (European Commission, 2006, Waste Incineration)
2.2.3 Description of incinerator types

2.2.3.1 Rotary kiln incinerator

For the incineration of hazardous waste which includes many types of medical waste, rotary kilns are
most commonly used (Figure 2), but grate incinerators (including co-firing with other wastes) are also
sometimes applied to solid wastes, and fluidized bed incinerators to some pre-treated materials. Static
furnaces are also widely applied at on-site facilities at chemical plants.

Figure 2 Schematic of a rotary kiln incineration system (www.hitemptech.com)

Due to the hazardous (and often uncertain) composition of the incoming waste streams, there is a
greater emphasis on acceptance criteria, storage, handling and pre-treatment than with municipal solid
waste. For low-energy-value wastes, auxiliary fuels may be required.
In a rotary kiln solid, sludge, containerized or pump-able waste is introduced at the upper end of the
inclined drum. Temperatures in the kiln usually range between 850 °C (500 °C when used as a gasifi-
er) and 1,200°C (as a high-temperature ash melting kiln). The slow rotation of the drum allows a
residence time of 30 to 90 minutes. The secondary combustion chamber following the kiln allows the
oxidation of the combustion gases. Liquid wastes or auxiliary fuels may be injected here along with
secondary air to maintain a minimum residence time of 2 seconds and temperatures in the range of
850 °C – 1,100 °C, effectively breaking down most remaining organic compounds. Requirements for
combustion conditions may be prescribed as is the case in the EU-Directive 2010/75/EU on the
Incineration of Waste. Rotary kilns and afterburning chambers are in most cases constructed as
adiabatic, ceramic-lined combustion chambers. After the combustion, chamber flue gases pass a void
zone until a temperature of about 700 °C is reached. Subsequently heating bundles such as evapora-
tors, superheaters and feed water preheaters are arranged. The waste heat boiler and energy supply
system is comparable to that of grate firing systems. Incinerator capacities: 0.5 to 3 tons per hour (for
health-care waste incineration).

11
2.2.3.2 Liquid Injection Incinerators

Liquid injection incinerators, like rotary kiln incinerators, are commonly used for hazardous waste
incineration. Liquid injection incinerators can be used to dispose of virtually any combustible liquid or
liquid-like waste (e.g., liquids, slurries, and sludges). Typical liquid injection incinerator systems,
which are possibly the simplest type of combustion device, include a waste burner system, an auxiliary
fuel system, an air supply system, a combustion chamber, and an air pollution control system. A
typical liquid injection incinerator is shown in Figure 3Figure 3. Liquid wastes are fed and atomized Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Complex
Script Font: Not Bold
into the combustion chamber through the waste burner nozzles. These nozzles atomize the waste and
mix it with combustion air. Atomization is usually achieved either by mechanical methods such as a
rotary cup or pressure atomization systems, or by twin-fluid nozzles which use high-pressure air or
steam. With a relatively large surface area, the atomized particles vaporize quickly, forming a highly
combustible mix of waste fumes and combustion air. Typical combustion chamber residence time and
temperature ranges are 0.5 to 2 seconds and 700 °C to 1,600 °C, respectively, in order to ensure
complete liquid waste combustion. Liquid waste feed rates can be over 2,000 l/hr. If the energy
content of the waste is not high enough to maintain adequate ignition and incineration temperatures, a
supplemental fuel such as fuel oil or natural gas is provided. In some cases, wastes with high solids are
filtered prior to incineration to avoid nozzle plugging (US EPA 2005).

Figure 3 Typical liquid injection incinerator

2.2.3.3 Grate incinerator

There are different types of grate incinerators namely, moving and fixed grates.

Moving grate incinerators

The typical incineration plant for municipal solid waste is a moving grate incinerator. In a moving
grate, the waste moves through the combustion chamber. The moving of the waste allows a more
efficient and complete combustion. The units can be designed in a variety of capacities. One example
is a single moving grate boiler which can handle up to 35 metric tons of waste per hour, and can
operate 8,000 hours per year with only one scheduled stop for inspection and maintenance of about
one month's duration. The waste is introduced by a waste crane through the "throat" at one end of the
grate, from where it moves down over the descending grate to the ash pit in the other end. Here, the
ash is removed through a water lock. Part of the combustion air (primary combustion air) is supplied
through the grate from below. This air flow also has the purpose of cooling the grate itself. Cooling is
important for the mechanical strength of the grate, and many moving grates are also water-cooled
internally. Secondary combustion air is supplied into the boiler at high speed through nozzles over the
grate. It facilitates complete combustion of the flue gases by introducing turbulence for better mixing
and by ensuring a surplus of oxygen. In multiple/stepped hearth incinerators, the secondary combus-
tion air is introduced in a separate chamber downstream the primary combustion chamber.
In EU countries (Directive 2000/76/EC), incineration plants must be designed to ensure that the flue
gases reach a temperature of at least 850 °C for 2 seconds in order to ensure proper breakdown of
toxic organic substances. In order to comply with this at all times, it is required to install backup
auxiliary burners (often fuelled by oil), which are fired into the boiler in case the heating value of the
waste becomes too low to reach this temperature alone. The flue gases are then cooled in the super-
heaters, where the heat is transferred to steam, heating the steam to typically 400 °C at a pressure of
4,000 kPa for the electricity generation in the turbine. At this point, the flue gas is at around 200 °C
and is passed to the flue gas cleaning system. Often, incineration plants consist of several separate
'boiler lines' (boilers and flue gas treatment plants), so that waste can continue to be received at one
boiler line while the others are undergoing maintenance, repair, or upgrading.

Fixed grate
The older and simpler kind of incinerator was a brick-lined cell with a fixed metal grate over a lower
ash pit, with one opening in the top or side for loading and another opening in the side for removing
incombustible solids called clinkers. Many small incinerators formerly found in apartment houses
have now been replaced by waste compactors.

2.2.3.4 Fluidized bed incinerator

Fluidized bed incinerators are widely used for the incineration of finely divided wastes such as
refuse-derived fuel and sewage sludge. The method has been used for decades, mainly for the combus-
tion of homogeneous fuels. The fluidized bed incinerator is a lined combustion chamber in the form of
a vertical cylinder. In the lower section, a bed of inert material (e.g. sand or ash) on a grate or
distribution plate is fluidized with air. The waste for incineration is continuously fed into the fluidized
sand bed from the top or side. Preheated air is introduced into the combustion chamber via openings in
the bed plate, forming a fluidized bed with the sand contained in the combustion chamber. The waste
is fed to the reactor via a pump, a star feeder or a screw-tube conveyor. In the fluidized bed drying,
volatilization, ignition and combustion take place. The temperature in the free space above the bed
(the freeboard) is generally between 850 °C and 950 °C. Above the fluidized bed material, the free-
board is designed to allow retention of the gases in a combustion zone. In the bed itself the tempera-

13
ture is lower, and may be around 650 °C. Because of the well-mixed nature of the reactor, fluidized
bed incineration systems generally have a uniform distribution of temperatures and oxygen, which
results in stable operation. For heterogeneous wastes, fluidized bed combustion requires a preparatory
process step for the waste so that it conforms to size specifications. For some waste, this may be
achieved by a combination of selective collection of wastes or pretreatment, such as shredding. Some
types of fluidized beds (for example, the rotating fluidized bed) can receive larger particle size wastes
than others. Where this is the case, the waste may only require a rough size reduction or none at all.

2.2.3.5 Modular systems

Modular systems are a general type of (municipal solid) waste incinerator used widely in the United
States of America, Europe and Asia. Modular incinerators consist of two vertically mounted combus-
tion chambers (a primary and secondary chamber). In modular configurations combustion, capacity
typically ranges from 1 to 270 tons per day. There are two major types of modular systems, excess air
and starved air.
The modular excess air system consists of a primary and a secondary combustion chamber, both of
which operate with air levels in excess of stoichiometric requirements (i.e., 100–250 per cent excess
air). In the starved (or controlled) air type of modular system, air is supplied to the primary chamber at
sub-stoichiometric levels. The products of incomplete combustion entrain in the combustion gases that
are formed in the primary combustion chamber and then pass into a secondary combustion chamber.
Excess air is added to the secondary chamber, and combustion is completed by elevated temperatures
sustained with auxiliary fuel (usually natural gas). The high, uniform temperature of the secondary
chamber, combined with the turbulent mixing of the combustion gases, favors low levels of particulate
matter and organic contaminants being formed and emitted.

2.2.4 Incineration of specific waste streams

2.2.4.1 Municipal waste incineration

Although in many areas landfilling of non-recycled waste remains the principal means for the disposal
of municipal solid waste, incineration and the subsequent landfilling of residues has become a com-
mon practice in many developed and industrializing countries.
Municipal solid waste incineration is commonly accompanied by the recovery of some calorific
energy (“waste to energy”) in the form of steam and/or the generation of electricity. Incinerators can
also be designed to accommodate processed forms of municipal solid waste derived fuels, as well as
co-firing with fossil fuels. Municipal waste incinerators can range in size from small package units
processing single batches of only a few tons per day to very large units with continuous daily feed
capacities in excess of a thousand tons.
The primary benefits of municipal solid waste incineration are the destruction of organic (including
toxic) materials, the reduction in the volume of the waste and the concentration of pollutants (e.g.
heavy metals) into comparatively small quantities of ashes, thus generating safe sinks if properly
disposed of. The recovered energy can be an important additional benefit.

2.2.4.1.1 Operational considerations for municipal solid waste incinerators

In many municipal solid waste incinerators, other waste fractions such as bulky waste, (e.g. from sorting
plants), sewage sludge, medical waste or the high calorific fraction from waste pre-treatment (e.g.
from shredder plants) are also incinerated. These wastes have to be carefully evaluated prior to
incineration to ascertain whether the waste incineration plant (including flue gas treatment, wastewater
and residue treatment) is designed to handle these types of waste and whether it can do so without risk
of harm to human health or the environment. Some important parameters are chlorine, bromine and
sulfur content, heavy metals content, calorific content (lower heat value) and burnout behavior.
High concentration of bromine may lead to formation of brominated compounds such as polybrominated
Dibenzo-p-Dioxins (PBDD) and polybrominated Di-benzo flurans (PBDF) (CSTEE, 2002).
Mercury is volatized in the incineration process. Particular actions should be taken both before and
after incineration to reduce these emissions. Neglecting the limits of the incineration plant will result
in operational problems (e.g. the necessity of repeated shutdowns due to cleaning of the grate or heat
exchangers) or in a bad environmental performance (e.g. high emissions into water, high leachability
of fly ash). Figure 4 shows the typical layout of a large municipal solid waste incinerator.

Figure 4 Typical municipal solid waste incinerator (Source: European Commission 2006)

2.2.4.1.2 Municipal solid waste incinerator designs

Municipal solid waste can be incinerated in several combustion systems including travelling grate,
rotary kilns, and fluidized beds. Fluidized bed (see subsection 2.2.3.4) technology requires municipal
solid waste to be of a certain particle size range – this usually requires some degree of pre-treatment
and the selective collection of the waste. Combustion capacities of municipal solid waste incinerators
typically range from 90 to 2,700 tons of municipal solid waste per day (modular configurations: 4 to
270 tons per day).

15
Other processes have been developed that are based on the decoupling of the phases that also take
place in an incinerator: drying, volatilization, pyrolysis, carbonization and oxidation of the waste.
Gasification using gasifying agents such as steam, air, oxides of carbon or oxygen is also applied.
These processes aim to reduce flue gas volumes and associated flue gas treatment costs. Many of
these developments have met technical and economic problems when scaled up to commercial,
industrial sizes, and are therefore pursued no longer. Some are used on a commercial basis (e.g. in
Japan) and others are being tested in demonstration plants throughout Europe, but still have only a
small share of the overall treatment capacity when compared to incineration.

2.2.4.2 Hazardous waste incineration

Hazardous waste is commonly burned in rotary kilns or in grate incinerator. Other types of incinera-
tors used for hazardous waste include fluidized beds, liquid injection units, and fixed hearth units.
Before accepting a hazardous waste for treatment, merchant incinerators must assess and characterize
the material. Documentation by the producer is routinely required, including the origin of the waste, its
code or other designation, the identification of responsible persons and the presence of particular
hazardous materials. The waste must also be properly packaged to avoid the possibility of reaction and
emissions during transport.
Storage at the incinerator site will depend on the nature and physical properties of the waste. Solid
hazardous waste is typically stored in bunkers constructed to prevent leakage into any environmental
media and enclosed to allow the removal of bunker air to the combustion process. Liquid wastes are
stored in tank farms, often under inert gas atmosphere (for example N2), and transported to the incin-
erator by pipeline. Some wastes may be fed directly to the incinerator in their transport containers.
Pumps, pipelines and other equipment that may come into contact with the wastes must be corrosion
proof and accessible for cleaning and sampling. Pre-treatment operations may include neutralization,
drainage or solidification of the waste. Shredders and mechanical mixers may also be used to process
containers or to blend wastes for more efficient combustion.
Hazardous waste is also incinerated in cement kilns. This application is addressed in the cement
chapter of the guidance document.

2.2.4.3 Sewage sludge Incineration

Domestic sewage sludge is disposed of in a number of ways, including application on agricultural land
after pre-treatment, surface disposal (e.g. landscaping, landfilling), incineration, co-disposal with
municipal solid waste and co-incineration. The incineration of sewage sludge is practiced in several
countries, either alone or through co-incineration in municipal solid waste incinerators or in other
combustion plants (e.g. coal-fired power plants, cement kilns). The effective disposal of sewage sludge
by this process depends on a number of factors. These include whether the sewage is mixed with
industrial waste streams (which can increase heavy metal loadings), location (coastal locations can result
in salt water intrusion), pre-treatment (or the lack thereof), and weather (rainfall dilution) (EU IED,
2010).
The incineration of sewage sludge presents some differences from the incineration of municipal solid
waste and hazardous waste. The variability of moisture content, energy value, and possible mixture
with other wastes (e.g. industrial waste if sewage systems are interconnected) require special consider-
ations in handling and pre-treatment.
Solid residues from sewage sludge incineration are mainly fly ash and bed ash (from fluidized bed
incineration) and residues from flue gas treatment (see description of municipal solid waste incinera-
tion). Appropriate flue gas cleaning measures have to be combined in a suitable manner to ensure the
application of best available techniques (see section 5.5 of the present guidelines).

2.2.4.4 Design and operation of sewage sludge incinerators

A typical sewage sludge incinerator may process as much as 80,000 tons of sewage sludge (35 per
cent dry solids) per year. The incineration technologies of choice for sewage sludge are the multiple
hearth (Figure 5) and fluidized bed furnace systems, although rotary kilns are also used in smaller
applications.

Figure 5 Example of a multiple hearth sewage sludge incinerator (European Commission,

2006)
Depending on the percentage of dry solids (dryness), an auxiliary fuel, usually heating oil or natural
gas, is provided. The preferred operating temperatures are in the range of 850-950 °C with a 2-second
residence time, although some fluidized bed facilities are able to operate at a temperature as low as
820 °C without deterioration in performance. Operation at or above 980 °C can cause ash to fuse
(European Commission 2006).
Sewage sludge is co-incinerated with municipal solid waste in both fluidized bed and mass burn
(grated) incinerators. In the latter case, a ratio of 1:3 (sludge to waste) is typical, with dried sludge
introduced into the incineration chamber as a dust or drained sludge applied to the grate through
sprinklers. In some cases, drained or dried sludge may be mixed with municipal solid waste in the
bunker or hopper before being charged to the incinerator. The feeding methods represent a significant
proportion of the additional capital investment required for co-incineration.

17
2.2.4.4.1 Pre‐treatment of sewage sludge

Pre-treatment, especially dewatering and drying, is particularly important in preparing sludge for
incineration. Drying reduces the volume of the sludge and increases the heat energy of the product.
Moisture removal to at least 35 per cent dry solids is normally required to provide the necessary heat
energy for autothermal incineration. Further drying may be necessary if co-incineration with munici-
pal solid waste is envisioned.
Some pre-treatment of sludge may occur before delivery to an incineration facility. This may include
screening, anaerobic and aerobic digestion, and the addition of treatment chemicals.
Physical dewatering reduces sludge volume and increases heating value. Mechanical dewatering
processes include decanters, centrifuges, belt filter and chamber filter presses. Conditioners (for
example, flocking agents) are often added before dewatering to facilitate drainage. Mechanical
dewatering can routinely achieve 20-35 per cent dry solids (European Commission, 2006).
Drying introduces heat to further dewater and condition the sludge. Heat for drying at the incineration
facility is often provided by the incineration process itself. Drying processes can be direct (sludge
contacts thermal carrier) or indirect (for example, heat supplied by steam plant). In direct drying the
vapor and gas mixture must be subsequently cleaned.
Autothermal (self-sustaining) incineration of sludge requires 35 per cent dry solids. Although mechan-
ical dewatering can reach this threshold, additional drying of sludge to as much as 80–95 per cent dry
solids may be employed to increase the heat value. Co-incineration with municipal solid waste gener-
ally requires additional sludge drying.

2.2.4.5 Waste wood incineration

Wood waste containing or contaminated with mercury can be burned in grate incinerators or in
fluidized bed incinerators at the same temperatures as applied for Municipal Waste Incineration..

Another technique used is pyrolysis. Three products are usually produced: gas, pyrolysis oil and
charcoal, the relative proportions of which depend very much on the pyrolysis method, the characteris-
tics of the biomass and the reaction parameters. Fast or flash pyrolysis is used to maximize either gas
or liquid products according to the temperature employed.

2.2.4.6 Behavior of Mmercury during the incineration process

This section discusses the behavior of mercury during the incineration process. As described in section
3, the ability of various controls to capture emissions is related to the speciation of mercury in the flue
gas.
Due to the thermo-chemical instability of mercury compounds at temperatures above 700-800 °C, only
elemental mercury exists. This means that inside the combustion chamber of a waste incinerator,
mercury is present only in its elemental form. Mercury is highly volatile and, therefore, almost exclu-
sively present in the vapor phase in the flue gas. On its way through the heat recovery section the flue
gas cools down and the elemental mercury reacts depending on the presence of other flue gas compo-
nents, temperature, and ash composition to oxidized mercury. The oxidized mercury compounds are
generally unstable in the flue gas and under atmospheric conditions (Galbareth, Zygarlicke 1996).
Under certain conditions, elemental mercury can be oxidized. The extent of the conversion depends
on the temperature, residence time, ash, unburnt carbon and the presence of gas-phase species includ-
ing chlorine or SO2. The distribution of elemental mercury and oxidized mercury in the form of
mercury (II) chloride depends strongly on the amount of HCl in the flue gas. The proportion of
oxidized mercury and total mercury tend to increase with increasing hydrogen chloride concentration
(Nishitani et al., 1999). Due to the lower content of HCl in sewage sludge incineration plants the
share of elemental mercury is significantly higher.

19
3 EMISSION CONTROL TECHNIQUES

The type and order of treatment processes applied to the flue gases once they leave the incineration
chamber is important, both for optimal operation of the devices and for the overall cost-effectiveness
of the installation. Waste incineration parameters that affect the selection of techniques include: waste
type, composition, and variability; type of combustion process; flue gas flow and temperature; and the
need for, and availability of, wastewater treatment. The following treatment techniques have direct or
indirect impacts on preventing or reducing the emissions of mercury. Best available techniques
involve applying the most suitable combination of flue gas cleaning systems. General descriptions of
a number of the techniques is provided in the introductory chapter of the guidance. Information
considered specific to waste incineration is presented in the following sections.

3.1 Dust (particulate matter) removal techniques

Dust removal from the flue gases is essential for all incinerator operations. Electrostatic precipitators
(ESP) and fabric filters (FF) have demonstrated effectiveness as capture techniques for particulate
matter in incinerator flue gases. For a description of the general principles of these techniques see the
introductory chapter of this document.

To more efficiently remove mercury from flue gas, FF as well as ESP is used in combination with
other techniques (see sections 3.4 – 3.5).
Pressure drop across fabric filters and flue gas temperature (if a scrubbing system is used upstream)
should be monitored to ensure filter cake is in place and bags are not leaking or being wetted.
Fabric filters are subject to water damage and corrosion and gas streams must be maintained above the
dew point (130-140 °C) to prevent these effects. Some filter materials are more resistant to damage.
Cross-media effects on the leaching of mercury from fly ash (EC, 2006 Waste incineration)
The fly ash generated from flue gas cleaning systems should be handled with care since it has the
potential to leach mercury into land and ground water.
Cross-media effects (non-mercury related)
ESP and FF used in dust removal have high energy consumption due to electrostatic loading, high
pressure drop and pulsing high pressure air cleaning respectively. The residue amount is 12-20 kg/t
waste input.
Costs of installation and operation (EC, 2006 Waste incineration)
Investment costs for a two line MSWI of total capacity 200 000 t/yr are estimated as:
ESP (3 field) € 2.2 million
ESP (2 field) € 1.6 million
FF € 2.2 million (not clear if this includes an upstream flue gas cooler)
Comment: updated data will be soon available from German UBA
Co-benefits on the use of FF coupled with spray drying or semi-dry sorbent injection
For separation of other pollutants such as dust, other heavy metals and dust bonded organic com-
pounds, fabric filters have the added advantage when coupled with dry or semi-dry sorbent injection
(spray drying), of providing additional filtration and reactive surface on the filter cake.

3.2 Wet scrubbing techniques

Gaseous mercury can be captured by adsorption in a wet scrubber. In the first stage the removal
efficiency of oxidized mercury as HgCl2 (which is generally the main compound of mercury after
waste combustion) is over 95 per cent. (EC, 2006 Waste Incineration). However, the removal rates of
elemental mercury are only in the order of 0-10 per cent, mainly as a result of condensation at the
scrubber operational temperature of around 60 to 70 °C.
Precipitation is another measure often used to minimize the concentration of oxidized mercury in the
scrubbing water. A flocculation agent (often a sulfur compound) is added to the scrubbing water which
converts the soluble mercury into an insoluble compound with reasonable efficiency, particularly in
the second stage. To bind the mercury directly after the conversion into the liquid phase, another
possibility is to add activated carbon to the scrubbing water (Bittig 2014). Re-emission of dissolved
mercury to the flue gas can be avoiding by complexating the dissolved mercury with sequestering Comment [dl14]: Complexing?
agents e.g. organic sulfides (Keiser et al., 2014).
With the measures mentioned above, elemental mercury adsorption can be improved up to a maximum
of 20-30 per cent. The overall mercury removal (both metallic and oxidized) efficiency is around
85 per cent (EC. 2006, Waste Incineration).
Cross media effects and cost of installation and operation are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1 Cross-media effects – non mercury related
Reagent consumption 2-3 kg (NaOH) or – 10 kg CaO or 5-10 kg lime stone
per ton waste input
Residue amount: 10-15 l/t waste input
Water consumption: 100-500 l/t waste input
Emissions to water: 250-500 l/t waste input
(source: WT BREF 2005)

21
Table 2 Costs of installation and operation
FGT component Estimated investment Comments
costs
Two stage wet scrubber € 5 million Including waste water
treatment
Three stage wet scrubber € 7 million Including waste water
treatment
External scrubber effluent evapo- € 1.5-2 million
ration plant
Spray absorber for internal € 1.5 million Cost estimate believed to
effluent evaporation be on the low side
(EC., 2006, Waste Incineration)
Information from a plant manufacturer from 2014
For a 200.000 t plant with 2 incineration and flue gas treatment lines: FF + 2 stage scrubber: € 16-18
million.
Co-benefits on the use of carbon impregnated materials
For the separation of acid gases, dust and dust bonded ingredients, the use of carbon-impregnated
materials, activated carbon, or coke in scrubber packing materials can achieve 70 per cent reduction in
PCDD/PCDF across the scrubber but this may not be reflected in overall releases (European Commis-
sion, 2006).

3.3 Activated carbon injection

The use of activated carbon to enhance the removal of mercury is described in a general way in the
introductory chapter of this document. The AC technique involves the injection of activated carbon or
hearth furnace coke (HOK) upstream of a bag filter (see section 3.13.13.1) or other dedusting device.
As a result, most of the mercury is then adsorbed at the filter layer. Therefore, FF are usually pre-
coated with reagents before start-ups to ensure that a good abatement performance is already achieved
when waste feeding starts.
A good mixture of the adsorbent materials with the flue gas and a sufficient contact time is important
for a successful precipitation. As last step of a flue gas cleaning, as well established is a dosing of
carbon based adsorbents in the flue gas before a downstream fabric filter, e.g. after a scrubber. Comment [dl15]: Awkward phrasing.
Is this saying that a dosing of carbon based
Consideration of the speciation mix of the flue gas is key to estimating mercury emissions control adsorbents in flue gas before fabric filter is
a well established last step of flue cleaning?
efficiency of the activated carbon. In general, the oxidized species of mercury are considered more
easily controlled than the elemental form. The halogen content of the waste is important in determin-
ing the amount of oxidation taking place. High halogen content in the flue gases and, thus high
percentages of oxidized mercury, may often exist in municipal waste incinerators. The removal
efficiency of the injection of activated carbon in combination with a FF can be as high as is about
95 per cent.
The separate injection of AC, controlled by a continuous mercury monitoring in the raw gas, has been
proven to be very effective in waste incineration. Hereby the added amount of AC can be adapted to
the raw gas concentrations of mercury. In case of mercury peaks in the raw gas, highly effective AC
impregnated with about 25 per cent sulfur can be injected additionally. Such an approach combines an
effective mercury abatement with decreased operation costs due to a reduced use of sorbents. It should
be mentioned that the investment costs of a mercury gas measuring device could be significant lower
as that for a clean gas one because measurement devices tested for suitability are not necessary.
(Esser-Schmittmann 2012)
Especially in cases where relative high concentrations of elemental mercury occur in the flue gas, e.g.
at sewage sludge incineration plants, satisfactory reduction efficiencies can only be achieved when
sulfur acid or halogen (e.g., bromine) impregnated AC is used.
Tests have shown that Hg reduction ratio increased as the flue gas temperature decreased and that the
reduction efficiency is significantly higher when high concentrations of mercury in the raw gas are
found (Takaoka et al. 2002)
The removal efficiency of the carbon sorbents increases if a fabric filter is used instead of an ESP, due
to the longer residence time allowing more contact between the sorbent and the mercury-laden flue
gas. As a result, only a third of the sorbent is needed to capture the same amount of mercury compared
to an ESP (LCP BREF Draft 2013).
For a more effective removal of mercury from flue gases specially developed activated carbon im-
pregnated with sulfuric acid, elemental sulfur or bromine is used. In this case, the removal of mercury
is driven by chemisorption as well as by physisorption. Tests have shown that the mercury reduction
efficiency can be increased to 99 per cent.
Cross-media effects (non-mercury related)
Carbon consumption rates of 3 kg/t of waste are typical for municipal solid waste incineration. Levels
from 0.3 to 20 kg/t of hazardous waste have been reported (EC. 2006 Waste Incineration).

Costs of installation and operation

For a 200.000 t plant with 2 incineration and flue gas treatment lines: dry flue gas treatment including
storage of sorbents, dosing systems, control of sorbent injection, FF and ash discharge: €5.5 – 6
million.
The costs for storage the AC are approximately € 50,000 for smaller plants (container storage) and Comment [D[16]: Should these values
not be expressed as a value per tonne of
approximately € 100,000 for bigger plants (silo storage) (data from Germany, 2014). waste, or a value per year rather than a flat
cost?
The operation costs depend on the kind of carbon which is used. The price of HOK is approximately €
300/t, weak sulfur acid impregnated carbon (5 per cent) costs approx. € 400/t, high sulfur impregnated
carbon is approx. at € 2,000/t and bromated AC costs approximately € 1,500/t.
The usage of low sulfur acid impregnated carbon for a 300,000 t municipal waste incineration plant is
estimated for 30 t/y at a plant using a police filter and 200 t/y for a plant equipped with a dry flue gas
treatment system (data from Germany, 2014).

Co-benefits
Separation of volatile organic compounds in the flue gas such as dioxins can be achieved as well. It is
normal for alkaline reagents to be added with the carbon, this then also allows the reduction of acid
gases in the same process step as a multifunctional device.

23
 3.4 Boiler Bromide Addition
Addition of bromide into the furnace can enhance the oxidization of mercury during boiler passage of
the flue-gas, thereby promoting the transformation from the insoluble elemental gaseous mercury into
its water-soluble mercury(II) bromide (HgBr2) as well as adsorbable mercury species. Mercury
removal can thereby be enhanced in existing downstream control devices, e.g. wet scrubbers. Another
option for addition of halogens is to add bromide or other halogen compounds to the waste. (Vosteen
2006)
It should be mentioned that boiler bromide addition (BBA) alone does not reduce mercury emissions
as such, in the sense of capturing elemental mercury as HgBr2. BBA promotes mercury oxidation and
thereby indirectly reduces mercury emissions at existing wet air pollution control (APC) systems as
wet desulfurization scrubbers or dry desulfurization scrubbers; e.g. BBA improves the efficiency of
activated carbon (ACI) injected at units with particulate scrubbers (ESP, FF) (LCP BREF Draft
Version 2013).
In waste incineration plants, this technique is beneficial in cases where the waste contains low levels
of halogens. Therefore, it is applied mainly in sewage sludge incineration plants and hazardous waste
incineration plants burning waste with low halogen levels. For example, in a German waste incinera-
tion plant for hazardous waste, flue gas is monitored continuously. The monitoring takes place after
the wet scrubber, but before the tail-end SCR because SCR devices retain mercury which is slowly
released again. If there is a significant increase of mercury detected after the wet scrubber, bromine
compounds are injected into the boiler. This results in considerable lower mercury emissions in the
clean flue gas (Vosteen, 2006). This technique is not effective in case of very short mercury peaks in
the flue gas because the peak has passed the flue gas treatment system before there is a possibility to
react.
In general, it was reported that by applying Br/Hg mass ratios of more than> 300 complete mercury
oxidation can be achieved. Therefore, in an existing multistage scrubbing system a removal efficiency
of more than 99,8 per cent was realised (VGB Power Tech2006). The same was recently demonstrat-
ed at some French hazardous waste incineration plants with mainly dry flue gas cleaning (Chaucherie
et al. 2015).
The use of bromine in the process may lead to formation of polybrominated dioxins and or polyhalo-
genated dioxins and furans. Comment [dl17]: Which are undesira-
ble, and may require efforts to control
Cross-media effects emissions. It should be noted that emissions
of these substances will need to be
Mercury measurements can be very difficult in the presence of bromine in the flue gas. There is a managed.

potential for bromine-induced corrosion in the ductwork, air heater and in FGD systems. It commonly
goes together with an increased bromine and mercury content in the fly ash (LCP BREF Draft Version
2013).
Costs of installation and operation
The use of ACI in conjunction with BBA may be more cost effective than the use of either ACI or
BBA alone in order to achieve the same level of performance.
 3.5 Static bed filters
Activated coke moving bed filters are used as a secondary cleaning process in the flue-gas of munici-
pal and hazardous waste incineration plants. Using this adsorption system, it is possible to deposit
substances contained in the flue gas at low concentrations with high efficiency of more than 99 per
cent. Lignite coke produced in hearth furnace coke process is used in moving bed absorbers.
The flue-gases pass through a filling of grained Hearth Furnace Coke (HFC – a fine coke of 1.25 to 5
mm). The HFC’s depositing effect is essentially based on adsorption and filtration mechanisms. It is
thus possible to deposit almost all emission relevant flue-gas components, in particular, residual
contents of hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, sulfur oxides, heavy metals (e.g. mercury), to some-
times below the detection limit.
The flue-gas is guided to the activated coke filling over a distributor bed equipped with a multitude of
double funnels. The gas flows through them from the bottom to the top, while the HFC passes through
the absorber from the top to the bottom. This allows an ideal distribution of the flue-gas over the
whole cross-section of the absorber with optimal use of the capacity of the absorber with a minimum
consumption of activated coke.
An essential feature of the moving bed system is its high efficiency with all emissions due to the large
bulk of activated coke, so that variations from incineration and upstream flue-gas cleaning caused by
operation will not cause disadvantageous effects.
Due to the carbon contained in the static bed filters, there is a possibility of fire outbreak. Due both to
fire risk and to high costs, the systems are installed only in few plants. Care should be taken to avoid
any fire outbreak including through the installation of a dampening system.

Cross-media effects non-mercury related (WT BREF 2005)

The non-mercury related cross-media effects include the following:
Energy Consumption 30-35 kWh/t waste input
Reagent consumption 1 kg/t waste input
Residue amount 0-1 kg/t waste input

Costs of installation and operation of coke filter

The investment cost of a coke filter for a 100,000 t/y MSWI was estimated at € 1.2 million. The
investment costs for one static bed wet filter (empty) (incineration line of 50 000 t/y) is approximately
€ 1 million (EC, 2006, Waste Incineration)
Co-benefits
The co-benefits of using activated coke bed-moving filter include the separation of volatile organic
compounds, such as dioxins, in the flue gas.

25
 3.6 Treatment techniques for solid residues from incineration
Although this guidance is primarily concerned with air emissions, there is a need to take account of
cross-media effects. On this basis, the following section provides information on managing residual
waste from the incineration process, including preventing or minimizing risks of leaching or distribu-
tion through releases to the environment through a number of pathways.
Wastes and residues from incineration include various types of ash (e.g. bottom ash, boiler ash, fly
ash) and residues from other flue gas treatment processes (such as gypsum from wet scrubbers),
including liquid effluents in the case of wet scrubbing systems.
Because constituents of concern may vary considerably, maintaining the separation of residues for
treatment, management and disposal is in general appropriate. The presence and concentration of
mercury and its compounds in these residues (if separately treated) is a function of their presence in
the incoming waste and capture during flue gas treatment. Especially aAir pollution control residues
should be treated in a way to avoid additional evaporation or leaking leaching of mercury and its
compounds to the environment.
The release of contaminants from these dry materials into the environment may be via a number of
routes, including: wind-blown dust, leaching to groundwater, plant uptake or direct ingestion by
humans, domesticated animals and wildlife. Management of these materials must be done with
consideration of these potential releases.

3.6.1 Bottom and boiler ash treatment techniques

Because of the differences in pollutant concentration, the mixing of bottom ash with fly ash will
contaminate the former and is forbidden in many countries. Separate collection and storage of these
residues may provide operators with more options for disposal. Whenever bottom ash is to be further
used (e.g. as construction material), mixing with other flue gas treatment residues is generally not a
best available technique. Bottom ash (or slag from fluidized bed incinerators) is disposed of in land-
fills in many countries but may be reused in construction and road-building material following pre-
treatment. Prior to such use, however, an assessment of content and leachability should be conducted
and upper levels of heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants should be determined. Pretreatment
techniques include dry, wet and thermal treatment as well as screening and crushing and separation of
metals.

3.6.2 Treatment of solid flue gas residues

One major flue gas treatment residue (or air pollution control residue) is fly ash. Fly ash removal from
flue gas by use of dry scrubbers, cyclones or fabric filters in waste incinerators will result in dry fine
solid particulate material having a range of properties and contaminants depending on the combustion
source that produced it. Unlike bottom ash, air pollution control device residuals, including fly ash and
scrubber sludges, contain relatively high concentrations of heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants,
chlorides and sulfides. Separate removal of fly ash and residues from flue gas cleaning stages (e.g.
those for acid gas and dioxin removal) prevents mixing of low contaminated waste fractions with
highly contaminated ones. Mercury distribution in waste incineration processes results in most being
found in air pollution control residues (EC 2005, Song, Kim et al. 2004).
In Switzerland the treatment of fly ashes with acid waste water from the scrubber is widespread. To
avoid mercury contamination of the treated ashes, the acid waste water is first cleaned by a candle-
filter followed by a mercury specific ion-exchange unit. The mercury extricated wash water is used to
wash out heavy metals from the fly ashes. The washing water is subsequent treated in a classic floccu-
lation and precipitation unit. For the final cleaning of the waste water, a second ion-exchanger is used.
The cleaned fly ashes can be added to waste in the waste incineration plant to destroy the organic
components in the fly ashes (Bühler et al 2015, Adam et al. 2010, BSH 2015).
Fly ash is disposed of in dedicated landfills in many countries. However, pre-treatment is likely to be
required for this to constitute BAT (see e.g. (Song, Kim et al. 2004), depending on national landfill
acceptance criteria. More detailed information on the management of waste incinerator residues
containing mercury management can be found in the Basel Convention ESM technical guidance for
mercury wastes (Basel Convention Secretariat 2015).

3.6.3 Residue reuse

Bottom and fly ashes from waste incinerators should never not be used as soil amendment in agricultural
or similar applications if mercury concentrations exceed levels of concern. Addition to soil may result in
subsequent dispersion of the ash and any contaminants. In agricultural uses, plants may take up contami-
nants, resulting in exposure to human or animals that consume such plants (Skinner et al, 2007). Pecking
or grazing animals may directly ingest contaminants with subsequent exposure to humans when they
consume the animals or animal products (e.g. milk and eggs) (deVries et al., 2007). Use of waste incin-
eration residues for construction purposes is also very problematic and cannot be considered as best
environmental practice. There are examples which demonstrate that such practice can lead to serious
environment contamination by have potential environmental risks due to contamination of heavy metals
(Pless-Mulloli, Edwards et al. 2001); Watson 2001, Petrlik and Ryder 2005; Shaheen et al., 2014), and
careful evaluation of these materials should be undertaken if any re-use is anticipated.

3.6.4 Stabilization and solidification

Treatment and disposal options for solid residues from flue gas control systems include solidification
or stabilization with Portland cement (or other pozzolanic materials), alone or with additives or a
number of thermally based treatments, followed by appropriate disposal in conformance with national
landfill acceptance criteria (based on anticipated releases from the treated residuals). The need for
such treatment can be determined based on an evaluation of the release potential of these residues.
More detailed information on treatment methods can be found in the Basel Convention ESM technical
guidance for mercury wastes (Basel Convention Secretariat 2012).

27
3.6.5 Final disposal of residues

Any residues containing or contaminated with mercury should not be recycled. When disposed in a
landfill, evaluation of the release potential and the appropriateness of the landfill for this type of
material should be considered. More detailed information can be found in the Technical guidelines for
the environmentally sound management of wastes consisting of elemental mercury and waste contain-
ing or contaminated with mercury or mercury compounds (Basel Convention, 2012).

3.7 Alternative treatment techniques for waste streams that can generate
emission of mercury and mercury compounds when incinerated
This section describes some alternative treatment technologies that are currently commercially availa-
ble. The goal of an alternative treatment technology would be to achieve the same degree of destruc-
tion of the organic compounds, but maintain control over the while controlling potential releases of
residual mercury.
For municipal waste, possible alternatives to incineration are:
 Zero waste management strategies, which aim to eliminate the generation of waste through the
application of a variety of measures including legislative and economic instruments (circular eco-
nomic policy and recycling insurance) (Greyson, 2007; Matete and Trois, 2008; Allen, Gokaldas et
al., 2012);
 Waste minimization, source separation and recycling to reduce the waste volume requiring final
disposal;
 Mechanical biological treatment, which reduces waste volume by mechanical and biological means
and generates residues requiring further management (Bilitewski, Oros et al. 2010); (Velis,
Longhurst et al. 2009);
For medical waste, possible alternatives to incineration use are:
 Exposure of waste to saturated steam under pressure in a pressure vessel or autoclave,
 Advanced steam sterilization systems. Advanced autoclaves or advanced steam sterilization
systems combine steam treatment with pre-vacuuming and various kinds of mechanical pro-
cessing before, during and after steam treatment,
 Microwave treatment;
 Dry heat sterilization. Comment [dl18]: Not clear why these
methods are listed. These alternatives by
themselves would not control potential
mercury emissions/releases from medical
waste containing or contaminated with
mercury.
4 EMERGING TECHNIQUES

4.1 High Efficiency Activated Carbon Adsorber

A high efficiency activated carbon adsorber, trade-named “JFE-Gas-Clean-DX,” was developed in

which activated carbon is packed in an activated carbon cartridge with a fixed bed and lateral flow-
type structure, thereby realizing efficient contact between the flue gas and the activated carbon.
Error! Reference source not found.Error! Reference source not found.Figure 6 shows a schematic Comment [D[19]: Error code!

illustration of the appearance of the device. Figure 7 shows a schematic diagram of the activated
carbon cartridge. The device consists of an easily detached/installed activated carbon cartridge in the
device housing with a compact size. High efficiency contact between the flue gas and activated carbon
is realized by adopting a fixed bed and lateral flow type structure.

Figure 6 Schematic illustration of activated carbon adsorber

29
Figure 7 Cartridge packed with activated carbon
As shown in Error! Reference source not found.Error! Reference source not found.Figure 7, flue Comment [D[20]: Error code!

gas is uniformly dispersed as it passes through the multiple thin packed layers of activated carbon
installed in the activated carbon cartridge. As a result, contact efficiency between the activated carbon
and trace harmful substances in the flue gas is high. A large decrease in activated carbon use is
possible. As an additional advantage, because thin layers of activated carbon are used, pressure loss is Comment [dl21]: It is not clear what
this is trying to say. Is it trying to say that
low in comparison with the conventional moving bed-type activated carbon adsorber, which has smaller amounts of activated carbon can be
used by this technique compared to ACI?
pressure loss of approximately 2-3 kPa. Because the pressure loss is no more than 0.5 kPa per activat-
ed carbon cartridge stage, electric power consumption can be held to a low level. To prevent dust from
clogging the packed bed of activated carbon, the basic method when applying this device is installa-
tion after the bag filter. For this reason, activated carbon with high ignition prevention performance
should be used, enabling treatment up to a maximum service temperature of 200 °C, which is the
temperature of general bag filters.
Trials at a waste incineration plant have shown mercury concentrations below the detection limit of
5 µg/m3 in the clean gas during an inlet concentration of 65 µg/m3. The Hg concentrations under the
minimum determination limit were being maintained after 6 months at the waste incineration plant.
Co-benefits
Co-benefits include the reduction of other harmful substances such as dioxins and other heavy metals.
 4.2 Coconut char as an alternative to coal based activated carbon

As an alternative to AC, char from coconut fibers (CF) and from coconut pith (CP) was developed.
Coconut husk is a waste from coconut processing that is widely found in the tropical region.
Trials showed that the elemental mercury adsorption capacity of char from pith is better than from CF
under the conditions of the trial. The adsorption capacity for elemental mercury of CP-char (3,142
µg/g) in these trials was much higher than of coal based AC (119 µg/g). This may indicate that
activated char coals from coconut pith may be a future potential source of adsorbents, which would
replace the existing adsorbents, e.g. AC (Khairiraihanna et al. 2015).
Co-benefits
The use of waste such as coconut husk could provide economic benefits, as well as reduce waste
disposal problems. Comment [dl22]: This needs to be
further qualified. Coconut char contaminat-
ed with mercury will still need to be
properly disposed.

31
5 BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES AND BEST ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES FOR
WASTE INCINERATION FACILITIES

5.1 Introduction to Best Available Techniques (BAT) for Incineration of Waste

The purpose of this subsection is to assist in the identification of the best techniques applicable to the
process of waste incineration. Best available techniques for waste incineration include the design,
operation and maintenance of a waste incineration plant that effectively minimizes the emissions of
mercury.
When considering the best available techniques for waste incineration, it is important to consider that
the optimal solution for a particular type of incineration installation varies according to local condi-
tions. The techniques provided here are not intended as a checklist indicating the best local solution,
as this would require the consideration of local conditions to a degree that cannot be described in a
document dealing with best available techniques in general. Hence, the simple combination of the
individual elements described here as best available techniques, without consideration of local condi-
tions, is not likely to give the optimized local solution in relation to the environment as a whole
(European Commission 2006).
With a suitable combination of primary and secondary measures associated with best available tech-
niques, mercury emission levels not higher than 10 µg/m3 (at 11 per cent O2) have been reported
(Daschner et al., 2011). It is further noted that under normal operating conditions emissions lower than
this level can be achieved with a well-designed waste incineration plant. There are many waste
incinerator plants worldwide that are designed and operated according to most of the parameters
defining best available techniques and that meet the associated emission levels.
There are also non-incineration techniques as described in the Basel Convention ESM technical guid-
ance for mercury waste and emerging technology options (see section 444 of the present document) that
may represent feasible and environmentally sound alternatives to incineration.

5.2 Pre‐treatment of waste before incineration

The mixing (e.g. using bunker crane mixing) or further pre-treatment (e.g. the blending of some liquid
and pasty wastes, or the shredding of some solid wastes) of heterogeneous wastes to the degree required
to meet the design specifications of the receiving installation is important. Pre-treatment is most likely to
be a requirement where the installation has been designed for a narrow specification, homogeneous
waste.

5.3 Best available techniques for waste input and control

The following general practice for waste input and control should be considered when dealing with the
best available techniques for handling waste containing or contaminated with mercury:
 Maintain the site in a generally tidy and clean state;
  Establish and maintain quality controls over the waste input, according to the types of waste
that may be received at the installation. This could include:
o Establish process input limitations and identify key risks;
o Communicate with waste suppliers to improve incoming waste quality control;
o Control waste feed quality on the incinerator site;
o Check, sample and test incoming wastes;

5.4 Best available techniques for waste incineration

There is a potential trade off to be made in operating waste incinerators. To achieve the highest level
destruction, the aim is complete combustion. On the other hand, mercury control techniques tend to be
more efficient if there is some unburnt carbon in the flue gas stream. There therefore has to be a
balance struck between these competing factors in order to achieve the best overall outcome. The
following section describes first the general considerations which are likely to lead to achieving
maximum combustion. There then follows a description of particular considerations for individual
waste streams. The selection of a combustion technique will depend on the type of waste to be inciner-
ated.

5.4.1 General combustion techniques

The following considerations are important for achieving optimal combustion:

 Ensure design of furnace is appropriately matched to characteristics of the waste to be pro-
cessed;
 Maintain temperatures in the gas phase combustion zones in the optimal range for completing
oxidation of the waste (for example, 850-950 °C in grated municipal solid waste incinerators,
1,100-1,200 °C when chlorine content of waste is high);
 Provide for sufficient residence time (e.g. at least 2 seconds) and turbulent mixing in the com-
bustion chamber(s) to complete incineration;
 Preheat primary and secondary air to assist combustion if necessary;
 Use continuous rather than batch processing wherever possible to minimize start-up and shut-
down releases;
 Establish systems to monitor critical combustion parameters such as temperature, pressure
drop, levels of CO and O2 and, where applicable, grate speed;
 Provide for control interventions to adjust waste feed, grate speed, and temperature, volume
and distribution of primary and secondary air;
 Install automatic auxiliary burners to maintain optimal temperatures in the combustion cham-
ber(s);
 Use air from bunker and storage facilities as combustion air and
 Install system that automatically stops waste feeding when combustion parameters are not ap-
propriate.

33
5.4.2 Municipal solid waste incineration techniques

The following are considerations that are specific for the incineration of municipal solid waste:
 Mass burn (moving grate) incinerators are well demonstrated in the combustion of heteroge-
neous municipal solid waste and have a long operational history.
 Water-cooled grated incinerators have the added advantages of better combustion control and
the ability to process municipal solid waste with higher heat content.
 Rotary kilns with grates can accept heterogeneous municipal solid waste but a lower through-
put than the mass burn or moving grate furnaces.
 Static grated furnaces with transport systems (for example, rams) have fewer moving parts but
waste may require more pre-treatment (i.e., shredding, separation).
 Modular designs with secondary combustion chambers are well demonstrated for smaller ap-
plications. Depending on size, some of these units may require batch operation.
 Fluidized bed furnaces and spreader/stoker furnaces are well demonstrated for finely divided,
consistent wastes such as refuse-derived fuel.

5.4.3 Hazardous waste incineration techniques

The following are considerations that are specific for incineration of hazardous waste:
 Rotary kilns are well demonstrated for the incineration of hazardous waste and can accept liq-
uids and pastes as well as solids (see subsections 2.2.3.12.2.3.12.2.3.1 – 2.2.3.5);
 Liquid injection incinerators are commonly used for hazardous waste incineration.
 Water-cooled kilns can be operated at higher temperatures and allow acceptance of wastes
with higher energy values.
 Waste consistency (and combustion) can be improved by shredding drums and other packaged
hazardous wastes.
 A feed equalization system (for example, screw conveyors that can crush and provide a con-
stant amount of solid hazardous waste to the furnace) will help ensure a continuous, controlled
feed to the kiln and maintenance of uniform combustion conditions.

5.4.4 Sewage sludge incineration techniques

The following are considerations that are specific for incineration of sewage sludge
 Fluidized bed incinerators and multiple hearth incinerators are well demonstrated for thermal
treatment of sewage sludge.
 Circulating fluid bed furnaces allow greater fuel flexibility than bubbling beds, but require cy-
clones to conserve bed material.
 Care must be exercised with bubbling bed units to avoid clogging.
 The use of heat recovered from the process to aid sludge drying will reduce the need for auxil-
iary fuel.
  Supply technologies are important in the co-incineration of sewage sludge in municipal solid
waste incinerators. Demonstrated techniques include: dried sludge blown in as dust; drained
sludge supplied through sprinklers and distributed and mixed on the grate; and drained or
dried sludge mixed with municipal solid waste and fed together (BREF on WI, European
Commission 2005).

5.4.5 Medical Waste Incineration

The following are considerations that are specific for incineration of medical waste
 Where grates are used, the design of the grate should incorporate sufficient cooling of the
grate such that it permits the variation of the primary air supply for the main purpose of com-
bustion control, rather than for the cooling of the grate itself. Air-cooled grates with well dis-
tributed air cooling flow are generally suitable for wastes of net calorific value (NCV) of up to
approx. 18 MJ/kg. Higher NCV wastes (e.g. above approx. 18 MJ/kg) may require water (or
other liquid) cooling in order to prevent the need for excessive primary air levels to control
grate temperature i.e., levels that result in a greater air supply than the optimum for combus-
tion control.
 The use of a combustion chamber design that provides for containment, agitation and transport
of the waste, for example: rotary kilns - either with or without water cooling. Water cooling
for rotary kilns may be favorable in situations where:
o the NCV of the feed waste is higher (e.g. more than 15 – 17 GJ/tonne), or
o higher temperatures e.g. more than 1,100 °C are used (e.g. for slagging or destruction
of specific wastes)
 Medical waste can be incinerated in municipal waste incinerators using the grate type of in-
cinerator, although some special adaptations have to be made. If infectious medical care waste
is to be burnt in a municipal waste incinerator, it has to be disinfected and sterilized before-
hand or fed into the incinerator in appropriate containers by automatic loading (Eberhartinger,
2004). Previous mixing of medical waste containing or contaminated with mercury with other
waste types and direct handling has toshould be avoided.

5.5 Best available techniques for flue‐gas treatment

This sub-section, describes techniques that could be considered in selecting the best available tech-
niques for flue gas treatment of waste incineration plants are described. Unless otherwise stated, they
are generally applicable for new and existing sourcesfacilities. The chapter also includes remarks for
the upgrading of existing sourcesfacilities.
BAT for controlling mercury emissions from waste incineration facilities is considered to be FFs in
combination with dry or wet methods for controlling volatiles. FFs have the added advantage, when
coupled with semi-dry or dry sorbent injection, of providing additional filtration and reactive surface
on the filter cake. ESPs in combination with wet systems can also be designed and operated to reach
low mercury emissions, but in comparison to FF they have disadvantages especially when the FF is
pre-coated with activated carbon to achieve a good abatement directly after the startup phase using the
pre-coating for adsorption of volatile pollutants. Dry and semi dry systems have the advantage of not Comment [dl23]: Awkward phrasing
requiring subsequent effluent treatment. Inlet temperature to the FF in such combinations is important.

35
Temperatures above 130-140 °C are normally required to prevent condensation and corrosion of the
bags.
When using a dry system, the additional injection of activated carbon (which may also be impregnated
with sorbents like sulfur, bromine or others), mixed with sodium hydrogen carbonate or calcium
hydroxide upstream of a fabric filter can reduce the mercury emissions by more than 95 per cent.
In the first stage of a high efficiency scrubber, the removal efficiency of oxidized mercury as mercury
(II) chloride, which is generally the main compound of mercury after waste combustion, is over 95 per
cent.. The overall mercury removal (both elemental and oxidized) efficiency is around 85 per cent.
As additional measure for minimizing mercury in the scrubbing water and to avoid re-emission of the
soluble mercury, the precipitation of oxidized mercury with a suitable precipitating agent, e.g., sulfide,
trimercaptotriazine (TMT 15) or PRAVO (a bromine containing chemical, Material Safety Data Sheet
2014) and the addition of activated carbon, can be used.
Especially aAt low concentrations of halogens in the waste, bromine addition into the waste or boiler
can lead to high oxidation rates of mercury to improve the mercury removal in downstream control
devices, e.g. scrubbers (see also section 3.43.43.4). The technique is mainly used in mono-combustion
plants for sewage sludge and hazardous waste incineration plants.
Effective maintenance of dust control systems is very important. Comment [dl24]: Is this all there is for
this paragraph? Perhaps a reference to
With these applications, concentration of mercury below 10 µg/m³ (yearly average) has been reported another part of the document can be given
here.
(UNECE, 2013). In general, the use of fabric filters gives the lower levels within these emission
ranges. Adsorption using carbon based reagents is generally required to achieve these emission levels Comment [dl25]: Not clear what ranges
this refers to, given that it states (in the
with many wastes. Some waste streams have very highly variable mercury concentrations and waste preceding sentence) there being a
pre-treatment may be required in such cases to prevent peak overloading of the flue gas treatment concentration of mercury below 10 µg/m³
reported.
system capacity.
For wastes with high levels of mercury, such as hazardous or medical wastes, the combination of
various flue gas treatment steps can be appropriate. For example, a scrubber with oxidation ingredients
and ACI before a fabric filter can be used.
The most relevant secondary emission reduction measures are outlined in Table 3. If re-burn of flue
gas treatment residues is applied, then suitable measures should be taken to avoid the recirculation and
accumulation of mercury in the installation.
SCR for control of nitrogen oxides also reduces mercury emissions as a co-benefit by changing it into
a form that can be collected by FF or precipitated by wet scrubbers.
Pressure drop across fabric filters and flue gas temperature (if a scrubbing system is used upstream)
should be monitored to ensure filter cake is in place and bags are not leaking or being wetted.
Where temporary peak mercury concentrations are to be expected, the retention and injection of
sulfur-impregnated activated carbon/coke should be considered as a safety precaution
Table 3 Control measures and reduction efficiencies for municipal, medical and hazardous
waste incineration for stack gases
Control measure Reduction efficiency
High efficiency scrubbers with ingredients in the > 85%
scrubber liquor
Scrubber + Injection of bromine containing chemi- > 90%
cals into the combustion chamber
Activated Carbon injection + FF > 95%
Reference: BREF on WI, European Commission 2005
Reduction efficiencies depend on mercury input, concentrations in the raw gas and operating condi-
tions.

5.5.1 Upgrading and improvement of existing treatment techniques

If the exhaust gas treatment of existing plants does not meet the requirements described above, there Comment [dl26]: Not clear what
requirements this refers to.
are various options for upgrading. In systems which are equipped with an electrostatic precipitator, the
electrostatic precipitator may be replaced by a fabric filter. In the flue gas stream ahead of the fabric
filter, coke-based adsorbents or substances equivalent in their effects, have to be are added to reduce
mercury emissions. For minimization of To minimize potential fire hazards, a mixture with limestone
reagents is useful may be used.
In case of high mercury emissions at facilities that are equipped only with a scrubber, a combination of
additive-injection, with fabric filters can be installed downstream.
Both measures have the added benefit that acidic and organic pollutants can also be removed from the
flue gas. However, due to increased fire hazards the addition of a static-bed filter with activated carbon
or lignite coke requires additional security measures and is also relatively expensive. Comment [dl27]: Is this because
security/safety measures add to the cost of
this installation? Please clarify.

5.5.2 Performance levels associated with the use of BAT

Figure 8 shows annual mean values of mercury emissions for different combined or 1-step waste gas
control techniques of 51 plants used for municipal, medical, hazardous waste incineration. All plants
are equipped with continuous mercury measurement. For each technique combination, the mean of all
reported values is indicated (center line) together with the standard variation (orange) as well as the
minimum and maximum values (grey).
The mean annual emission value is about 2.5 µg/Nm3 (yearly average based on daily averages),
similar for all combinations of control techniques installed. More than 90 per cent of the installations
emit less than 10 µg/m3. All applied combinations of techniques are appropriate for mercury reduction
as proven by the small ranges of the annual emission values reported for each combination.
For reduction efficiencies see Table 3.

37
Figure 8 Comparison of waste gas control techniques for mercury reduction (number of
plants in brackets) (Daschner et al., 2011)

Table 4 shows emission levels of waste incineration plants in Japan based on discontinuous measure-
ment. For general waste incineration the levels are below 6 µg/m3. The range at two medical waste
incineration plants equipped with FF in combination with ACI is very high with an average of
7 µg/m3. Comment [dl28]: Not clear what this
statement is trying to say. Not clear what is
Table 4 Emission levels of Japanese waste incineration plants for different abatement being compared. “Very high” compared to
what? Emissions may depend on the
techniques. mercury content of the waste input.
Comment [D[29]: Header should be on
the same page as the table.
 Exhaust gas Number of the
Classifica- Mercury concentration in Applied method
abatement tech- incineration
tion of waste the exhaust gas of measurement
nology facilities

Bag Filter n=1 < 0.006 mg/m3 Discontinuous

Activated carbon
spray and Slaked < 0.0001 ~ < 0.001 mg/m3
General n=2 Discontinuous
lime spray + Bag Reduction efficiency; 91%
waste Filter
Activated carbon
spray and Slaked
lime spray + Bag n=3 < 0.005 mg/m3 Discontinuous
Filter + Catalytic
reaction tower
Hg0; < 0.1 μg/m3 ~ 1.6
Fabric Filter +
Medical μg/m3, average; 0.04 μg/m3
Activated carbon n=2 Discontinuous
waste Hg2+; 0.2 μg/m3 ~ 200
spray 3 3
μg/m , average; 6.4 μg/m
The mercury concentration was normalized by 12 per cent oxygen based on the Japanese standard.
Trials at a Japanese stoker fired WI plant for municipal waste equipped with a spray tower and follow- Comment [dl30]: Does WI stand for
waste incineration? A list of acronyms and
ing Ca(OH)2 and ACI injection before a FF showed emission levels in a range between 0.4 and 11.3 full names would be helpful.
µg/m3. (Takaoka 2002)

5.6 Introduction to Best Environmental Practices (BEP)

Best Environmental Practices (BEP) as defined in the Minamata Convention means the application of
the most appropriate combination of environmental control measures and strategies. The following
graduated range of measures should be considered in applying BEP:
 A regulatory infrastructure with sufficient capacity to permit installations, control and
monitor mercury emissions regularly;
 the provision of information and education to the public, users and decision makers about
the environmental consequences of choice of particular activities and choice of products,
and ultimate disposal;
 the development and application of codes of good environmental practice which covers all
aspect of the activity in the product's life;
 the application of labels informing users of environmental risks related to a product, its
use and ultimate disposal;
 saving resources, including energy;
 making collection and disposal systems available to the public;
 avoiding the use of hazardous substances or products that contain hazardous substances
and the generation of hazardous waste;
 recycling, recovery and re-use;
 the application of economic instruments to activities, products or groups of products;
 establishing a system of licensing, involving a range of restrictions or a ban, Comment [dl31]: What kinds of
restrictions or bans?

39
  evaluation of mercury life cycle as important perspective for ESM of mercury wastes in
order to reduce mercury input into the waste incineration process (see Technical guide-
lines Basel Convention)
 Creating and maintaining public goodwill towards a waste incineration project is critical
to the success of the venture. Effective practices for improving public awareness and in-
volvement include: placing advance notices in newspapers; distributing information to ar-
ea households; soliciting comment on design and operational options; providing
information displays in public spaces; maintaining pollutant release and transfer registers;
and holding frequent public meetings and discussion forums. Authorities and proposers of
incineration projects should engage with all stakeholders including the public interest
groups. Consultations with the public must be transparent, meaningful and sincere if they
are to be effective.

5.6.1 Waste management practices

The approaches outlined below, must be taken into account as part of overall waste prevention and
control strategies for mercury containing or contaminated waste.

5.6.1.1 Waste minimization

Reducing the overall mass of wastes that have to be disposed of by any means serves to reduce both the
releases and residues from incinerators.
In many industrialized countries, health care institutions have begun to phase-out mercury uses and
phase-in effective alternative products or devices that avoid the use of mercury. A co-benefit of
mercury-free alternatives is to a reducetion of the generation of mercury containing waste. Many
health care institutions have also instituted housekeeping and management practices to better control
mercury releases from sources still present in their facilities. Such policies and practices substantially
decrease emissions and releases of mercury to the environment.

5.6.1.2 Source separation and recycling

The only relevant primary technique for preventing emissions of mercury into the air before incinerat-
ing are those that control or prevent, if possible, the inclusion of mercury in waste. The control or
prevention of the inclusion of mercury in waste inputs serves to reduce overall mercury emissions
from incineration. Therefore, measures to exclude mercury from waste inputs are of special im-
portance. This could be separate collection systems or proper classification of waste at all stages
before incineration, as well as separation of waste at the facilities as a primary technique.
The separate collection of waste streams, some of which could potentially be contaminated with high
amounts of mercury, and the diversion of mercury-containing waste to proper management facilities
can lead to a significant reduction of the mercury content in the waste, which can, thereafter, be burnt
in a waste incineration plant going to incineration. This includesThere could be separate collection for
the following wastes:
 Separate collection of mercury containing batteries;
 Separate collection of mercury containing lamps;
 Separate collection of those electrical devices (switches and others) that contain mercury;
 Separate collection of potentially contaminated waste from households and municipal institu-
tions (old paint and varnish, insecticides, solvents, used laboratory chemicals from schools
etc.).

5.6.1.3 Waste inspection and characterization before incineration

The following general practice for waste input and control should be considered when dealing with the
best available techniques for handling waste containing or contaminated with mercury. When estab-
lishing and maintaining quality controls over the waste input, according to the types of waste that may
be received at the installation, it is of importance to establish process input limitations and identify key
risks, as well as to communicate with waste suppliers to improve incoming waste quality control.

A thorough knowledge of the characteristics and attributes of the incoming waste is essential. The
characteristics of a particular waste stream may vary significantly from country to country and region
to region. If certain wastes or waste constituents are considered inappropriate for incineration, such as
waste included in Article 11 of the Convention, procedures should be in place for detecting and
separating these materials in the waste stream or residues prior to incineration, unless the waste is
intended for thermal treatment to recover mercury as described in the final Basel Convention Tech-
nical Guidance for ESM of mercury waste. CheckingInspection, sampling and analyses should be
routinely performed. This is particularly true for hazardous wastes. Manifests and audit trails are
important to should be maintained and they should be kept updated. Table 5 illustrates some of the
inspection techniques applicable to the different types of waste.
Table 5 Examples of inspection techniques (EC 2006)

Waste type Techniques Comments

Mixed municipal Visual inspection in bunker Industrial and commer-
wastes Spot checking of individual deliveries by separate cial loads may have
offloading elevated risks
Weighing the waste as delivered
Periodic sampling and analysis for key properties or
substances

Pretreated municipal Visual inspection

wastes and refuse- Periodic sampling and analysis for key properties or
derived fuels substances
Hazardous wastes Visual inspection Extensive and effective
Sampling/analysis of all bulk tankers procedures are particu-
Random checking of drummed loads larly important for this
Unpacking and checking of packaged loads sector. Plants receiving

41
 Waste type Techniques Comments
Assessment of combustion parameters monostreams may be
Blending tests on liquid wastes prior to storage able to adopt more
Control of flashpoint for wastes in the bunker simplified procedures
Screening of waste input for elemental composition,
for example by EDXRFa
Sewage sludges Periodic sampling and analysis for key properties
and substances
Process control to adapt to sludge variation
a
EDXRF: energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (spectrometer).

5.6.1.4 Removal of non‐combustibles at the incinerator

The removal of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals on site is a common practice at municipal solid
waste incinerators, and helps to prevent these wastes, potentially containing which may contain
mercury as an impurity, to from entering waste incineration.

5.6.1.5 Proper handling, storage

Proper handling, particularly of hazardous waste, is essential. Appropriate sorting and segregation
should be undertaken to enable safe processing (Table 6).
Storage areas must be properly sealed with controlled drainage and weatherproofing. Fire detection
and control systems for these areas should also be considered along with adequate capacity to retain
contaminated fire water onsite. Storage and handling areas should be designed to prevent contamina-
tion of environmental media and to facilitate clean-up in the event of spills or leakage. Odors and
release of volatile persistent organic pollutants to environmental media can be minimized by using
bunker air for the combustion process.
Table 6 Examples of segregation techniques (EC 2005)

Waste type Segregation techniques

Mixed municipal wastes Segregation is not routinely applied unless various distinct waste streams
are received, when these can be mixed in the bunker
Bulky items requiring pre-treatment can be segregated
Emergency segregation areas for rejected waste
Pretreated municipal Segregation not routinely applied
wastes and refuse-derived Emergency segregation areas for rejected waste
fuels
 Waste type Segregation techniques
Hazardous wastes Extensive procedures required to separate chemically incompatible
materials (examples given as follows):
Water from phosphides
Water from isocyanates
Water from alkaline materials
Cyanide from acids
Flammable materials from oxidizing agents
Maintain separation of pre-segregated packed delivered wastes Comment [dl32]: Awkward phrasing.

Sewage sludges Wastes generally well mixed before delivery to plant

Some industrial streams may be separately delivered and require segrega-
tion for blending Comment [dl33]: Not clear what this is
trying to say. Please clarify.

5.6.1.6 Minimizing storage times

Although having a constant supply of waste is important for continuous operation and stable firing
conditions in large municipal solid waste incinerators, stored wastes are unlikely to improve with age
the accumulation and storage of a given waste for a long period of time is undesirable. Minimizing the
storage period of waste will help prevent putrefaction and unwanted reactions, and the deterioration of
containers and labelling. Managing deliveries and communicating with suppliers will help ensure that
reasonable storage times (e.g. four to seven days for municipal solid waste) are not exceeded.
Comment [dl34]: To remove repetition
with sub-section 5.6.1.9, can sub-section
5.6.1.7 Establishing quality requirements for waste‐fed facilities 5.6.1.7 be combined with 5.6.1.9?

Operators must be able to accurately predict the heating value and other attributes of the waste being
combusted in order to ensure that the design parameters of the incinerator are being met it is appropri-
ate for use as inputs for which the incinerator was designed to handle. This can be done using the
results from a feed monitoring program of key contaminants and parameters; if the waste is variable,
more frequent sampling and analysis will be needed.

5.6.1.8 Waste loading

For facilities that accept heterogeneous municipal solid waste, proper mixing and loading of the feed
hopper is critical. Loading crane operators must have both the experience and the appropriate vantage
point to be able to select the appropriate mix of waste types to keep the incinerator performing at peak
efficiency.
The approach to best environmental practices for incinerating wastes containing or contaminated with
mercury are captured under the following:
 Waste prevention before incineration;
 Incinerator operating and management practices;
 Post incineration operating and management practices. Comment [dl35]: Not clear why this is
here.

43
5.6.1.9 Incinerator operating and management practices

Proper operation is critical to achieving design parameters. In general, the manufacturer or designer of
the equipment should provide a manual that discusses operating practices including startup proce-
dures, shutdown procedures, normal operation, troubleshooting, maintenance procedures, recommend-
ed spare parts and others. Operators must be able to accurately predict the heating value and other
attributes of the waste being combusted in order to ensure that the design parameters of the incinerator
are being met. This can be done using the results from a feed monitoring program of key contaminants
and parameters where sampling and analysis frequencies and rigor would increase as feed variability Comment [dl36]: Repetitive of sub-
section 5.6.1.7. To remove repetition with
increases. Detailed information can be found in sections 2.2.3.1 – 2.2.3.5. sub-section 5.6.1.9, can sub-section 5.6.1.7
be combined with 5.6.1.9?

5.6.1.10 Site selection of an incinerator plant

The location of an incinerator can significantly affect dispersion of the plume from the chimney,
which in turn affects ambient concentrations, deposition and exposures to workers and the community.
In addition to addressing the physical factors affecting dispersion, siting must also address issues of
permissions/ownership, access and convenience. Best practices siting has the goal of finding a location
for the incinerator that minimizes potential risks to public health and the environment (EPA 1997).

5.6.1.11 Design

Adequate plans, drawings, and quality control are necessary to construct incinerators. Dimensional
drawings, tolerances, material lists are necessary. Proper design and operation of incinerators should
achieve desired temperatures, residence times, and other conditions necessary to minimize emission of
mercury into the environment, avoid clinker formation and slagging of the ash (in the primary cham-
ber), avoid refractory damage destruction, and minimize fuel consumption.

5.6.1.12 Regular facility inspections and maintenance

Routine inspections by the operator and periodic inspections by the relevant authority of the furnace
and air pollution control devices should be conducted to ensure system integrity and the proper
performance of the incinerator and its components. Regardless of how well equipment is designed,
wear and tear during normal use and poor operation and maintenance practices will lead to the deterio-
ration of components, a resultant decrease in both combustion quality, an increase in emissions, and
potential risks to the operator and public.

5.6.1.13 Operator training

Regular training of personnel is essential for good operation of waste incinerators. Proper operation of
incinerators is necessary to minimize emissions and other risks. Only a trained and qualified operator
should operate or supervise the incineration process. The operator must be onsite while the incinerator
is operating. Without proper training and management support, incinerators cannot achieve proper
treatment and acceptable emissions.

45
6 Monitoring Techniques of Mercury

General and cross cutting aspects of testing, monitoring and reporting are discussed in the introductory
chapter of this document. Specific aspects inherent to waste incineration processes will be discussed in
this chapter.

6.1 Direct Methods

Direct mercury measurements can be carried out either continuously or discontinuously.
Continuous Emission Measurement (CEM)
The advantage of a continuous monitoring is that the proper function of the flue gas treatment installa-
tion can be monitored and a change in the mercury content in the waste is detected fairly quickly.
Despite various measures to control or minimize the input of mercury in waste incineration plants,
significant amounts of mercury can occasionally get in via the waste bunker into the combustion and
thus into the flue gas, and potentially vary the level of mercury emissions.
With the help of continuously operating mercury measuring devices such contamination can be
recognized and countermeasures be quickly initiated as needed. FigureFigureFigure 9 shows the
variation of mercury concentration in the clean gas of a waste incineration plant in Hamburg within
one year. Especially in the months October and November distinct peaks can be seen.
Figure 9 Mercury emission data of one line of a waste incineration plant in Hamburg in 2014
In some countries, the majority of the waste incineration plants are equipped with continuous operat-
ing devices. If elevated levels of mercury are detected in the flue gas, counter-measures can be initiat-
ed. These include, for example, the following:
 increasing the injected amount of sorbents into the flue gas stream;
 use of sulfur-pre-doped activated carbon with an increased reduction efficiency for mercury;
 adding bromine to the combustion to enhance the oxidation of mercury.
If very high level of mercury is detected in hot spots in the waste, these hot spots should be evacuated.
In case of elevated mercury levels in the flue gas cleaning system, cleaning of the flue gas to remove
mercury should be considered.
When multiple exceedances of emission limits are observed, measures that should be taken include
information of the waste deliverer about the monitoring operations at the plant and/or input-controls or
other measures. These measures are found to be effective in most cases, and as a result the amount of
exceedances tend to decrease significantly. Comment [dl37]: Awkward phrasing.
Basically this is saying that when emission
To determine elevated mercury concentrations in raw gas CEMs are sometimes used to sample the limits are exceeded, the facility operator
should check its monitoring opera-
particulate laden gas stream before a particulate control device (see 3.33.33.5.3). That gives the tions/systems, input controls and other
measures to determine the cause in order to
possibility to react immediately in order to determine elevated mercury concentrations in raw gas and make corrective action.
take quick corrective action as needed, e.g. inject AC or halogenated compounds. Formatted: Font: (Default) Arial,
Complex Script Font: Arial

Stationary source measurement (impinger)

The use of impinger methods for mercury monitoring in waste incineration plants has historically been
the prominent method. Due to the complexity and cost of this method, impinger sampling is done less
frequently, such as quarterly or annually only. Stationary source measurement (impinger) of a proper
function of the flue gas treatment installation is only possible during short sampling periods. The
detection of mercury peaks in the flue gas is commonly not possible and, therefore no counter
measures can be initiated. However, impinger methods, are not appropriate for long sampling periods
and in practice, are limited to several hours.

Sorbent Trap Systems

Sorbent trap systems allow a surveillance of a proper function of the flue gas treatment installation
after a sampling period. While sorbent trap systems do not provide real-time results, the data obtained
can indicate the operating performance over the previous set time period. With this feedback loop
approach, adjustments to the process can then be made as needed. Compared to the impinger methods,
sorbent traps provide more stable mercury retention and a simpler sampling protocol. The simpler
sampling protocol allows for unattended operation of the monitoring over extended periods, which is
not possible with the impinger methods.
This system is not commonly used in EU because there are no legally obligations. However, it is
possible that it may be used in other regions of the world.

47
 6.2 Indirect methods
Mass balances
Mass balances are extremely difficult to apply due to potential high Hgmercury variations in waste
input and great difficulties to reliably monitor Hg reliably mercury levels in heterogeneous waste.
Predictive emissions monitoring
Predictive emissions monitoring (parametric monitoring) are is not possible because at waste incinera-
tion plants since there is no relation between other pollutants and mercury in the flue gas. Additional-
ly, mercury content in furnace feedstocks can change significantly over short periods, depending on
the concentration of the mercury in the waste.
Emission factors
For monitoring purposes, emission factors should not be used in for determining mercury emissions
from waste incineration plants. This is The use of emission factors gives estimates that may not be
accurate due to the mercury content variation in waste.
Engineering estimates
Engineering estimates are not an accurate method of mercury air emission monitoring for waste
incineration plants.

6.3 Most appropriate techniques for monitoring in the waste incineration sector
Both, continuous and discontinuous monitoring are considered as part of BAT implementation.
Continuous measurements are suitable for various reasons, which include:
 the proper function of the flue gas treatment installation can be monitored;
 a change of the mercury content in the waste is fast detectable and
 high concentrations of mercury due to illegal improper input of contaminated waste can be
detected.
Several countries require continuous monitoring of mercury at their waste incineration installations
already. They consider techniques for continuous monitoring as BAT. The majority of countries using
mercury monitoring use discontinuous monitoring, e.g. impinger sampling.
Only continuous monitoring ensures that elevated mercury levels in cleaned gas and/or raw gas are
detected for effective control. In such cases, a sorbent may be used, e.g. sulfur-doped activated carbon.
In particular for hazardous waste, medical waste, mixed commercial and municipal waste as well as all
other wastes, (including illegal entries),when it cannot be guaranteed that no mercury is contained in
these waste types, continuous measurement of mercury may be most effective.
Discontinuous measurement methods are also applicable. Sorbent trap systems and stationary source
testing (impinger) monitoring allow a surveillance of a proper function of the flue gas treatment
installation during the sampling periods. With these measurement methods, the detection of high
mercury levels in the flue gas is commonly not possible and, therefore no counter measures can be
initiated. Comment [dl38]: Please provide
explanation of why detection of high
Indirect methods, e.g. mass balances, predictive emissions monitoring, emission factors and engineer- mercury levels in the flue gas is commonly
not possible with discontinuous measure-
ing estimates are not useful as measurement methods for waste incineration plants. ment methods and no counter measure can
be initiated.

49
7 References

Adam, F. et al. 2010: KVA-Rückstände in der Schweiz – Der Rohstoff mit Mehrwert- Bundesamt für
Umwelt (BFU), Bern 2010
Allen, C., V. Gokaldas, A. Larracas, L. A. Minot, M. Morin, N. Tangri, B. Tyler and B. Walker
(2012). On the Road to Zero Waste: Successes and Lessons from around the World. Berkeley, GAIA:
88.

Andersson, S. ; Lindgren, P. 2010; Simultaneous Dioxin and Mercury Removal in Wet Scrubbers
(Paper # 56), AIR AND WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION -PUBLICATIONS- VIP THEN
CP; 189; 515-524

APGEN (Applied PhytoGenetics). 2003. Letter from David Glass, APGEN, to Walter Kovalick, EPA
Technology Innovation Office (TIO), regarding the field study of Eastern cottonwood trees to treat
mercury contaminated soil at a Superfund site in Danbury, Connecticut.

Basel Convention Secretariat. 2002. Technical Guidelines on the Environmentally Sound Management
of Biomedical and Health-Care Waste. Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, UNEP, Geneva.

Birkbeck's Preservation of Timber by Kyan's Patent, a Lecture at the Society of Arts on 9 Dec. 1834
Bittig, M, Heap, S.: Maßnahmen zur Minderung luftseitiger Emissionen unter besonderer Berücksich-
tigung von Quecksilber, Feinstaub und Stickoxiden, Energie aus Abfall, Band 11, 2014

Bilitewski, B., C. Oros and T. H. Christensen (2010). Mechanical Biological Treatment. Solid Waste
Technology & Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: 628-638.

Buehler et al 2015: Schwermetalle aus der Flugasche zurückgewinnen - saure Flugaschewäsche -

FLUWA-Verfahren - ein Zukunftsweisendes Verfahren in der Abfallverbrennung,
http://www.bsh.ch/upload/public/0/71/BSH-Umweltservice-AG-Saure-Flugaschenwaesche-FLUWA- Field Code Changed
Verfahren.pdf
BSH 2015: BSH Umwelt Service AG - Quecksilber-Abscheidung. Download dated from
http://www.bsh.ch/upload/public/0/71/BSH-Umweltservice-AG-Selektive-Quecksilber-
Ionentauscher.pdf
Chattopadhyay, S and Randall, PM,(2003) WATER RES, 37,(19). 4719-4729:

Chaucherie, X. et al. (2014): Mercury Abatement at two French Rotary Kiln Hazardous Waste Incin-
eration Plants with mainly Dry Flue Gas Cleaning, VDI Conference, April 15 - 16, 2014 in Düssel-
dorf
Daschner, R. et al.: Emissionen und Abgasreinigungsverfahren bei der Abfallverbrennung, Technische
Sicherheit Bd. 1 (2011) Nr. 1/2 Jan./Febr. Emission Control – Thermal Waste Treatment – Fundamen-
tals – VDI 3460 Part 1, Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft im VDI und DIN – Normkontrollausschuss
KRdL; VDI/DIN-Handbuch Reinhaltung der Luft, and 3: Emissionsminderung II VDI Handbuch
Energietechnik

Eberhartinger, S (2004) Guidance by source category: Annex C, Part II Source Categories Waste
Incinerators: medical Waste

European Commission (2005). Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Reference Docu-
ment on Best Available Techniques for Waste Incineration. July 2005. Seville, Spain,
eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm.

EU Directive on Waste Incineration Directive (2000) [2000/76/EC]

European Commission (2010). “Industrial Emissions Directive“ 2010/75/EU

European Commission. (2013), Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for the Large
Combustion Plants Draft 1 (June 2013) Joint Research Centre – Institute for Prospective
Technological Studies Sustainable Production and Consumption Unit European IPPC Bureau, Seville,
Spain.

Esser-Schmittman, W. 2012: Quecksilberabscheidung aus Feuerungsprozessen mittels Chemisorption

an Aktivkohle und anderen Sorbentien. Berliner Planungs- und Immissionsschutzkonferenz am 19.
Und 20. November 2012

Federal Remediation Technologies Reference Guide and Screening Manual, Version 4.0. 2004. In Situ
Biological Treatment – Phytoremediation. Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable. June 2004.
http://www.frtr.gov/matrix2/section4/4-3.html.

Fundamentals – VDI 3460 Part 1, Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft im VDI und DIN – Normkon-
trollausschuss KRdL; VDI/DIN-Handbuch Reinhaltung der Luft, and 3: Emissionsminderung II VDI
Handbuch Energietechnik

Galbreath, K.C. and Zygarlicke, C. (1996) Mercury speciation in coal combustion and gasification flue
gases. Environ Sci Technol 30:2421 –2426

Gebhardt, P. Quecksilberemissionen durch die Müllverbrennung, Ingenieuerbüro für Umweltschutz-

technik, Salzböden, September 2005.

GORETM Mercury Control System, Overview, Feb 2014

Greyson, J. (2007). "An economic instrument for zero waste, economic growth and sustainability." J
Cleaner Production 15(13–14): 1382-1390.

Guidelines on Best Available Techniques and Provisional Guidence on Best Environmental Practices
relevant to Article 5 and Annex C of the Stockholm Convention on Organic Pollutants; Section V
Guidance/guidelines by source category: Source categories in Part II of Annex C Part II Source
category (a):Waste incinerators

51
Hall, B.; Schager, P.; Lindqvist, O., (1991). Chemical Reactions of Mercury in Combustion Flue
Gases. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 56, 3-14.

Health Care Without Harm (2001). Non-Incineration Medical Waste Treatment Technologies. Health
Care Without Harm. Washington, D.C.: 118.

Health Care Without Harm Europe (2004). Non-Incineration Medical Waste Treatment Technologies
in Europe. Health Care Without Harm Europe. Prague: 44.
Heaton, A.C.P., Rugh, C.L., Kim, T., Wang, N.J. and Meagher, R.B (2003) Toward
detoxifying mercury-polluted aquatic sediments with rice genetically engineered for
mercury resistance. Environ Toxicol and Chem 22 (12): 2940–2947.

Hubbard, J., S. Tsadwa, N. Willis, and M. Evans. 1990. Site Sampling and Treatability
Studies for Demonstration of WasteChem's Asphalt Encapsulation Technology Under
EPA's SITE Program. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 40(10):1436-41.

Hudson et al., 2009, Assessment of PCDD/F and PBDD/F Emissions from Coal-fired
Power Plants during Injection of Brominated Activated Carbon for Mercury Control,
Atmospheric Environment Vol. 43 (26): 3970-80

ITRC (1998). Technical Guidelines for On-site Thermal Desorption of Solid Media and
Low Level Mixed Waste Contaminated with Mercury and/or Hazardous Chlorinated
Organics., The Interstate Technology and Regulatory Cooperation Work Group - Low
Temperature Thermal Desorption Work Team: 68.

Kalb, P.D., and P. Colombo. 1997. Composition and Process for the Encapsulation of
Radioactive Hazardous and Mixed Wastes. United States Patent 5,649,323.

Kalogirou, E. 2012, The development of WtE as an integral part of the sustainable waste management
worldwide, Recuwatt -Recycling and Energy conference-, Mataró (Spain), 4th October 2012.)

Kalb, P.D., D. Melamed, B.R. Patel, and M. Fuhrmann. 2002. Treatment of Mercury Contain ing
Wastes. United States Patent 6,399,849.

Khairiraihanna et al., 2015: Removal performance of elemental mercury by low-cost adsorbents

prepared through facile methods of carbonisation and activation of coconut husk; Waste Management
& Research 2015, Vol. 33(1) p. 81-88

Klaist: Vorbeugender chemischer Holzschutz in: Johann Müller (Hrsg.): Holzschutz im Hochbau.
Grundlagen – Holzschädlinge – Vorbeugung – Bekämpfung. Fraunhofer IRB Verlag, Stuttgart 2005

Licata, A. et al: (2007). Safety aspects in the use of carbonaceous sorbents during waste
gas treatment, Metallurgical Plant and Technology 3: 144-152
Looney, B.B. and others. 2001. Ultralow Concentration Mercury Treatment Using Chemical
Reduction and Air Stripping. WSRC-MS-2001-00388. April 24.

Mattigod, S.V., G. Fryxell, R. Skaggs K. Parker, J. Liu, and X Feng. 2003. Mercury Removal from
Waste Streams Using a Novel Synthetic Nanoporous Sorbent. Industrial Water Conference. Las Ve-
gas, Nevada. December.

Löthgren et al. 2007: Mercury Specification in Flue Gases after Oxidative Acid Wet Scrubber, Chem
Eng. Technol., 30(1), p. 131-138

Meng, X., Z. Hua, D. Dermatas, W. Wang, and H.Y. Kuo. 1998. Immobilization of Mercry(II) in
Contaminated Soil with Used Tire Rubber. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 57:231-241.

Miller, C.M., S.E. Duirk, and K.H. Gardner. 2000. Chromium Leaching from a Silicone Foam-
Encapsulated Mixed Waste Surrogate. Environmental Science and Technology. 34(3): 455- 460.

Miller et al 2014. Mercury Control with Brominated PAC and Injection Upstream of a WET FGD
System. Presented at the Power Plant Pollutant Control “MEGA” Symposium, August 19-21, 2014 in
Baltimore, MD

Mineur, M, et al. Betriebliche Erfahrungen zur Minderung von Quecksilberemissionen bei der Haus-
müllverbrennung VDI Wissensforum, Oktober 2012, Würzburg

Muenhor, D. et al (2009). Mercry Contamination and potential impacts from municipal waste incinera-
tor on Samui Island, Thailand, J Envron Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng. March, 44: 376
– 387

Material Safety Data Sheet according to EU Directive 1907/2006/EC, Article 31 on PRAVO

Nethe, L.-P.: Optimierung der Quecksilberabscheidung in der Rauchgasreinigung von Verbrennungs-

anlagen durch den Einsatz schwefelhaltiger Zusatzkomponenten, Texocon Potsdam, Jan 2009

Nishitani, T et al (1999) The relationship between hcland mercury speciation in flue gas from
municipal solid waste incinerators. Chemosphere, 39, (I). 1-9,
Orebaugh, E.G. 1993. Lead Macroencapsulation Conceptual and Experimental Studies. WSRC-RP-
93-227. Aiken, SC: Westinghouse Savannah River Company. January.

Petrlik, J. and R. Ryder (2005). After Incineration: The Toxic Ash Problem. Prague, Manchaster,
IPEN Dioxin, PCBs and Waste Working Group, Arnika Association: 59.
http://english.arnika.org/files/documents/ASH_report.pdf

Pless-Mulloli, T., R. Edwards, O. Päpke and B. Schilling (2001). Report on the anlaysis of PCDD/F
and heavy metals in soil and egg samples from Newcastle allotments: Assessment of the role of ash
from Byker incinerator.: 50.

Reinhold Environmental Ltd. 2012. Maintaining high level mercury capture in wFGD Absorber. 2012
APC Round Table & Expo Presentation, July 16-17, 2012 in Baltimore. MD

53
Robles, I., García, M. G., Solís, S., Hernández, G., Bandala, Y., Juaristi, E. and Bustos E. (2012).
Electroremediation of mercury polluted soil facilitated by complexing agents. Intern J Electrochemis-
try Sci, 7,:2276 – 2287.

Sahu, S.K., Bhangare, R.C., Ajmal, P.Y., Sharma, S., Pandit, G.G and Puranik, V.D (2009) Charac-
terization and quantification of persistent organic pollutants in fly ash from coal fueled thermal power
stations in India. Microchemical J 92: 92–96

Schager, P. Report No. FBT-91-20, Status energiverk, National Energy Adminstration Sweden (1990)

Schmid 2014: Information provided by Susanne Schmidt, Stadtentwaesserung Frankfurt on

10.10.2013

SEF 2013 Description of the sewage sludge incineration plant in Frankfurt Sindlingen
http://www.stadtentwaesserung-frankfurt.de/index.php/anlagen/abwasserreinigung/seva-
sindlingen.html?limitstart=0

Shaheen, S.M., Hooda, P.S. and Tsadilas, C.D. (2012) Opportunities and challenges in the use of coal
fly ash for soil improvements: A review. J Environ Man 145 249-267

Siebert, J. 2005. An Examination of Using In-Situ Thermal Desorption to Remediate Mercury

Contaminated Soils Through Laboratory Experiments and Numerical Modeling. Masters Thesis.
University of Texas at Austin. May.

Skinner, K et al (2007). Mercury uptake and accumulation by four species of aquatic plan. Environ-
mental Pollution 145, 234-237

Smith, L.A., J.L. Means, A. Chen, B. Alleman, C.C. Chapman, J.S. Tixier, S.E. Brauning, A.R.
Gavaskar, and M.D. Royer. 1995. Remedial Options for Metals-Contaminated Sites. Lewis Publish-
ers, Boca Raton, FL.

Snowman Network BRGM 2014, Enhanced knowledge in mercury fate and transport for improved
management of Hg soil contamination

Song, G.-J., et al. (2004). "Characteristics of ashes from different locations at the MSW incinerator
equipped with various air pollution control devices." Waste Management 24(1): 99-106.

Takaoka et al.: 2002: Control of Mercury Emissions from a Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator in
Japan, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 52, 931-940

Takaoaka et al. 2012: Mercury emission from sewage sludge incineration in Japan, J Mater Cycles
Waste Manag 14 113–119

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Research and Development. 1997. Engineer-
ing Bulletin, Technology Alternatives for the Remediation of Soils Contaminated with Arsenic,
Cadmium, Chromium, Mercury, and Lead. Cincinnati, OH. EPA-540-S-97-500. March.
http://www.epa.gov/clariton/clhtml/pubtitleOSWER.html.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2005: Technical Support Document for HWC MACT
Standards Vol. 1 Description of Source Categories, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washing-
ton, September 2005

U.S. Department of Energy. 1998. Innovative Technology Summary Report. Plasma Hearth Process at
the Science and Technology Research (STAR) Center, Idaho Falls, Idaho. November.
http://costperformance.org/pdf/itsr26.pdf.

U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development. 2004. Minergy Corporation Glass Furnace
Technology Evaluation Report. EPA/540/R-03/500. March.
ttp://costperformance.org/pdf/20040702_353.pdf.

U.S.EPA. 1995. Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Technology Capsule,

Geosafe Corporation In Situ Vitrification Technology. Office of Research and Development.
EPA/540/R-94/520. March. http://www.epa.gov/ORD/SITE/reports/540_r94_520.pdf.

U.S EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. 2002. Arsenic Treatment Technologies for
Soil, Waste, and Water. EPA-542-R-02-004. September.

UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe). 1998. Protocol to the 1979 Convention on
Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Persistent Organic Pollutants. New York and Geneva.
www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1998.POPs.e.pdf.

UNECE 2013, Economic Commission Europe, Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollu-
tion, Guidance document on best available techniques for controlling emissions of heavy
metals and their compounds from the source categories listed in annex II to the Protocol on Heavy
Metals, UN ECE/EB.Air/116, July 2013

UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2005 Basel Convention Technical Guidelines:
General technical guidelines for the environmentally sound management of wastes consisting of,
containing or contaminated with persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

United Nations 2013, Economic Commission Europe, Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollution, Guidance document on best available techniques for controlling emissions of heavy
metals and their compounds from the source categories listed in annex II to the Protocol on Heavy
Metals

Velis, C. A., P. J. Longhurst, G. H. Drew, R. Smith and S. J. T. Pollard (2009). "Biodrying for
mechanical–biological treatment of wastes: A review of process science and engineering." Bioresource
Technology 100(11): 2747-2761.

Vosteen, B. et al.: Bromine-enhanced Mercury Abatement from Combustion Flue Gases – Recent
Industrial Applications and Laboratory Research, VGB Power Tech Volume 86, Issue 3/2006

55
De Vries, W et al (2007). Critical soil concentration of cadmium, lead and mercury in view of health
effects on humans and animals. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 191: 91-130

Wagh, A.S., D. Dingh, and S.Y. Jeong. 2000. Mercury Stabilization in Chemically Bonded Phosphate
Ceramics. Invited paper for Environmental Protection Agency’s Workshop on Mercury Products,
Processes, Waste, and the Environment: Eliminating, Reducing and Managing Risks, Baltimore, MD,
March 22-23.

Watson, A. (2001). Comments on the “Report on the analysis of PCDD/PCDF and Heavy Metals in
Soil and Egg samples related to the Byker incinerator”. Available at:
http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/media/reports/alan-watson-comments-on-the-byker-ash-report

Werther J.:, Sänger M. (2000). Emissions from Sewage Sludge Combustion in Germany—Status and
Future Trends, Journal of Chemical Engeneering of Japan Vol. 33 (1) P 1-11)

Wirling, J.: Safety aspects in the use of carbonaceous sorbents for entrained-phase adsorption, stahl
und eisen 126 (2006) Nr. 6, p. 47 -54

WHO (2014). Safe management of wastes from health-care activities / edited by Y. Chartier et al. –
2nd ed.