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SMA 2101 Calculus I - Lecture notes ALL NOTES

Bsc. mathematics and computer science (Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology)

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SMA 2101: CALCULUS I

⃝Francis
c O. Ochieng
[email protected]

Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics

Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

Course content
• Functions: definition, domain, range, codomain, composition (or composite), inverse.

• Limits, continuity and differentiability of a function.

• Differentiation by first principle and by rule for xn (integral and fractional n).

• Other techniques of differentiation, i.e., sums, products, quotients, chain rule; their applications
to algebraic, trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential, and inverse trigonometric functions all of
a single variable.

• Implicit and parametric differentiation.

• Applications of differentiation to: rates of change, small changes, stationary points, equations of
tangents and normal lines, kinematics, and economics and financial models (cost, revenue and
profit).

• Introduction to integration and its applications to area and volume.

References
[1] Calculus: Early Transcendentals (8th Edition) by James Stewart

[2] Calculus with Analytic Geometry by Roland E. Larson, Robert P. Hostetler and Bruce H. Edwards;
5th edition

[3] Calculus and Analytical Geometry (9th edition) by George B. Thomas and Ross L. Finney

[4] Advanced Engineering Mathematics (10th ed.) by Erwin Kreyszig

[5] Calculus by Larson Hostellem

Lecture 1

1 Functions
To understand the word function, we consider the following scenario and definitions. For example,
the growth of a sidling is an instance of a functional relation, since the growth may be affected by
variations in temperature, moisture, sunlight, etc. If all these factors remain constant, then the growth
is a function of time.

Definition 1.1 (Variables). A variable is an object, event, time period, or any other type of category
you are trying to measure.

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c
⃝Francis Oketch

Consider the formula used for calculating the volume of a sphere of radius r.
4
V = πr3 (1)
3
Then,

i) V and r vary with different spheres. Hence, they are called variables.
4
ii) π and are constants, irrespective of the size of the sphere.
3
There are two types of variables, i.e., independent and dependent variables.

Definition 1.2 (Independent and dependent variables). Independent variable refers to the input value
while dependent variable refers to the output value.

For example from formula (1), the volume, V , depends on the value of the radius, r, of the sphere.
In this case, r is called the independent variable while V is called the dependent variable since it is
affected by the variation of r. Similarly, for the function y = ax2 + bx + c, a, b and c are constants, x
is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.

Definition 1.3 (Function). A function is a rule that assigns/associates each element in the
independent set, say X, to a unique element in the dependent set, say Y .

Examples of functions are

i) Linear functions e.g., y = x + 5

ii) Quadratic functions e.g., y = x2 − 2x + 5

iii) Cubic functions e.g., y = x3 − 1

iv) Quartic functions e.g., y = 2x4 + x3 − 1

v) Trigonometric functions e.g., y = sin(2x + 5)

vi) Logarithmic functions (log to base 10) e.g., y = log(3x + 1)

vii) Natural logarithmic functions (log to base e ≈ 2.71828) e.g., y = ln(5x + 1)

viii) Inverse of trigonometric functions e.g., y = tan−1 (2x + 1)

ix) Exponential functions e.g., y = e2x+1

x) Absolute value functions e.g., y = |x|. This function is defined as

{
−x, if x < 0
y = |x| =
x, if x ≥ 0

→ Note: in the above examples the variable y depends on the variable x. Thus, we say that the
dependent variable y is a function of the independent variable x. Using function notation, we write
y = f (x), where f is a function. The function f (x) is read as f of x, meaning that f depends on x.

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1.1 Domain, Range and Codomain c

⃝Francis Oketch

1.1 Domain, Range and Codomain

Definition 1.4 (Domain). A domain consists of all the elements in the independent set (i.e., the set
of inputs), X, for which the function is defined.
Definition 1.5 (Range). A range refers to a set of all the images of the elements in the domain.
Definition 1.6 (Codomain). A codomain consists of all the elements in the dependent set (i.e., the
set of outputs), Y .
For example, consider the diagram below

Example(s):
1. Find the domain and range of the following functions.
(a) f (x) = (x − 4)2 + 5

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined (or is a real number) for any real number x, the domain of f is
the interval (−∞, ∞).
√
 Let y = (x − 4)2 + 5. Making x the subject, we have x = 4 ± y − 5. This function is
defined if y − 5 ≥ 0 or y ≥ 5. Therefore, the range is the interval [5, ∞).
(b) f (x) = 2x2 − 5x + 1

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined (or is a real number) for any real number x, the domain of f is
the interval (−∞, ∞).
 Let y = 2x2 − 5x + 1 or 2x√ 2 − 5x + (1 − y) = 0. Making x the subject (use quadratic

5 ± 25 − 8(1 − y)
formula), we have x = . This function is defined if 25 − 8(1 − y) ≥ 0
4
17 [ )
or y ≥ − . Therefore, the range is the interval − 17 8 ,∞ .
8
4
(c) f (x) = 2
x − 5x + 6
Solution
→ Note: 4/0 = ∞ (infinity), vvvv large value, undefined, indeterminate.
 The function f (x) is defined when the denominator is nonzero, i.e., if x2 − 5x + 6 ̸= 0.
Solving yields x ̸= 2 and x ̸= 3. Therefore, the domain of f includes all the real numbers
of x except x = 2 and x = 3, i.e., the set (−∞, ∞)\{2, 3} or (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).
4 ( )
 Let y = 2 or x2 − 5x + 6 − y4 = 0. Making x the subject (use quadratic
x − 5x + 6
formula), we have √ ( )
4
5± 25 − 4 6 − y
x=
2
( )
4
This function is defined if 25 − 4 6 − y ≥ 0 or y ≥ −16. Therefore, the range is the
interval [−16, ∞).

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1.2 Evaluation of functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

√
(d) f (x) = x−1

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined (or is a real number) if x − 1 ≥ 0 or x ≥ 1, the domain of f is the
interval [1, ∞).
√
 Let y = x − 1. Making x the subject, we have x = y 2 + 1. This function is defined
for any real number y. Therefore, the range is the interval (−∞, ∞).
(e) f (x) = 2|x − 3| + 4

Solution
 Since f (x) is defined for all real numbers, the domain of f is the interval (−∞, ∞).
 Since for all |x − 3| ≥ 0, the function f (x) = 2|x − 3| + 4 ≥ 4. Therefore, the range is
all the values of y for which y ≥ 4 or the interval [4, ∞).

Exercise:

1. Find the domain and range of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = 6 − x2 . [ans: domain (−∞, ∞), range (−∞, 6]]

6 + 3x
(b) f (x) = . [ans: domain (−∞, 0.5) ∪ (0.5, ∞), range (−∞, 1.5) ∪ (1.5, ∞)]
1 − 2x
x+5
(c) f (x) = . [ans: domain (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞), range (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)]
x−2
√
(d) f (x) = 4 − 2x + 5. [ans: domain (−∞, 2], range (−∞, ∞)]
√
x2 − 16 [ ]
(e) f (x) = .[ans: domain (−∞, −4) ∪ [4, 6) ∪ (6, ∞), range − √2 , √2 \{−1, 1}]
x2 − 2x − 24 3 3

1.2 Evaluation of functions

This involves replacing x in the function by the suggested value and retaining the rule of the function.

Example(s):
f (x + h) − f (x)
1. Given f (x) = 2x + 1. Find: (i) f (0), (ii) f (1), (iii) f (x + 2), and (iv) for h ̸= 0.
h

Solution

i) f (0) = 2(0) + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1
ii) f (1) = 2(1) + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3
iii) f (x + 2) = 2(x + 2) + 1 = 2x + 4 + 1 = 2x + 5
f (x + h) − f (x) [2(x + h) + 1] − [2x + 1] 2x + 2h + 1 − 2x − 1 2h
iv) = = = = 2.
h h h h
f (x + h) − f (x)
2. Given f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 4. Find: (i) f (0), (ii) f (−1), (iii) f (x + 2), and (iv)
h
for h ̸= 0.

Solution

i) f (0) = 3(0)2 − 2(0) + 4 = 0 + 0 + 4 = 4

ii) f (−1) = 3(−1)2 − 2(−1) + 4 = 3 + 2 + 4 = 9
iii) f (x + 2) = 3(x + 2)2 − 2(x + 2) + 4 = 3(x2 + 4x + 4) − 2x − 4 + 4 = 3x2 + 10x + 12

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1.3 Composite functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

iv)

3(x + h)2 − 2(x + h) + 4 − 3x2 − 2x + 4

[ ] [ ]
f (x + h) − f (x)
=
h ( 2 h
3x + 6hx + 3h2 − 2x − 2h + 4 − 3x2 − 2x + 4 6hx + 3h2 − 2h
) ( )
= =
h h
= 6x + 3h − 2

3. Given f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3. Find: (i) f (1), (ii) f (2), (iii) f (a), and (iv) f (a + h).

Solution

i) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 ⇒ f (1) = 12 − 4(1) + 3 = 0

ii) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 ⇒ f (2) = 22 − 4(2) + 3 = −1
iii) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 ⇒ f (a) = a2 − 4a + 3
iv) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 ⇒ f (a + h) = (a + h)2 − 4(a + h) + 3

4. Given ϕ(θ) = 2 sin θ. Find: (i) ϕ( π2 ), (ii) ϕ(0), and (iii) ϕ( π3 ).

Solution

ϕ( π2 ) = 2 sin
(π)
i) ϕ(θ) = 2 sin θ ⇒ 2 =2
ii) ϕ(θ) = 2 sin θ ⇒ ϕ(0) = 2 sin (0) = 0
√
3 √
ϕ( π3 )
(π)
iii) ϕ(θ) = 2 sin θ ⇒ = 2 sin 3 =2× = 3
2

Exercise:
f (x + h) − f (x)
(a) Given f (x) = x3 + 2x + 1, find: (i) f (0), (ii) f (−a), (iii) f (x + 2), and (iv) for
h
h ̸= 0.
1 g(x + h) − g(x)
(b) Given g(x) = √ , find: (i) f (0), (ii) f (1), (iii) f (x + 2), and (iv) for h ̸= 0.
x+1 h
6 − 2x p(x + h) − p(x)
(c) Given p(x) = , find: (i) f (0), (ii) f (−1), (iii) f (2 − x), and (iv) for h ̸= 0.
1 + 3x h
(d) If f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 1, find (i) f (1), (ii) f (0), (iii) f (2), (iv) f (a), and f (x + h).

(e) If f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 5), find (i) f (1), (ii) f (0), (iii) f (2), (iv) f (a + 1), and f ( a1 ).

(f) If f (θ) = cos θ, find (i) f ( π2 ), (ii) f (0), (iii) f ( π3 ), (iv) f ( π6 ), and (v) f (π).

f (3.001) − f (3)
(g) If f (x) = x2 , find (i) f (3), (ii) f (3.1), (iii) f (3.01), (iv) f (3.001), and .
0.001
(h) If ϕ(x) = 2x , find (i) ϕ(0), (ii) ϕ(1), and (iii) ϕ(0.5).

1.3 Composite functions

The composition of functions is a function of another function. Consider the function f with domain
A and range B, and the function g with domain D and range E. If B is a subset of D, then the
composite function (gof )(x) is the function with domain A and range E such that

(gof )(x) = g(f (x))

For example, given f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 5x − 3. Then,

(gof )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x + 1) = 5(2x + 1) − 3 = 10x + 2

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c
⃝Francis Oketch

Similarly,
(f og)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (5x − 3) = 2(5x − 3) + 1 = 10x − 5
→ Note: (f og)(x) ̸= (gof )(x).

Exercise:
√
1. Given f (x) = x2 − 1, g(x) = x − 1 and h(x) = x. Find:
(a) (f og)(x)
(b) (hog)(x)
(c) (gog)(x)
(d) (gohof )(x)
2. Consider the functions f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = 1/x. Evaluate
(a) (f og)(4)
(b) (gof )(−1/2)
√
3. If f (x) = x and g(x) = 4x + 2, find the domain of (f og)(x). [ans: x ≥ −0.5 or (−∞, −0.5]]

Lecture 2

2 Limits of functions
Definition 2.1 (Basic limit definition). Let f (x) be a function and let a and L be real numbers. If
f (x) approaches L as x approaches a from either RHS or LHS of a (but is not equal to a), then we
say that f (x) has limit L as x approaches a, and is mathematically written as:
. = L.
lim f (x)
x→a

Diagrammatically, we have

→ Note: lim f (x) is the value that f (x)

x→a
approaches as x approaches a, and a does
not have to be in the domain of f .

2.1 Properties of limits

Theorem 2.1. Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 . Then,
x→a x→a
[ ] [ ]
1. [Addition/subtraction rule] lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) = L1 ± L2
x→a x→a x→a
[ ]
2. [Scalar multiple] lim [λf (x)] = λ lim f (x) = λL1 , where λ is a constant.
x→a x→a
[ ] [ ]
3. [Product rule] lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x) = L1 · L2
x→a x→a x→a
[
f (x)
] lim f (x) L1
4. [Quotient rule] lim = x→a = , provided g(a) ̸= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) L2
x→a
√ ( )1/n
= (L1 )1/n =
√
5. lim n
f (x) = lim f (x) n
L1
x→a x→a
→ Note: if f (x) = c (where c is a constant), then lim [f (x)] = lim [c] = c
x→a x→a

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2.2 Techniques of evaluating limits of functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

2.2 Techniques of evaluating limits of functions

 Direct substitution (DS)
The required limit is obtained by just plugging in the value of input, say x, into the given
function, say f (x).

Example(s):

(a) Evaluate lim 3x3 − x2 + 2x + 5.

x→2
Solution

lim (3x3 − x2 + 2x + 5) = 3 lim x3 − lim x2 + 2 lim x + lim 5)

x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
3 2
= 3(2 ) − (2 ) + 2(2) + 5
= 29

x2 − 1
(b) Evaluate lim .
x→1 x + 1
Solution
x2 − 1 D.S 12 − 1 0
lim = = =0
x→1 x + 1 1+1 2

 Factorization
If on direct substitution we get the indeterminate form 0/0, then it means that there is a
common factor in both the numerator and denominator. In this case, we perform factorization
first so as to simplify the given function.

→ Note: if the polynomial in the numerator is of degree greater than the degree of the polynomial
in the denominator, we first need to perform long division.

Example(s):
x2 + x − 6
(a) Evaluate lim
x→2 x−2
Solution
x2 + x − 6 (x − 2)(x + 3)
lim = lim
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
D.S
= lim (x + 3) = 2 + 3
x→2
= 5

x2 + 3x + 2
(b) Evaluate lim
x→−2 2x2 − 8
Solution
x2 + 3x + 2 (x + 2)(x + 1)
lim = lim
x→−2 2x2 − 8 x→−2 2(x + 2)(x − 2)
x + 1 D.S −2 + 1 −1
= lim = =
x→−2 2(x − 2) 2(−2 − 2) −8
1
=
8

x3 − 1
(c) Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 − 1

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2.2 Techniques of evaluating limits of functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

Solution
x3 − 1 x−1
( )
lim 2 = lim x + 2 (long division)
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x −1
x−1
[ ]
= lim x + (factorization)
x→1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
1 1 1
( )
D.S
= lim x + = 1+ =1+
x→1 x+1 1+1 2
3
=
2
 Limits at infinity
In this case, we first divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the
denominator.

Example(s):
5x3 − 1
(a) Evaluate lim .
x→∞ 4x3 − 2x − 7

Solution
1 1
5x3 − 1 5− 5− 5−0
lim = lim x3 D.S
= ∞ =
x→∞ 4x3 − 2x − 7 x→∞ 2 7 2 7 4−0−0
4− 2 − 3 4− −
x x ∞ ∞
5
=
4
 Rationalization
Suppose there exists a surd in either the numerator or denominator or both. Then, we first need
to multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the factor containing the
surd (in either the numerator or denominator) and then simplify the resulting function. After
rationalization, we perform a direct substitution.
→ Note: in case the surds appear in both the numerator and denominator, then we rationalize
the denominator.

Example(s):
√
(a) Evaluate lim x2 − 4x − x.
x→∞

Solution
(√ )
√ (√ ) x2 − 4x + x
lim x2 − 4x − x = lim x2 − 4x − x √
x→∞ x→∞ x2 − 4x + x
x2 − 4x − x2 −4x
= lim √ = lim √
x→∞ 2
x − 4x + x x→∞ 2
x − 4x + x
1
−4x · −4
= lim (√ x
) 1 = x→∞
lim √
x→∞
x2 − 4x + x · 4
1− +1
x x
D.S −4 −4 −4
= √ =√ =
4 1−0+1 1+1
1− +1
∞
= −2

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2.2 Techniques of evaluating limits of functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

√
x−3
(b) Evaluate lim .
x→9 x−9
Solution
√ √ √
x−3 ( x − 3)( x + 3)
lim = lim √
x→9 x − 9 x→9 (x − 9)( x + 3)
(x − 9) 1
= lim √ = lim √
x→9 (x − 9)( x + 3) x→9 x+3
D.S 1 1
= √ =
9+3 3 + 3
1
=
6

Exercise:
√ √
(a) lim x2 − 2 − x2 + x.
x→∞

Solution
√ √
√ √ (√ x2 − 2 + x2 + x
√ )
lim x2 − 2 − x2 + x = lim x2 − 2 − x2 + x · √ √
x→∞ x→∞ x2 − 2 + x2 + x
(x2 − 2) − (x2 + x) −2 − x
= lim √ √ = lim √ √
x→∞ 2
x −2+ x +x 2 x→∞ x − 2 + x2 + x
2
2 2
− −1 − −1
= lim √ x √
D.S
= √ ∞ √
x→∞ 2 1 2 1
1− 2 + 1+ 1− + 1+
x x ∞ ∞
1
= −
2

x3 − 1
(b) Evaluate lim . [ans: 3]
x→1 x − 1
√
1− x
(c) Evaluate lim . [ans: 1/2]
x→1 1 − x
5x2 − 3x + 2
(d) Evaluate lim . [ans: 1/2]
x→∞ 10x2 − x + 100
√ √
1+x− 1−x
(e) Evaluate lim . [ans: 1]
x→0 x
→ Note: A function which grows arbitrarily large as x goes to positive or negative infinity is said to
have an infinite limit. Infinity is not a real number, so if a function has infinite limit, we
say that the limit does not exist.

Lecture 3

Theorem 2.2 (Squeeze law (sandwich theorem)). Suppose that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) holds for all
x around a, except possibly at x = a. If lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L, then lim g(x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a

Example(s):

1
( )
1. Find lim x sin .
x→0 x2 + x

Solution

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2.2 Techniques of evaluating limits of functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

We know that sin θ is sandwiched between −1 and 1 i.e., −1 ≤ sin(θ) ≤ 1. Therefore,

1
( )
As −1 ≤ sin ≤1
x + x2
1
( )
⇒ −x ≤ x sin ≤x
x + x2
1
( )
⇒ − lim (x) ≤ lim x sin ≤ lim (x)
x→0 x→0 x + x2 x→0
1
( )
⇒ 0 ≤ lim x sin ≤0
x→0 x + x2
1
( )
⇒ lim x sin =0
x→0 x + x2

Exercise:
sin h (1 − cos h)
1. [Assignment 1 ] Prove that lim = 1 and lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

Proof. Consider the following unit circle. Let the length of line OA be a units, AB is b units,
CD be c units and angle AOB be h.

Here, OB = OC = 1 unit. Now, cos h = a,

sin h = b and tan h = c. From the figure, the
area of triangle OAB is less than that of the
sector OCB which is also less than that of
1 h 1
triangle OCD i.e., ab ≤ · π(1)2 ≤ (1)c.
2 2π 2
Thus,
1 1 1
cos h sin h ≤ h ≤ tan h
2 2 2

sin h
Multiply through by 2 and using the identity tan h = , we have
cos h
sin h
cos h sin h ≤ h ≤
cos h
Taking reciprocals, we have
1 1 cos h
≥ ≥
cos h sin h h sin h
1 sin h
Multiplying though by sin h yields ≥ ≥ cos h, which can be rewritten as
cos h h
sin h 1
cos h ≤ ≤
h cos h
sin h 1 sin h
Taking limit as h → 0, we have lim cos h ≤ lim ≤ lim . That is, 1 ≤ lim ≤ 1.
h→0 h→0 h h→0 cos h h→0 h
Hence, by the squeeze law we get
sin. h
lim =1
h→0 h

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2.3 One-Sided Limit c

⃝Francis Oketch

Also,
[ ]
(1 − cos h) (1 − cos h) (1 + cos h) 1 − cos2 h 1
[ ]
lim = lim · = lim ·
h→0 h h→0 h (1 + cos h) h→0 h 1 + cos h
[ ]
sin2 h 1 sin h sin h
[ ]
= lim · = lim ·
h→0 h 1 + cos h h→0 h 1 + cos h
sin h sin h sin h 0
[ ][ ] [ ]
D.S
= lim lim = (1) lim =
h→0 h h→0 (1 + cos h) h→0 (1 + cos h) (1 + 1)
= 0
Therefore,
(1 − cos
. h) = 0
lim
h→0 h

2.3 One-Sided Limit

Definition 2.2 (Left-Hand Limit). If a function f (x) approaches the number L as x approaches the
real number a from the LHS of a, then we say that L is the left-hand limit of f at x = a and is written
as:
lim f (x)
. = L.
− x→a

Definition 2.3 (Right-Hand Limit). If a function f (x) approaches the number L as x approaches the
real number a from the RHS of a, then we say that L is the right-hand limit of f at x = a and is
written as:
lim f (x)
. = L.
+ x→a

→ Note: the limit of f (x) as x approaches a exists if both left-hand limit and right-hand limit exist
and are equal at x = a. In that case, we have
lim f (x) = lim f.(x) = lim f (x) = L
x→a− x→a+ x→a

Example(s):

3
 x
 if x < 1
(a) Consider the function defined by f (x) = 1 if x = 1 Evaluate lim f (x).
 2−x x→1
if x > 1.


Solution

(i) LHL: lim f (x) = lim (x3 ) = 13 = 1

x→1− x→1−
(ii) RHL: lim f (x) = lim (2 − x) = 2 − 1 = 1
x→1+ x→1+
(iii) Since the result (i) = (ii), we get lim f (x) = 1
x→1

Exercise:

2
 x − 2x
 if x < 1
(a) Consider the function defined by f (x) = 2 if x = 1 . Evaluate lim f (x) and
 3x − 4 x→1−
if x > 1.


lim f (x).
x→1+
{
2 − 3x if x ≤ 1
(b) Consider the function defined by f (x) = . Does lim f (x) exist?
2x3 if x > 1 x→1
{
x if x ̸= 0
(c) Find the value of lim f (x) where f (x) =
x→0 1 if x = 0.

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 Meaning of absolute value functions

To separate (or split) the function contained in the absolute value function, do the following:
i) First identify the reference point by equating the interior term to zero.

ii) Investigate the signs of the interior expression to the left and the right of the reference point.
For example,
 If f (x) = |x − 3|. The reference point is x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x = 3. Thus,
{
−(x − 3) if x < 3
f (x) =
+(x − 3) if x ≥ 3

 If f (x) = 5 + |x + 5|. The reference point is x + 5 = 0 ⇒ x = −5. Thus,

{
5 − (x + 5) if x < −5
f (x) =
5 + (x + 5) if x ≥ −5

1


 if x < 0
2 + x

1

 If f (x) = . The reference point is x = 0. Thus, f (x) = .
2 − |x| 
 1
if x ≥ 0
 

2−x

Example(s):
|5x|
(a) Evaluate lim .
x→0 x

Solution
The reference point is 5x = 0 ⇒ x = 0. Thus, we have
{ −(5x)
|5x| x if x < 0
f (x) = = +(5x)
x x if x > 0

Now,
−5x
(i) LHL: lim f (x) = lim = −5
x→0− x→0− x
5x
(ii) RHL: lim f (x) = lim =5
x→0 + x→0 x
+

|5x|
(iii) Since (i) ̸= (ii), therefore, lim does not exist. The above problem possesses a one-sided
x→0 x
limits.
|x − 7|
( )
(b) Evaluate lim .
x→7 (x − 7)

Solution
The reference point is x − 7 = 0 ⇒ x = 7. Thus, we have
{ −(x−7)
|x − 7| x−7 = −1 if x < 7
f (x) = = +(x−7)
x−7 x−7 = +1 if x > 7

Now,

(i) LHL: lim f (x) = lim (−1) = −1

x→7− x→0−
(ii) RHL: lim f (x) = lim (+1) = 1
x→7+ x→0+

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(iii) Since (i) ̸= (ii), therefore, lim f (x) does not exist. The above problem possesses a one-sided
x→7
limits.

Exercise:
x+6
( )
(a) Evaluate lim .
x→6 |x + 6|
1
( )
(b) Evaluate lim 2 + .
x→1 |x − 1|

3 Continuity of a function
A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a if the following three conditions are satisfied:

i) f (a) is finite, i.e., f (x) must be defined at x = a.

ii) lim f (x) exists (i.e., LHL=RHL at x = a)

x→a

iii) lim f (x) = f (a), i.e., (ii)=(i)

x→a

→ Note: if at least one of these conditions is not satisfied, then f (x) is discontinuous at x = a. In
this case, we say that the point a is a discontinuity of f (i.e., f (x) has some gaps or jumps at x = a).

Example(s):
 2
x −1

 if x < −1
x+1

(a) Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) = at x = −1


x2 − 3 if x ≥ −1


Solution
We need to test the three conditions for continuity:

(i) f (−1) = (−1)2 − 3 = −2 (defined).

(ii) lim f (x):
x→−1

✘ − 1)
+✘1)(x
(x✘
( )
x2 − 1 ✘
LHL: lim f (x) = lim = lim ✘ = lim (x − 1) = −2
x→−1− x→−1− x+1 x→−1− (x✘
✘ +✘1) x→−1−

RHL: lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 3) = 1 − 3 = −2

x→−1+ x→−1+

Since LHL=RHL=-2, therefore, lim f (x) = −2

x→−1
(iii) So, as lim f (x) = f (−1) therefore, f (x) is continuous on (−4, 4).
x→−1

2x4 − 6x3 + x2 + 3
(b) Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) = at x = 1.
x−1

Solution
2x4 − 6x3 + x2 + 3
Clearly, the function f (x) = is discontinuous at x = 1. However, the point
x−1
of discontinuity can be removed by first simplifying the given function. Thus, by long division

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we have
2x3 − 4x2 − 3x − 3
2x4 − 6x3 + x2
)
x−1 +3
− 2x4 + 2x3
− 4x3 + x2
4x3 − 4x2
− 3x2
3x2 − 3x
− 3x + 3
3x − 3
0
Hence, the function can be rewritten in the simplest form f (x) = 2x3 − 4x2 − 3x − 3, which is
now continuous at x = 1 [student to verify this]. Therefore, the original function is said to have
a removable point of discontinuity.

(c) Find the value of the constants in the give problems if f (x) is continuous everywhere in the real
number line
{
4+c if x < 1
i) Given f (x) = . Find c [ans: c = 2]
4x + 2 if x ≥ 1

15x if x < −1


ii) Given f (x) = ax + b if − 1 ≤ x < 2 . Find a and b [ans: a = 3, b = 18]

12x

if x > 2

Solution
In these questions, we make use of the second condition of continuity in particular, i.e.,
LHL=RHL at any point x = a.

i) The reference point is x = 1. Thus,

LHL: lim f (x) = lim (4 + c) = 4 + c

x→1− x→1−
RHL: lim f (x) = lim (4x + 2) = 4 + 2 = 6
x→1+ x→1+

Since f (x) is continuous at x = 1, we have 4 + c = 6. Therefore, c = 2.

ii)  Case 1: Taking the reference point as x = −1. Thus,

LHL: lim f (x) = lim (15) = 15

x→−1− x→−1−
RHL: lim f (x) = lim (ax + b) = −a + b
x→−1+ x→−1+

Since f (x) is continuous at x = −1, we have −a + b = 15 (∗).

 Case 2: Taking the reference point as x = 2. Thus,

LHL: lim f (x) = lim (ax + b) = 2a + b

x→2− x→2−
RHL: lim f (x) = lim (12x) = 24
x→2+ x→2+

Since f (x) is continuous at x = 2, we have 2a + b = 24 (∗∗). Solving equations (∗) and

(∗∗) simultaneously, we obtain a = 3 and b = 18.

Exercise:

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 3
x + 27

 if x ̸= −3
x+3

(a) Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) = .


27 if x = −3


(b) Find the value of A and B so that the following function is continuous for all x.

1 − cos x
 ( )
A if x < 0


sin2 x








f (x) = 2x2 − x + B if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1




x2 + 2x − 3



if x > 1


2

x −1

Solution
✭✭ ✭
A(1 − cos(x)) A✭ −✭
(1✭ cos(x)) A
lim f (x) =
x→0− x→0−
lim
sin2 (x)
= lim
−✭
(1✭
x→0− ✭ ✭✭✭ + cos(x)) = 2
cos(x))(1
lim f (x) = lim (2x2 − x + B) = B
x→0+ x→0+

A
Since f (x) to be continuous at x = 0, we have = B − − − (∗).
2

Also,

lim f (x) = lim (2x2 − x + B) = 1 + B

x→1− x→1−
x2 + 2x − 3 (x✘ ✘ + 3)
−✘1)(x
✘ 4
lim f (x) = lim = lim ✘✘ = =2
x→1+ x→1+ x2 − 1 x→1 ✘
+ (x✘− 1)(x + 1) 2

Since f (x) to be continuous at x = 1, we have 1 + B = 2 − − − (∗∗).

Solving equations (∗) and (∗∗), we get A = 2, B = 1.

(c) Find a and b so that the following functions are continuous ∀x ∈ R:

i) 

 2, if x < 1




f (x) = ax + b, if 1 ≤ x < 2





6, if x ≥ 2


[ans: a = 4, b = −2]
ii) 

 −2x, if x < 1




f (x) = b − ax2 , if 1 ≤ x < 4





−16x, if x ≥ 4


[ans: a =, b =]

Lecture 4

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4 Derivative of functions
df
Definition 4.1 (First principle). The derivative of a function f (x) denoted by f ′ (x) or is the rate
dx
of change of f with respect to x, and is given by

f (x
. + h) − f (x) ,
[ ]
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h

for all x for which this limit exists.

The process of finding the derivative f ′ (x) is called differentiation of f (x). The above relation is
called first principle of differentiation or differentiation by the definition or differentiation of first kind.
Geometrically, consider the curve y = f (x) and let ∆x = h.

Here, ∆y = f (x + h) − f (x). So, gradient of the secant

∆y f (x + h) − f (x)
line through points A and B is = .
∆x h
Taking limit as h → 0 yields

dy f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim = f ′ (x)
dx h→0 h
Therefore,
dy . ′
= f (x)
dx

Example(s):

(a) Use first principle of differentiation to find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 .

Solution
Given f (x) = x2 , we have f (x + h) = (x + h)2 . By the first principle of differentiation, we have

f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)2 − x2
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2 2
x + 2hx + h − x 2 2hx + h2 D.S
= lim = lim = lim (2x + h) = (2x + 0)
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
= 2x

1
(b) Use first principle of differentiation to find the derivative of the following functions: (i) f (x) =
√ x
and (ii) f (x) = x.

Solution
1 1
i) Given f (x) = , we have f (x + h) = . By the first principle of differentiation, we
x x+h
have
( )
1 1
f (x + h) − f (x) x+h − x
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
x − (x + h) −h −1 D.S −1
= lim = lim = lim =
h→0 hx(x + h) h→0 hx(x + h) h→0 x(x + h) x(x + 0)
1
= − 2
x

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√ √
ii) Given f (x) = x, we have f (x + h) = x + h. By the first principle of differentiation, we
have
√ √
′ f (x + h) − f (x) x+h− x
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
√ √ √ √
( x + h − x)( x + h + x) x+h−x
= lim √ √ = lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 h( x + h + x)
h 1 D.S 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 x+h+ x x+0+ x
1
= √
2 x

Exercise:
(a) Use first principle of differentiation to find the derivative of the following functions.
i) f (x) = −x3 + 3x2 + 4 [ans: f ′ (x) = −3x2 + 6x]
3x 3
ii) f (x) = [ans: f ′ (x) = ]
1 − 5x (1 − 5x)2
−7 + 5x −29
iii) f (x) = [ans: f ′ (x) = ]
−3 − 2x (−3 − 2x)2
√ 3
iv) f (x) = 6x + 2 − 5 [ans: f ′ (x) = √ ]
6x + 2
1 −1
v) f (x) = √ [ans: f ′ (x) = √ √ ]
x+2 2 x( x + 2)2

4.1 Basic differentiation rules

 The derivative of a constant
dc
If f (x) = c (a constant) for all x, then f ′ (x) = 0 for all x. That is, = f ′.(x) = 0 .
dx

Proof. Given f (x) = c ⇒ f (x + h) = c. Thus, from the first principle, we have

f (x + h) − f (x) c−c 0
f ′ (x) = lim = lim = lim = 0
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

 The power rule

If f (x) = xn for n ∈ R, then f (x) =. nx
′ n−1
. That is, bring down the power and reduce the
power by one.

n(n − 1) n−2 2
Proof. Given f (x) = xn ⇒ f (x + h) = (x + h)n = xn + nxn−1 h + x h + · · · + hn .
2!
Thus, from the first principle, we have
n(n − 1) n−2 2
( )
xn+ nxn−1 h + x h + · · · + hn − xn
f (x + h) − f (x) 2!
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
n(n − 1)
( )
nx n−1 h+ xn−2 2
h + ··· + h n
2!
= lim
h→0 h
n(n − 1)
( )
= lim nxn−1 + xn−2 h + · · · + hn−1
h→0 2!
n(n − 1) n−2
( )
D.S
= nxn−1 + x (0) + · · · + (0)n−1 = nxn−1
2!

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For example,
i) If f (x) = 6x5 , then f ′ (x) = 30x4 .
ii) If f (x) = x10 , then f ′ (x) = 10x9 .
 The derivative of a linear combination
If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions of x and a and b are constants, then

d
[af (x) + bg(x)]. = af ′ (x) + bg ′ (x)
dx

Proof. Let y(x) = af (x) + bg(x). Thus, from the first principle, we have
dy y(x + h) − y(x) [af (x + h) + bg(x + h)] − [af (x) + bg(x)]
= lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
a[f (x + h) − f (x)] + b[g(x + h) − g(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= a lim + b lim
h→0 h h→0 h
′ ′
= af (x) + bg (x)

For example,
dy
i) If y = 24x + 8x5 , then = 24 + 40x4 .
dx
dy
ii) If y = 7x3 − 9x2 + 4x + 2, then = 21x2 − 18x + 4.
dx
 The product rule
If u(x) and v(x) are differentiable functions of x, then the product u(x)v(x) is also a differentiable
function of x, and
d .
[u(x)v(x)] = u′ (x)v(x) + u(x)v′ (x)
dx

Proof. Let y(x) = u(x)v(x). Thus, from the first principle, we have
dy y(x + h) − y(x) u(x + h)v(x + h) − u(x)v(x)
= lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
u(x + h)v(x + h) − u(x)v(x + h) + u(x)v(x + h) − u(x)v(x)
= lim
h→0 h
[u(x + h) − u(x)] v(x + h) + u(x) [v(x + h) − v(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
[u(x + h) − u(x)] v(x + h) u(x) [v(x + h) − v(x)]
= lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h
u(x + h) − u(x) v(x + h) − v(x)
[ ][ ]
= lim lim v(x + h) + u(x) lim
h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
= u′ (x)v(x) + u(x)v′ (x)

→ Note: the product rule says that the derivative of the product of two functions is formed by
multiplying the derivative of each function by the other function and then adding the results.
In general, suppose y = u1 (x)u2 (x) · · · un (x), then

dy . · · · un (x) + · · · + u1 (x)u2 (x) · · · u′ (x)

= u′1 (x)u2 (x) · · · un (x) + u1 (x)u′2 (x) n
dx

Example(s):

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(a) Find the derivative of f (x) = (1 − 5x2 )(6x2 − 4x + 1).

Solution
Let f (x) = uv, where u = 1 − 5x2 and v = 6x2 − 4x + 1. Differentiating yields u′ = −10x
and v′ = 12x − 4. Therefore,

f ′ (x) = u′ v + uv′ = (−10x)(6x2 − 4x + 1) + (1 − 5x2 )(12x − 4)

= −60x3 + 40x2 − 10x + 12x − 4 − 60x3 + 20x2
= −120x3 + 60x2 + 2x − 4

(b) Find the derivative of y = (x − 2)(x2 + 6)(x4 + 1).

Solution
Let y = uvw, where u = x − 2, v = x2 + 6 and w = x4 + 1. Differentiating yields
u′ = 1, v′ = 2x and w′ = 4x3 . Therefore,
dy
= u′ vw + uv′ w + uvw′
dx
= (1)(x2 + 6)(x4 + 1) + (x − 2)(2x)(x4 + 1) + (x − 2)(x2 + 6)(4x3 )
( ) ( ) ( )
= x6 + x2 + 6x4 + 6 + 2x x5 + x − 2x4 + 2 + 4x3 x3 + 6x − 2x2 − 12
= x6 + x2 + 6x4 + 6 + 2x6 + 2x2 − 4x5 + 4x + 4x6 + 24x4 − 8x5 − 48x3
= 7x6 − 12x5 + 30x4 − 48x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 6

 The quotient rule

u(x)
If u(x) and v(x) are differentiable functions of x, then the quotient (where v(x) ̸= 0) is also
v(x)
a differentiable function of x, and

d u(x) u′ (x)v(x) − u(x)v′ (x)

[ ]
= .
dx v(x) [v(x)]2

u(x)
Proof. Let y(x) = . Thus, from the first principle, we have
v(x)

u(x + h) u(x)
−
dy y(x + h) − y(x) v(x + h) v(x) u(x + h)v(x) − u(x)v(x + h)
= lim = lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h h→0 hv(x)v(x + h)
u(x + h)v(x) − u(x)v(x) + u(x)v(x) − u(x)v(x + h)
= lim
h→0 hv(x)v(x + h)
[u(x + h) − u(x)] v(x) − u(x) [v(x + h) − v(x)]
= lim
h→0 hv(x)v(x + h)
[u(x + h) − u(x)] [v(x + h) − v(x)]
lim v(x) − u(x) lim
= h→0 h h→0 h
lim v(x)v(x + h)
h→0
u′ (x)v(x) − u(x)v′ (x)
=
[v(x)]2

Example(s):

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2x2 + 1
(a) Differentiate y = .
x2 − 1
Solution
u
Let y = , where u = 2x2 + 1 and v = x2 − 1. Differentiating yields u′ = 4x and v ′ = 2x.
v
Therefore,

dy vu′ − uv ′ (x2 − 1)(4x) − (2x2 + 1)(2x) 4x3 − 4x − 4x3 − 2x −6x

= = = = 2
dx v2 (x2 − 1)2 (x2 − 1)2 (x − 1)2

x3
(b) Differentiate y = .
x−1
Solution
u
Let y = , where u = x3 and v = x − 1. Differentiating yields u′ = 3x2 and v ′ = 1.
v
Therefore,

dy vu′ − uv ′ (x − 1)(3x2 ) − (x3 )(1) 3x3 − 3x2 − x3 2x3 − 3x2

= 2
= 2
= 2
=
dx v (x − 1) (x − 1) (x − 1)2

 The chain rule

Suppose that y is a differentiable function of u and u is a differentiable function of x (i.e.,
y = y(u) and u = u(x)), then y is a (differentiable) function of x by extension (i.e., y = y(u(x)))
and
dy dy du
= . ·
dx du dx

→ Note: chain rule is used when we want to differentiate a function of another function.

Example(s):

(a) Differentiate with respect to x the function y = (3x + 4)4 .

Solution
dy du
Let y = u4 , where u = 3x + 4. Differentiating yields = 4u3 and = 3. Therefore,
du dx
chain rule yields
dy dy du
= · = (4u3 )(3) = 12u3 = 12(3x + 4)3
dx du dx
(b) Differentiate with respect to x the function y = (x2 + 3x)7 .

Solution
dy du
Let y = u7 , where u = x2 +3x. Differentiating yields = 7u6 and = 2x+3. Therefore,
du dx
chain rule yields
dy dy du
= · = (7u6 )(2x + 3) = 7(x2 + 3x)6 (2x + 3)
dx du dx
dy
(c) Find if y = (1 − 3x2 )5 .
dx
Solution
dy du
Let y = u5 , where u = 1 − 3x2 . Differentiating yields = 5u4 and = −6x. Therefore,
du dx
chain rule yields
dy dy du
= · = (5u4 )(−6x) = −30x(u4 ) = −30x(1 − 3x2 )4
dx du dx

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)2
dy 1 + 2x
(
(d) Find if y = .
dx 1+x
Solution
1 + 2x dy
Let y = u2 , where u =. Differentiating yields = 2u and
1+x du
du (1 + x)(2) − (1 + 2x)(1) 1
= 2
= . Therefore, chain rule yields
dx (1 + x) (1 + x)2

dy dy du 1 1 + 2x 1 2(1 + 2x)
[ ] [ ][ ]
= · = (2u) 2
=2 2
=
dx du dx (1 + x) 1+x (1 + x) (1 + x)3
√ √ √
(e) Differentiate with respect to x the function y = 1+ 1+ 1 + x.

Solution
√ √ √ dy
Let u = 1 + x, v = 1 + u, and w = 1 + v. Then, y = w. Differentiating yields = 1,
dw
du 1 dv 1 dw 1
= 1 , = 1 , and = 1 . Therefore, chain rule yields
dx 2(1 + x) 2 du 2(1 + u) 2 dv 2(1 + v) 2
[ ][ ][ ]
dy dy dw dv du 1 1 1
= · · · = (1) 1 1 1
dx dw dv du dx 2(1 + v) 2 2(1 + u) 2 2(1 + x) 2
1 1
= 1 1 1 = (√ ) (√ ) (√ )
8(1 + v) 2 (1 + u) 2 (1 + x) 2 8 1 + v 1 +u 1+x
1
= (√ ) (√
√ √ (√
√ )
)
8 1+ 1+ 1+x 1+ 1+x 1+x

→ Note: (Direct chain rule)

Consider the function y = [f (x)]n . Then, direct chain rule yields

dy . n−1 · f ′ (x)
= n [f (x)]
dx

dy
For example, if y = (1 − 3x2 )5 then DCR yields = 5(1 − 3x2 )4 (0 − 6x) = −30x(1 − 3x2 )4 .
dx

Exercise:

(a) Use chain rule to differentiate the following functions

i) y = (3x2 + 5)3
ii) y = (3x3 + 5x)2
1
iii) y = (7x2 − 4) 3
iv) y = (6x2 − 4x)−2
2
v) y = (3x2 − 5)− 3
vi) y = (1 + x4 − 2x3 )4 (1 − 4x2 )3
dy 1+x dy 1
√
(b) Find when y = . [ans: = 1 3 ]
dx 1−x dx (1 + x) 2 (1 − x) 2
√ √ √
(c) Differentiate with respect to x the function y = x+ x+ x.

Lecture 4

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4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions

 Derivative of sin x and cos x

d d
[sin x] = cos x and. [cos x] = − sin x
dx dx

Proof. i) Sine

Let f (x) = sin x. Thus, from the first principle of differentiation and using the trigonometric
identity sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A, we have

f (x + h) − f (x) sin(x + h) − sin x

f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
sin x cos h + sin h cos x − sin x − sin x(1 − cos h) + sin h cos x
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
(1 − cos h) sin h
[ ] [ ]
= − sin x lim + cos x lim = (− sin x)(0) + (cos x)(1)
h→0 h h→0 h
= cos x

ii) Cosine

Similarly, let f (x) = cos x. Thus, from the first principle of differentiation and using the
trigonometric identity cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B, we have

f (x + h) − f (x) cos(x + h) − cos x

f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
cos x cos h − sin x sin h − cos x − cos x(1 − cos h) − sin x sin h
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
(1 − cos h) sin h
[ ] [ ]
= − cos x lim − sin x lim = (− cos x)(0) − (sin x)(1)
h→0 h h→0 h
= − sin x

Example(s):

(a) Differentiate the following functions wrt x: (i) y = sin(3x + 2), (ii) y = cos3 x, (iii) y =
sin x
sin(x2 ), (iv) y = x sin(x), (v) y = , and (vi) y = cos2 (3x).
x
Solution
i) Given that y = sin(3x + 2). Let y = sin(u), where u = 3x + 2. Differentiating yields
dy du
= cos u and = 3. Therefore, chain rule yields
du dx
dy dy du
= · = (cos u)(3) = 3 cos(3x + 2)
dx du dx
dy
ii) Given that y = cos3 x. Let y = u3 , where u = cos x. Differentiating yields = 3u2
du
du
and = − sin x. Therefore, chain rule yields
dx
dy dy du
= · = (3u2 )(− sin x) = −3 sin x cos2 x
dx du dx

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4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

dy
iii) Given that y = sin(x2 ). Let y = sin(u), where u = x2 . Differentiating yields = cos u
du
du
and = 2x. Therefore, chain rule yields
dx
dy dy du
= · = (cos u)(2x) = 2x cos(x2 )
dx du dx
iv) Given that y = x sin(x). Let y = uv, where u = x and v = sin(x). Differentiating
yields u′ = 1 and v ′ = cos x. Therefore, product rule yields
dy
= uv ′ + vu′ = (x)(cos x) + (sin x)(1) = x cos x + sin x
dx
sin x u
v) Given that y = . Let y = , where u = sin x and v = x. Differentiating yields
x v
u′ = cos x and v ′ = 1. Therefore, quotient rule yields

dy vu′ − uv ′ (x)(cos x) − (sin x)(1) x cos x − sin x

= = =
dx v2 x2 x2
vi) Given that y = cos2 (3x). Let y = u2 , where u = cos(3x). Differentiating yields
dy du
= 2u and = −3 sin(3x). Therefore, chain rule yields
du dx
dy dy du
= · = (2u)[−3 sin(3x)] = −6 cos(3x) sin(3x)
dx du dx
√ dy 1√
(b) If y = 1 + sin x, show that = 1 − sin x.
dx 2
Solution
1 dy 1 1 du
Let y = u 2 , where u = 1 + sin x. Differentiating yields = u− 2 and = cos x.
du 2 dx
Therefore, chain rule yields
dy dy du 1 −1 cos x cos x
( )
= · = u 2 (cos x) = √ = √
dx du dx 2 2 u 2 1 + sin x
√ √ √
1 cos x 1 − sin x 1 cos x 1 − sin x 1 cos x 1 − sin x
= √ √ = √ = √
2 ( 1 + sin x)( 1 − sin x) 2 1 − sin2 x 2 cos2 x
1√
= 1 − sin x
2
dy
(c) Find if y = sin(cos x).
dx
Solution
dy du
Let y = sin u, where u = cos x. Differentiating yields = cos u and = − sin x.
du dx
Therefore, chain rule yields
dy dy du
= · = (cos u)(− sin x) = − cos(cos x) sin x
dx du dx
In general,

d . d
[sin (f (x))] = f ′ (x) cos (f (x)) and [cos (f (x))] = −f ′ (x) sin (f (x))
dx dx

Exercise:
dy √
(a) Find if y = sin( x).
dx

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4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

1 + sin x dy 1
√
(b) If y = , show that = .
1 − sin x dx 1 − sin x
(c) If m is a positive integer, find the differential coefficients with respect to x of (i) sinm x and
(ii) sin(xm ).
(d) Differentiate the following functions with respect to x: (i) y = sin 3x, (ii) y = cos(x2 ),
√ cos 2x
(iii) y = sin 2x, (iv) y = 4 sin2 ( x2 ), (v) y = sin x cos 2x, (vi) y = , and (vii)
sin 3x
2
y = 2 cos x + 2x sin x − x cos x.

 Derivative of tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x

I Tangent

sin x
Let y = tan x = . Differentiating using quotient rule yields
cos x
dy (cos x)(cos x) − (sin x)(− sin x) cos2 x + sin2 x 1
= 2
= 2
= = sec2 x
dx cos x cos x cos2 x
d
Therefore, [tan x]. = sec2 x .
dx
II Cotangent
cos x
Let y = cot x = . Differentiating using quotient rule yields
sin x
− sin2 x + cos2 x
[ ]
dy (sin x)(− sin x) − (cos x)(cos x) −1
= 2 = 2 = = −cosec2 x
dx sin x sin x sin2 x
d
Therefore, [cot x] =. −cosec2 x .
dx
III Secant

1
Let y = sec x = . Differentiating using quotient rule yields
cos x
dy (cos x)(0) − (1)(− sin x) sin x 1 sin x
= 2
= 2
= · = sec x tan x
dx cos x cos x cos x cos x
d
Therefore, [sec x] =. sec x tan x .
dx
IV Cosecant

1
Let y = cosec x = . Differentiating using quotient rule yields
sin x
dy (sin x)(0) − (1)(cos x) − cos x −1 cos x
= = = · = −cosec x cot x
dx sin2 x sin2 x sin x sin x
d
Therefore, [cosec x] = .−cosec x cot x .
dx

In summary, we have

f (x) f ′ (x)
sin x cos x
cos x − sin x
tan x sec2 x
cosec x −cosec x cot x
sec x sec x tan x
cot x −cosec2 x

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4.2 Derivative of trigonometric functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

Example(s):
(a) Differentiate the following functions with respect to x: (i) y = tan 2x, (ii) y = cot 3x, (iii)
x
y = 3 sec 2x, (iv) y = sec x tan x, (v) y = x2 cot x, and (vi) y = .
tan x
Solution
dy
i) Given that y = tan 2x. Let y = tan u, where u = 2x. Differentiating yields = sec2 u
du
du
and = 2. Therefore, chain rule yields
dx
dy dy du
= · = (sec2 u)(2) = 2 sec2 (2x)
dx du dx
dy
ii) Given that y = cot 3x. Let y = cot u, where u = 3x. Differentiating yields =
du
du
−cosec2 u and = 3. Therefore, chain rule yields
dx
dy dy du
= · = (−cosec2 u)(3) = −3cosec2 (3x)
dx du dx
dy
iii) Given that y = 3 sec 2x. Let y = 3 sec u, where u = 2x. Differentiating yields =
du
du
3 sec u tan u and = 2. Therefore, chain rule yields
dx
dy dy du
= · = (3 sec u tan u)(2) = 6 sec(2x) tan(2x)
dx du dx
iv) Given that y = sec x tan x. Let y = uv, where u = sec x and v = tan x. Differentiating
yields u′ = sec x tan x and v ′ = sec2 x. Therefore, product rule yields
dy
= uv ′ + vu′ = (sec x)(sec2 x) + (tan x)(sec x tan x) = sec3 x + sec x tan2 x
dx
v) Given that y = x2 cot x. Let y = uv, where u = x2 and v = cot x. Differentiating
yields u′ = 2x and v ′ = −cosec2 x. Therefore, product rule yields
dy
= uv ′ + vu′ = (x2 )(−cosec2 x) + (cot x)(2x) = 2x cot x − x2 cosec2 x
dx
x u
vi) Given that y = . Let y = , where u = x and v = tan x. Differentiating yields
tan x v
u′ = 1 and v ′ = sec2 x. Therefore, quotient rule yields
dy vu′ − uv ′ (tan x)(1) − (x)(sec2 x) tan x − x sec2 x
= = 2 =
dx v2 tan x tan2 x
In general,
d d
[tan (f (x))] = f ′ (x) sec2 (f (x)) and. [cot (f (x))] = −f ′ (x)cosec2 (f (x))
dx dx

d d
[sec (f (x))] = f ′ (x) sec (f (x)) tan (f (x)) and . [cosec (f (x))] = −f ′ (x)cosec (f (x)) cot (f (x))
dx dx

Exercise:
(a) Differentiate the following functions with respect to x: (i) y = sec2 2x, (ii) y = 3 sec x tan x,
( ) sec x
(iii) y = −cosec2 21 x , and (iv) y = .
x
dy
(b) If y = (tan x + sec x)m , where m is a positive integer. Show that = my sec x.
dx

Lecture 5

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4.3 Derivative of exponential functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

4.3 Derivative of exponential functions

An exponential function of x is defined by y = ex − −(∗) or y = exp(x). Consider an exponential
function of the form (∗). Then,
d x.
[e ] = ex
dx

Proof. Given y(x) = ex ⇒ y(x + h) = ex+h = ex eh . Thus, by the first principle of differentiation,
we have [ ] [ ]
y(x + h) − y(x) ex eh − ex eh − 1
[ ]
′
y (x) = lim = lim = ex lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
From the table, we have
h 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 -0.01 -0.001 [
eh − 1
]
h
e −1 Hence, lim =1
1.0005 1.05 h→0 h
h
Therefore, y ′ (x) = ex (1) = ex .
dy
In general, suppose y = ef (x) . Let y = eu , where u = f (x). Differentiating yields = eu and
du
du dy dy du
= f ′ (x). By chain rule, we have = · = eu · f ′ (x) = f ′ (x)ef (x) . Therefore,
dx dx du dx

d [ f (x) ] . ′
e = f (x)ef (x)
dx

Example(s):
dy 2
(a) Find given (i) y = e−6x and (ii) y = ex
dx

Solution
du dy
i) Given y = e−6x . Let u = −6x ⇒ y = eu . Differentiating we get = −6 and = eu .
dx du
dy dy du dy
Hence, chain rule yields = · = −6eu = −6e−6x . Therefore, = −6e−6x .
dx du dx dx
2 du dy
ii) Given y = ex . Let u = x2 ⇒ y = eu . Differentiating we get = 2x and = eu .
dx du
dy dy du 2 dy 2
Hence, chain rule yields = · = 2xeu = 2xex . Therefore, = 2xex .
dx du dx dx
(b) Differentiate the following functions with respect to x: (i) y = 2e−3x + e4x and (ii) y = 2esin 3θ .

Solution
Using direct chain rule, we have
dy d [ −3x ] d [ 4x ] d d
[ ] [ ]
i) =2 e + e = 2 e−3x (−3x) + e4x (4x) = −6e−3x + 4e4x .
dx dx dx dx dx
dy d [ sin 3θ ] d
[ ]
ii) =2 e =2 e sin 3θ (sin 3θ) = 2esin 3θ (3 cos 3θ) = 6esin 3θ cos 3θ.
dθ dθ dθ
dy
(c) If y = e−2x cos 4x, find .
dx

Solution
Product rule yields
dy d d [ −2x ]
= e−2x [cos 4x] + cos 4x e = −4e−2x sin 4x − 2e−2x cos 4x
dx dx dx

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4.4 Derivative of natural logarithmic functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

Exercise:
dy
1. Find given:
dx
√ √ √
2
i) y = xe x + e x +1
e2x
ii) y =
1 + x2 e3x
)4
iii) y = 6 + e3x cos 4x
(

iv) y = esin 5x + 2x2 ecos 3x

( 2 +6x
)
v) y = e3x cos (ex + e−x )
1
vi) y = etan(4+sin 3x) + + 6.
e2x + e5x

4.4 Derivative of natural logarithmic functions

A natural logarithm function of x is logarithm of x to base e. For example, ln |x| = loge x. Thus, x
can be rewritten as x = eln x . Similarly, y = eln y , a = eln a , etc. Suppose y = ln x. Then,

d . = 1
[ln x]
dx x

Proof. Given y = ln x. Taking exponential on both sides yields ey = x. Differentiating both sides
dy dy 1 1 dy 1
with respect to x yields ey =1 ⇒ = y = . Therefore, = .
dx dx e x dx x
In general, suppose y = ln[f (x)]. Then, ey = f (x). Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy f ′ (x) f ′ (x)
ey = f ′ (x) ⇒ = y =
dx dx e f (x)

Therefore,
d ′
. = f (x)
{ln[f (x)]}
dx f (x)

Example(s):
(√ )
dy x2 + 1
(a) Find given: (i) y = ln(x2 ), (ii) y = ln(cos 2x), (iii) y = ln √ .
dx 3
x3 + 1

Solution
du
i) Given y = ln(x2 ). Let u = x2 ⇒ y = ln(u). Differentiating yields = 2x and
dx
dy 1 1 dy dy du 2x 2
= = 2 . Hence, chain rule yields = · = 2 = . Therefore,
du u x dx du dx x x
dy 2
=
dx x
dy 1 du
ii) Let y = ln(u) where u = cos 2x. Differentiating yields = and = −2 sin 2x. Hence,
du u dx
dy dy du −2 sin 2x −2 sin 2x
chain rule yields = · = = = −2 tan 2x. Therefore,
dx du dx u cos 2x
dy
= −2 tan 2x
dx

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4.4 Derivative of natural logarithmic functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

(√ ) [ ]
x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)1/2 1 ( 2 1 (
ln x + 1 − ln x3 + 1 .
) )
iii) Given y = ln √ ⇒ y = ln =
3
x3 + 1 (x3 + 1)1/3 2 3
1 ( 2 ) 1 (
ln x + 1 − ln x3 + 1 . Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields
)
Thus, y =
2 3
dy 1 d [ ( 2 )] 1 d [ ( )]
= ln x + 1 − ln x3 + 1
dx 2 dx 3 dx
1 d ( 2 ) 1 d ( 3 ) 1 1 (
2
)
= x + 1 − x + 1 = (2x) − 3x
2 (x2 + 1) dx 3 (x3 + 1) dx 2 (x2 + 1) 3 (x3 + 1)
x x2 x(x3 + 1) − x2 (x2 + 1) x4 + x − x4 − x2 )
= − = =
(x2 + 1) (x3 + 1) (x2 + 1)(x3 + 1) (x2 + 1)(x3 + 1)
x−x 2
=
(x + 1)(x3 + 1)
2

dy
(b) Find given that y = sin (ln 2x).
dx

Solution
Let y = sin u, where u = ln 2x. Thus, chain rule yields

dy dy du 1 d 1 cos u cos(ln 2x)

[ ] [ ]
= · = (cos u) · (2x) = (cos u) = =
dx du dx 2x dx x x x

dy 1+x
√
(c) Find given y = .
dx 1−x

Solution
1+x
√
Given y = . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields
1−x
)1/2
1+x 1 1+x 1
( ( )
ln y = ln = ln = [ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x)]
1−x 2 1−x 2
1
Thus, ln y = [ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x)]. Differentiating with respect to x yields
2
d 1 d d
{ }
[ln y] = [ln(1 + x)] − [ln(1 − x)]
dx 2 dx dx
1 dy 1 1 d 1 d 1 1 1
{ } { }
⇒ = (1 + x) − (1 − x) = +
y dx 2 (1 + x) dx (1 − x) dx 2 1+x 1−x
1
=
1 − x2
Therefore,
√
dy 1 1 1+x 1 (1 + x)1/2 1
= y= = · =
dx 1 − x2 1 − x2 1−x (1 + x)(1 − x) (1 − x)1/2 (1 + x)1/2 (1 − x)3/2

Exercise:
√ dy dy ex
i) If y = ( x − 1)ex ln x, find (2x2 − x) ln x + 2x − 2 ]
{ }
(a) . = √ [ans:
dx dx 2x x − 1
√ π
ii) Find the gradient of the curve y = ln( 1 + sin 2x) at the point where x = . [ans: = -1]
2
dy
(b) Find given:
dx
√
i) y = ln 2x + 6

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4.5 Implicit differentiation c

⃝Francis Oketch

√ √
ii) y = x ln( x)
1 + 2x2 ln 3x
iii) y = √
1 + sec(ln 2x)
1 1
iv) y = −
1 + 2 ln 46x sin(ln(15x2 ))
√ )6
v) y = 2x2 + ln x (1 + 2x sec 2x)3
(

vi) y = cot ln 2x + e3x

( )

Lecture 6

4.5 Implicit differentiation

An implicit function is a function where the dependent variable y is not expressed explicitly in terms
dy
of the independent variable x (i.e., a function where y is not the subject of the formula). To find ,
dx
follow these steps:

i) Differentiate x normally

ii) Apply direct chain rule in differentiating y

dy
iii) Collect like terms and make the subject
dx

Example(s):
dy
1. Find given x4 + y 5 = 125.
dx

Solution
Differentiating the given equation implicitly with respect to x, we get

dy dy 4x3
4x3 + 5y 4 =0 ⇒ =− 4
dx dx 5y

dy
2. Find given y + xy + y 2 = 2.
dx

Solution
Differentiating the given equation implicitly with respect to x, we get
dy dy dy dy −y
+x + (1)y + 2y =0 ⇒ =
dx dx dx dx 1 + x + 2y

dy
3. Find when y 3 − 3x2 y + 2x3 = 0.
dx

Solution
Differentiating the given equation implicitly with respect to x, we get
dy dy dy
3y 2 − 3x2 − 6xy + 6x2 = 0 ⇒ (3y 2 − 3x2 ) = 6xy − 6x2
dx dx dx
Therefore,
dy 6x(y − x) 6x(y − x) 2x
= 2 2
= =
dx 3(y − x ) 3(y + x)(y − x) y+x

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4.6 Differentiation of other forms of exponential functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

√ dy x
4. If y 2 − 2y 1 + x2 + x2 = 0, show that =√ .
dx 1 + x2

Solution
Differentiating the given equation implicitly with respect to x, we get
dy √ dy 1 ) dy 2xy
[ ]
1
( √
2y −2 1 + x2 −2y (1 + x2 )− 2 (2x)+2x = 0 ⇒ 2y − 2 1 + x2 =√ −2x
dx dx 2 dx 1 + x2
Therefore,
2xy √
√ − 2x
( )
2x y − 1 + x2
dy 2 x
= 1+√ x = √ ( √ ) = √
dx 2y − 2 1 + x2 2 1 + x2 y − 1 + x2 1 + x2

Exercise:
dy
1. Find given:
dx
(a) xy 3 − 2x2 y 2 + x4 = 1
(b) x2 sin y − y cos x = 10x3
(c) x cos y − y 2 sin x = 2
2
(d) exy = 10 x2 + y 2
( )
√
(e) ln(x2 + y) = sin(xy 2 )
(f) tan y sin x = cos(xy)
(g) cos(x + y) sin(x − y) = 20x2
2 30
(h) y 2 ex y = √
xy
x+y
( )
(i) ln = 10x2
x2 y

4.6 Differentiation of other forms of exponential functions

Consider exponential functions of the form

I: A constant raised to a function (e.g., y = 10tan 3x )

In this case, introduce natural logarithm on both sides first. On the left differentiate implicitly
and on the right hand side differentiate normally.

Example(s):
dy 2 2
(a) Find given: (i) y = ax where a is a constant, (ii) y = 3−x +6x+10 , and (iii) y = 4sin 5x .
dx
Solution
2
i) Given y = ax . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields

ln y = x2 ln a

Differentiating with respect to x yields

d d 2 1 dy dy
[ln y] = [x ln a] ⇒ = 2x ln a ⇒ = 2xy ln a
dx dx y dx dx
dy 2
Therefore, = 2xax ln a.
dx

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4.6 Differentiation of other forms of exponential functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

2 +6x+10
ii) Given y = 3−x . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields
ln y = (−x2 + 6x + 10) ln 3
Differentiating with respect to x yields
1 dy dy
= (−2x + 6) ln 3 ⇒ = (−2x + 6)y ln 3
y dx dx
dy 2
Therefore, = (−2x + 6)3−x +6x+10 ln 3.
dx
iii) Given y = 4sin 5x . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields
ln y = sin 5x ln 4
Differentiating with respect to x yields
1 dy dy
= 5 cos 5x ln 4 ⇒ = (5 cos 5x)y ln 4
y dx dx
dy
Therefore, = (5 cos 5x)4sin 5x ln 4.
dx

Exercise:
dy dy
i) Find given y = ax + bx , where a and b are constants. [ans: = ax ln a + bx ln b]
dx dx
II: A function raised to a function (e.g., y = xtan 3x )
In this case, introduce natural logarithm on both sides first. On the left differentiate implicitly
and on the right hand side differentiate using product rule.

Example(s):
dy 2
( 2 )x
(a) Find given: (i) y = xx , (ii) y = (tan x)x , (iii) y = (sin 4x)x , and (iv) y = ex .
dx
Solution
i) Given y = xx . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields
ln y = x ln x
Differentiating with respect to x yields
d d
[ln y] = [x ln x]
dx dx
1 dy d d 1
⇒ = x [ln x] + ln x (x) = x · + ln x
y dx dx dx x
= 1 + ln x
dy
Therefore, = y(1 + ln x) = xx (1 + ln x).
dx
ii) Given y = (tan x)x . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields
ln y = x ln(tan x)
Differentiating with respect to x yields
d d
[ln y] = [x ln(tan x)]
dx dx
1 dy d d sec2 x
⇒ = x [ln(tan x)] + ln(tan x) (x) = x · + ln(tan x)
y dx dx dx tan x
x sec2 x
= + ln(tan x)
tan x
( ) ( )
dy x sec2 x x x sec2 x
Therefore, =y + ln(tan x) = (tan x) + ln(tan x) .
dx tan x tan x

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4.6 Differentiation of other forms of exponential functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

2
iii) Given y = (sin 4x)x . Taking natural logarithm on both sides yields

ln y = x2 ln(sin 4x)

Differentiating with respect to x yields

d d 2
[ln y] = [x ln(sin 4x)]
dx dx
1 dy d d 4 cos 4x
⇒ = x2 [ln(sin 4x)] + ln(sin 4x) (x2 ) = x2 · + 2x ln(sin 4x)
y dx dx dx sin 4x
= 4x2 cot 4x + 2x ln(sin 4x)
dy 2 [
= y 4x2 cot 4x + 2x ln(sin 4x) = (sin 4x)x 4x2 cot 4x + 2x ln(sin 4x) .
[ ] ]
Therefore,
dx

Exercise:

(b) Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

dy cos x
( )
i) y = xcos x . [ans: = xcos x − sin x ln x + ]
dx x
dy
ii) y = (sin x)x . [ans: = (sin x)x (ln(sin x) + x cot x)]
dx
dy 1 + 2x
( )
iii) y = (x + x2 )x . [ans: 2 x
= (x + x ) ln(x + x ) + 2 ]
dx 1+x )
dy y 1
(
iv) y x = x. [ans: = − ln y ]
dx x( x
dy 1 y
)
v) xy = sin x. [ans: = cot x − ]
dx (ln x x)
√ dy y 1
vi) y sin x = x. [ans: = − cot x ln y ]
dx sin x 2x
dy
(b) Find given:
dx
i) y = (cos 3x)sin 3x
ii) y = ax + sin (2x )
iii) y = (cos x)x + 2x2
y = sin a2x + 3x
( )
iv)

III: Derivatives of other logarithmic functions e.g., y = log2 (3x2 + 1)

dy
To find , first convert the logarithm to index notation then introduce natural logarithm on
dx
both sides.

Example(s):
dy
(a) Find given: (i) y = log2 (3x2 + 1), (ii) y = logsin x x, and (iii) y = logx (cos 3x)
dx
Solution
i) Given y = log2 (3x2 + 1). In index notation, we have 2y = 3x2 + 1. Taking natural
logarithm on both sides yields

y ln 2 = ln(3x2 + 1)

Differentiating with respect to x yields

d d dy 6x
[y ln 2] = [ln(3x2 + 1)] ⇒ ln 2 = 2
dx dx dx 3x + 1
dy 6x
Therefore, = .
dx (3x2 + 1) ln 2

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4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

ii) Given y = logsin x x. In index notation, we have (sin x)y = x. Taking natural logarithm
on both sides yields
y ln(sin x) = ln x
Differentiating with respect to x yields
cos x dy 1 dy 1
y + ln(sin x) = ⇒ y cot x + ln(sin x) =
sin x dx x dx x
dy 1 1
( )
Therefore, = − y cot x .
dx x ln(sin x)
iii) Given y = logx (cos 3x). In index notation, we have xy = cos 3x. Taking natural
logarithm on both sides yields

y ln x = ln(cos 3x)

Differentiating with respect to x yields

y dy −3 sin 3x y dy
+ ln(x) = ⇒ + ln(x) = −3 tan 3x
x dx cos 3x x dx
dy y 1
( )
Therefore, = − − 3 tan 3x .
dx x ln x

Lecture 7

4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions

y = sin−1 x = arcsin x, y = cos−1 x = arccos x, y = tan−1 x = arctan x
y = cosec−1 x = arccosec x, y = sec−1 x = arcsec x, y = cot−1 x = arccot x.
1 1
→ Note: sin−1 x ̸= , cos−1 x ̸= , etc.
sin x cos x

4.7.1 Derivative of inverse trigonometric functions

dy
To find , follow these steps
dx
i) Introduce the trigonometric function corresponding to the given inverse on both sides of the
given equation

ii) Differentiate implicitly on the left hand side and differentiate normally on the right hand side.
dy
iii) Make the subject.
dx
To find a suitable form of the trigonometric function in the denominator,

 put the given equation in place of y, or

 replace the denominator by either making use of trigonometric identities or draw a right angled
triangle and find the missing side using Pythagoras theorem, as follows:

For example,

I Let y = sin−1 x ⇒ sin y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy 1
cos y = 1 ⇒ =
dx dx cos y
dy 1
 Formula 1: putting y = sin−1 x in place of y yields = ( )
dx cos sin−1 x

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4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

 Formula 2:
 using the identity cos2 y + sin2 y = 1
√
⇒ cos y = 1 − sin2 y. Thus,
dy 1 dy 1
=√ . Putting sin y = x yields =√ , or
dx 1 − sin2 y dx 1 − x2
 using the right angled triangle

From sin y = x, we have opposite is x and hypotenuse

√ is 1. From
x 1
Pythagoras theorem, the adjacent is given by 1 − x2 . From the
y √ dy 1
. diagram, cos y = 1 − x2 . Hence, =√
√ dx 1 − x2
1 − x2

d [ −1 ] 1
Therefore, dx sin x . = √ .
1 − x2

II Let y = cos−1 x ⇒ cos y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy −1 −1 −1
− sin y = 1 ⇒ = =√ =√
dx dx sin y 2
1 − cos y 1 − x2

d [ −1 ] −1
Therefore, dx cos x . = √ .
1 − x2

III Let y = tan−1 x ⇒ tan y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields
dy dy 1 1 1
sec2 y = 1 ⇒ = 2
= 2 =
dx dx sec y 1 + tan y 1 + x2

d [ −1 .] 1
Therefore, tan x = .
dx 1 + x2

IV Let y = cot−1 x ⇒ cot y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy −1 −1 −1
−cosec2 y = 1 ⇒ = 2
= 2 =
dx dx cosec y 1 + cot y 1 + x2

d [ −1 .] −1
Therefore, cot x = .
dx 1 + x2

V Let y = sec−1 x ⇒ sec y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy 1 1 1
sec y tan y = 1 ⇒ = = (√ ) = √
dx dx sec y tan y sec y sec2 y − 1 x x2 − 1

d [ −1 ] . 1
Therefore, dx sec x = √ 2 .
x x −1

VI Let y = cosec−1 x ⇒ cosec y = x. Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields

dy dy −1 −1 −1
−cosec y cot y = 1 ⇒ = = (√ ) = √
dx dx cosec y cot y cosec y 2
cosec y − 1 x x2 − 1

d [ ] −1
Therefore, dx cosec x . = √ 2
−1
.
x x −1

Example(s):

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4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

dy
(a) Find if y = sin−1 (2x2 + x + 1).
dx

Solution
dy 1 du
Let y = sin−1 u, where u = 2x2 + x + 1. Differentiating yields =√ and = 4x + 1.
du 1 − u2 dx
Therefore, chain rule yields
dy dy du 1 4x + 1
( )
= · = √ (4x + 1) = √
dx du dx 1 − u2 1 − (2x2 + x + 1)2

dy
(b) Find if y = cos−1 (2x + 1).
dx

Solution
dy −1 du
Let y = cos−1 u, where u = 2x + 1. Differentiating yields =√ and = 2. Therefore,
du 1−u2 dx
chain rule yields
dy dy du −1 −2
( )
= · = √ (2) = √
dx du dx 1−u2 1 − (2x + 1)2

dy
(c) Find if y = tan−1 (cos x + x).
dx

Solution
dy 1 du
Let y = tan−1 u, where u = cos x + x. Differentiating yields = and = − sin x + 1.
du 1 + u2 dx
Therefore, chain rule yields
dy dy du 1 − sin x + 1
( )
= · = 2
(− sin x + 1) =
dx du dx 1+u 1 + (cos x + x)2

(d) Differentiate y = x sin−1 x with respect to x.

Solution
1
Let y = uv, where u = x and v = sin−1 x. Differentiating yields u′ = 1 and v ′ = √ .
1 − x2
Therefore, product rule yields
dy 1 x
( )
= uv ′ + vu′ = (x) √ + (sin−1 x)(1) = √ + sin−1 x
dx 1 − x2 1−x2

dθ
(e) Find when (i) θ = cos−1 (1 − 2t2 ) and (ii) θ = sin−1 (2t3 − 1).
dt

Solution

i) Given that θ = cos−1 (1 − 2t2 ). Let θ = cos−1 u, where u = 1 − 2t2 . Differentiating yields
dθ −1 du
=√ and = −4t. Therefore, chain rule yields
du 1−u 2 dt

dθ dθ du −1 4t 4t
( )
= · = √ (−4t) = √ = √
dt du dt 1 − u2 1 − (1 − 2t2 )2 1 − 1 + 4t2 − 4t4
4t 4t 2
= √
2 2
= √ =√
4t (1 − t ) 2t 1 − t 2 1 − t2

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4.7 Inverse trigonometric functions c

⃝Francis Oketch

ii) Given that θ = sin−1 (2t3 − 1). Let θ = sin−1 u, where u = 2t3 − 1. Differentiating yields
dθ 1 du
=√ and = 6t2 . Therefore, chain rule yields
du 1−u 2 dt

dθ dθ du 1 6t2 6t2
( )
= · = √ (6t2 ) = √ = √
dt du dt 1 − u2 1 − (2t3 − 1)2 1 − 4t6 + 4t3 − 1
4t 6t2 3t
= √ = √ =√
2 4
4t (t − t ) 2t t − t 4 t − t4

d dy 2
{ }
)2
(1 + x2 )
(
(f) If y = tan−1 x , prove that = .
dx dx 1 + x2

dy du 1
Proof. Let y = u2 , where u = tan−1 x. Differentiating yields = 2u and = .
du dx 1 + x2
Therefore, chain rule yields

dy dy du 1 2 tan−1 x
( )
= · = (2u) =
dx du dx 1 + x2 1 + x2
Now,
{ }
d dy d 2 tan−1 x d { 2
{ } }
(1 + x2 ) = (1 + x ) 2
= 2 tan−1 x =
dx dx dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + x2

Exercise:
dy
(a) i) If y = sin−1 (cos x), show that = −1.
dx
√ dy
ii) If y = sin−1 (3x − 4x3 ), show that 1 − x2 = 3.
dx
)2 √ √ du
iii) If u = θ2 + sin−1 θ − 2θ 1 − θ2 sin−1 θ, show that 1 − θ2 = 4θ2 sin−1 θ.
(
dθ
√
2 sin−1 )x 2 , (ii) y =
( )
(b) Find the( derivative
)
of the following functions: (i) y = x tan−1 x, and (iii)
−1
y = sin tan x .
dy √ dy 1
(c) Find given that y = sin−1 x. [ans: = √ ]
dx dx 2 x − x2
dy
(d) Find given:
dx
1
i) y = esin
−1 (3x)
+
2x + cos−1 (4x)
ii) y = 2x + cos−1 (4x)
iii) y = ln x2 + 2x
( )

sin−1 (3x)
iv) y =
23x + sin 3x
v) y = cosec−1 (3x)
vi) y = x2 cosec−1 (4x)
vii) y = xx sin−1 (2x)

CAT 1

Lecture 8

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4.8 Parametric differentiation c

⃝Francis Oketch

4.8 Parametric differentiation

If both x and y are defined as functions of another variable (parameter), say t, i.e., x = x(t), y = y(t),
then
dy dy dx dy/dt
( ) ( )
= ÷. =
dx dt dt dx/dt

Example(s):
dy
1. Find , in terms of the parameter t, when (a) x = at2 , y = 2at, (b) x = (t + 1)2 , y = (t2 − 1),
dx
and (c) x = cos−1 (3t), y = sin−1 (3t).

Solution
dx dy dy dy/dt 2a 1
(a) = 2at, = 2a. Therefore, = = = .
dt dt dx dx/dt 2at t
dx dy dy dy/dt 2t t
(b) = 2(t + 1), = 2t. Therefore, = = = .
dt dt dx dx/dt 2(t + 1) t+1
dx
(c) Rewrite as cos x = 3t, sin y = 3t. Differentiating with respect to t yields − sin x = 3 and
dt
dy dx 3 3 dy 3 3
cos y = 3. Hence, =− = −√ and = = √ . Therefore,
dt dt ) sin ( x 1)− 9t 2 dt cos y 1 − 9t2
dy dy/dt 3 3
(
= = √ ÷ −√ = −1.
dx dx/dt 1 − 9t 2 1 − 9t2

Exercise:
dy
(a) Find given:
dx
i) x = ln(2t2 ), y = ln(4 + t2 )
ii) x = 2t , y = 2−t
iii) x = tan−1 (2t), y = sec−1 (2t)
iv) x = t sin(t2 ), y = t3 cos(t2 )
t2 1 − t2
v) x = , y =
1 + t2 1 + t2
t
vi) x = e cos 2t, y = e−t sin 2t
vii) x = θ − sin 2θ, y = θ + cos 2θ
viii) x = a cos3 θ, y = b sin3 θ

4.9 Higher order derivatives

Suppose y(x) is an n−times differentiable function of x. Then,
dy
First derivative of y(x) is given by = y ′ (x)
dx ( )
d dy d2 y
Second derivative of y(x) is given by = 2 = y ′′ (x)
dx ( dx ) dx
d d2 y d3 y
Third derivative of y(x) is given by = = y ′′′ (x)
dx dx2 dx3
.. ..
. ( . )
d dn−1 y dn y
nth derivative of y(x) is given by = = y (n) (x)
dx dxn−1 dxn

Example(s):

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4.9 Higher order derivatives c

⃝Francis Oketch

dy d2 y d3 y d4 y
1. Given that y = 4x3 − 6x2 − 9x + 1, find , 2 , 3 , and .
dx dx dx dx4

Solution
dy d2 y d3 y d4 y
= 12x2 − 12x − 9, = 24x − 12, = 24, = 0.
dx dx2 dx3 dx4
d2 y d3 y
2. Find and when (a) y = x10 and (b) y = cos 2x.
dx2 dx3

Solution
dy d2 y d3 y
(a) = 10x9 , 2
= 90x8 , = 720x7 .
dx dx dx3
dy d2 y d3 y
(b) = −2 sin 2x, = −4 cos 2x, = 8 sin 2x.
dx dx2 dx3
cos x d2 y 2 dy
3. If y = , prove that 2
+ + y = 0.
x dx x dx
d d
dy x [cos x] − cos x [x] −x sin x − cos x
Proof. Quotient rule yields = dx 2
dx = .
dx x x2
d d
d2 y x2 [−x sin x − cos x] − (−x sin x − cos x) [x2 ]
= dx dx
dx2 x4
x2 (−x cos x − sin x + sin x) + (x sin x + cos x)(2x) −x3 cos x + 2x2 sin x + 2x cos x
= =
x4 x4
2
−x cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x
=
x3
Now,
d2 y 2 dy −x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x 2 −x sin x − cos x cos x
( )
2
+ +y = 3
+ 2
+
dx x dx x x x x
2 2
−x cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x − 2x sin x − 2 cos x + x cos x
=
x3
= 0

d3 d3 u d2 u dv du d2 v d3 v
4. Given that u and v are functions of x, show that (uv) = v + 3 + 3 + u .
dx3 dx3 dx2 dx dx dx2 dx3
Proof.
[ ]
d3 d d2 d d d d d du dv
[ { }] [ { }]
(uv) = (uv) = (uv) = v+u (product rule)
dx3 dx dx2 dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
[ ]
d d2 u du dv d2 v d3 u d2 u dv d2 u dv du d2 v du d2 v d3 v
= v + 2 + u = v + + 2 + 2 + + u
dx dx2 dx dx dx2 dx3 dx2 dx dx2 dx dx dx2 dx dx2 dx3
d3 u d2 u dv du d2 v d3 v
= v + 3 + 3 + u
dx3 dx2 dx dx dx2 dx3

Exercise:
d2 y 2 ) sin x, (b) y = x tan−1 x, (c) y = x
2
1. Find when (a) y = (1+4x+x , (d) y = (3x−sin 2x)2 ,
dx2 1+x
2
and (e) y = ln(3x3 + 4x − 1) + xex .

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c
⃝Francis Oketch

sin x dy d2 y 2
2 d y + 4x dy + (x2 + 2)y = 0.
2. If y = , find and . Hence, prove that x
x dx dx2 dx2 dx

Lecture 9

5 Applications of differentiation
5.1 Equation of a tangent line and normal line to a curve
Consider the diagram below

A tangent line to a curve is a line that touches the

curve at one point, say (x0 , y0 ), while a normal
line to a curve is a line perpendicular to the
tangent line and passes through the point (x0 , y0 ).

dy
1. The rate of change of y with respect to x, i.e., = y ′ (x), gives the gradient function to the
dx
curve y = f (x).
dy
2. If y ′ (x) (or ) is evaluated at point x = x0 , the result is the gradient of the tangent line at the
dx
point x = x0 .

3. Since the normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line, the product of their gradients must
be equal to −1, i.e.,
m1 × m.2 = −1 ,

where m1 and m2 represents the gradient of the tangent line and normal line, respectively.

4. To find the equation of a straight line, we require a known point (x0 , y0 ), a general point (x, y),
∆y
which must all lie on the line, and the gradient, m = , of the line. Thus, the equation of a
∆x
straight line is given by
y − y0.
=m
x − x0

Example(s):

1. Find the equation of the tangent line and normal line to the curve x2 + 2xy + 3y 2 = 17 at point
(1, 2).

Solution
Clearly, the point (1, 2) lies on the given curve. Now, differentiating the given curve implicitly
dy dy
with respect to x yields 2x + 2x + 2y + 6y = 0. Therefore,
dx dx
dy −(x + y)
=
dx x + 3y

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5.1 Equation of a tangent line and normal line to a curve c

⃝Francis Oketch

dy −(1 + 2) 3
The gradient of the tangent line at point (1, 2) is = = − = m1 . Thus, the
dx 1 + 3(2) 7
equation of the tangent line at point (1, 2) is
y−2 3 3 17
=− ⇒ y =− x+
x−1 7 7 7
1 7
The gradient of the normal line at (1, 2) is m2 = − = . Thus, the equation of the normal
m1 3
line at (1, 2) is
y−2 7 7 1
= ⇒ y = x−
x−1 3 3 3
2. Find the equation of tangent line and normal line to the following curves at the indicated points.

(a) 2e−x + ey = 3ex−y at point (0,0).

Solution
Clearly, the point (0, 0) lies on the given curve. Now, differentiating the given curve
implicitly with respect to x yields −2e−x + ey y ′ = 3(1 − y ′ )ex−y . Therefore,

2e−x + 3ex−y
y′ =
ey + 3ex−y

dy 2e−0 + 3e0 2+3 5

The gradient of the tangent line at point (0, 0) is = 0 0
= = = m1 .
dx e + 3e 1+3 4
Thus, the equation of the tangent line at point (0, 0) is
y−0 5 5
= ⇒ y= x
x−0 4 4
1 4
The gradient of the normal line at (0, 0) is m2 = − = − . Thus, the equation of the
m1 5
normal line at (0, 0) is
y−0 4 4
=− ⇒ y=− x
x−0 5 5
(b) xy = 6e2x−3y at point (3,2). [hint: m1 = 10/21]
t2 t3
(c) x = , y= at t = 2. [hint: m1 = 7/2]
1+t 1−t
π
(d) y = a cos3 t, x = a sin3 t at t = . [hint: m1 = −1]
4
3. The parametric equations of a curve are x = 3 (2θ − sin 2θ), y = 3 (1 − cos 2θ). The tangent
π
and normal to the curve at the point P where θ = meet the y−axis at L and M, respectively.
4
9 2
Show that the area of triangle PLM is (π − 2) .
4

Solution
dx dy dy dy/dθ 6 sin 2θ sin 2θ
= 3 (2 − 2 cos 2θ) and = 6 sin 2θ. Therefore, = = = .
dθ (dθ dx dx/dθ 3 (2 − 2 cos 2θ) 1 − cos 2θ
sin π2
)
π dy 1
When θ = , = (π) = = 1. Hence,
4 dx 1 − cos 2 1−0
π
 gradient of the tangent at P is 1. Now, the value of x when θ = is x = 3 π2 − sin π2 =
[ ( )]
4
3π − 6 π [ ( π )]
. The value of y when θ = is y = 3 1 − cos 2 = 3. Thus, the co-ordinate of
2 4
3π − 6
( )
point P is ,3 .
2

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5.2 Linear approximation/small changes c

⃝Francis Oketch

 Equation of the tangent at P is

y−3 3π − 6 12 − 3π
=1 ⇒ y =x− +3 ⇒ y =x+
3π − 6 2 2
x−
2
12 − 3π 12 − 3π
( )
Thus, the y−intercept is y = . Hence, the co-ordinate of point L is 0, .
2 2
 gradient of the normal at P is −1. Thus, equation of the normal at P is
y−3 3π − 6 3π
= −1 ⇒ y = −x + +3 ⇒ y = −x +
3π − 6 2 2
x−
2
3π 3π
( )
Thus, the y−intercept is y = . Hence, the co-ordinate of point M is 0, .
2 2

3π − 6
Height of triangle PLM is h = and the
2
3π 12 − 3π
base length is LM = − = 3π − 6.
2 2
Thus, area of triangle PLM
1 3π − 6 9
( )
= (3π − 6) = (π − 2)2
2 2 4

Exercise:

1. Find the equation of tangent and normal to the following curves

(a) 12(x2 + y 2 ) = 25xy at point (3,4)

(b) x2 y = x + 2 at point (2,1)
( )
x
(c) xy = ln y at point (1,3)
(d) xy = 6e2x−3y at point (3,2)
1 1
(e) + = 1 at point (1,1)
x+1 y+1
t2 + 1 t3 − 7
(f) x = , y = at t = 1
t + 3t2 t + 3t2
2. Show that the equation of the tangent to x2 + xy + y = 0 at the point (x1 , y1 ) is (2x1 + y1 )x +
(x1 + 1)y + y1 = 0.

3. Show that the equation of the tangent at (x1 , y1 ) to the curve ax2 + by 2 + cxy + dx = 0 is
1 1
ax1 x + by1 y + c(y1 x + x1 y) + d(x1 + x) = 0.
2 2

Lecture 10

5.2 Linear approximation/small changes

Linear approximation is a technique used to estimate values of some functions close to some known
results. The equation of tangent line at the point (x0 , y0 ) can be used to approximate the function
y(x) close to this point. Now, the gradient of tangent line to the curve y(x) at point (x0 , y0 ) is denoted
by
dy
= y ′ (x0 )
dx (x0 ,y0 )

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⃝Francis Oketch

∆y y − y0
Thus, the equation of the tangent line at this point is = gradient ⇒ = y ′ (x0 ).
∆x x − x0
Therefore, for x close to x0 and denoting y0 = y(x0 ), we have the following approximation of y(x):

y(x) ≈ y(x0 ) + .y ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ).

→ Notes:
dy y − y0
(1) This formula comes from the slope ≈ for x close to x0 .
dx x − x0
∆y dy
(2) This is also equivalent to taking ≈ , i.e. the differential as an approximation of the
∆x dx
increment.

Example(s):
√ √
4
(a) Use linear approximation to estimate (i) 26 and (ii) 80.

Solution
√ 1 1 1 −1
i) Note that 26 = 26 2 . Let y(x) = x 2 ⇒ y ′ (x) =
x 2 . Take x0 = 25 (a value close
2
1 1 1 1
to 26 and has exact square root), we have y(x0 ) = (25) 2 = 5 and y ′ (x0 ) = (25)− 2 = .
2 10
By linear approximation, we have
1
y(x) ≈ y(x0 ) + y ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) = 5 + (x − 25)
10
Plugging in x = 26 yields
(26 − 25) 1
y(26) ≈ 5 + =5+ = 5.1
10 10
√
Therefore, 26 ≈ 5.1.
√
4 1 1 1 −3
ii) Note that 80 = 80 4 . Let y(x) = x 4 ⇒ y ′ (x) =
x 4 . Take x0 = 81 (a value close
4
1 1 3 1
to 80 and has exact fourth root), we have y(x0 ) = (81) 4 = 3 and y ′ (x0 ) = (81)− 4 = .
4 108
By linear approximation, we have
1
y(x) ≈ y(x0 ) + y ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) = 3 + (x − 81)
108
Plugging in x = 80 yields
(80 − 81) 1 324 − 1 323
y(80) ≈ 3 + =3− = = ≈ 2.9907
108 108 108 108
√
4
Therefore, 80 ≈ 2.9907.

(b) Use differentials to approximate (i) cos(44o ) and (ii) sin(60o 1′ ).

Solution
dy π
i) Let y = cos x ⇒ = − sin x. Take x0 = 45o = (a value close to 44o and its cosine
dx 4
1
can be obtained without using SMP table or a calculator), we have y(x0 ) = cos(45o ) = √
2
1
and y ′ (x0 ) = − sin(45o ) = − √ . By linear approximation, we have
2
1 1 π
( )
′
y(x) ≈ y(x0 ) + y (x0 )(x − x0 ) = √ − √ x −
2 2 4

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11π
Plugging in x = 44o ≡ radians yields
45
11π 1 1 11π π
( ) ( )
y ≈ √ −√ − = 0.7194
45 2 2 45 4

Therefore, sin(44o ) ≈ 0.7194.

dy π
ii) Let y = sin x ⇒ = cos x. Take x0 = 60o = (a value close to 60o 1′ and its sine
dx 3 √
o 3
can be obtained without using SMP table or a calculator), we have y(x0 ) = sin(60 ) =
2
′ o 1
and y (x0 ) = cos(60 ) = . By linear approximation, we have
2
√
3 1 π
( )
′
y(x) ≈ y(x0 ) + y (x0 )(x − x0 ) = + x−
2 2 3
π
( )
Plugging in x = 60o 1′ ≡ + 0.0003 radians yields
3
√
π 3 1 π π
( ) ( )
y + 0.0003 ≈ + + 0.0003 − = 0.86618
3 2 2 3 3

Therefore, sin(60o 1′ ) ≈ 0.86618.

Exercise:
√
5
√
5
(a) Estimate 30 by linear approximation. [ans: 30 ≈ 1.975]
3 3
(b) Find the approximate value of 80 4 using linear approximation. [ans: 80 4 ≈ 26.75]

(c) Find the cube root of 24 without using a calculator.

√
(d) Find the √linearization
√ of the function y = x + 3 at x0 = 1 and use it to approximate the
numbers 3.98 and 4.05. Are these approximations overestimates or underestimates?

(e) Use linear approximation to estimate ln(1.1). You must make an appropriate choice of where
to center your approximation. Draw a picture illustrating your approximation and write and
explanation of why you chose to base your approximation where you did (In other words, explain
your choice of x0 ).
dy √
(f) Use a linear approximation to estimate y(4.1), given that y(4) = 2 and = x2 + 20.
dx

5.3 Related rates

dx
If a variable x is a function of time t, the time rate of change of x is given by . When two or more
dt
variables, all functions of t, are related by an equation, the relation between their rates of change
may be obtained by differentiating the equation with respect to t. For example, if z 2 = x2 + y 2 then
dz dx dy
differentiating implicitly with respect to t yields 2z = 2x +2y . To solve related rates problem,
dt dt dt
do the following:

i) Assign symbols to all quantities given and their respective rates of change. Use a sketch where
necessary.

ii) Write an equation relating all the variables whose rates of change are given or are to be
determined.

iii) Apply chain rule of differentiation to differentiate implicitly both sides of the equation with
respect to time t

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iv) Substitute into the resulting equation all the known variables and their rates of change. Then,
solve for the required rate of change.

Example(s):

1. Sand is falling in a conical pipe at a rate of 100 m3 per minute. Find the rate of change of the
height when the height is 10m. (Assume that the coarseness of the sand is such that the height
is equal to the radius).

Solution

 Step I: Let V be the volume of the conical pile, h the height and r the radius. Given
dV dh
= 100 m3 /min. We are required to find when h = 10m and r = h.
dt dt
1 1
 Step II: At time t the coned has volume V = πr2 h. Putting r = h yields V = πh3 .
3 3
 Step III: Differentiating implicitly with respect to t, we obtain
dV dh dh 1 dV
= πh2 ⇒ =
dt dt dt πh2 dt
dV dh 1 1
 Step IV: Substituting = 100 and h = 10 yields = (100) = = 0.318 m/min.
dt dt π(10)2 π
Therefore, the height is increasing at the rate of 0.318 meters per minute.

2. Gas is escaping from a spherical balloon at the rate of 900 cm3 /s. How fast is the surface area
shrinking when the radius is 360 cm.

Solution

 Step I: Let V be the volume of the sphere, S the surface area and r the radius. Given
dV dS
= −900 m3 /min. We are required to find when r = 360m.
dt dt
4
 Step II: At time t the coned has volume V = πr3 and surface area S = 4πr2 .
3
 Step III: Differentiating implicitly with respect to t, we obtain
dV dr dS dr
= 4πr2 and = 8πr
dt dt dt dt
dS 1 dV dS 2 dV
( )
Thus, = 8πr 2
⇒ = .
dt 4πr dt dt r dt
dV dS 2
 Step IV: Substituting = −900 and r = 360 yields = (−900) = −5. Therefore,
dt dt 360
2
the surface area is decreasing at the rate of 5cm per second.

3. Car A is traveling west at 50km/h and car B is traveling north at 60km/h. Both are headed for
the intersection of the two roads. At what rate are the cars approaching each other when car A
is 0.3km and car B is 0.4km from the intersection?

Solution

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 Step I: Let x and y be the distance of car A and

B from C at any time t, respectively. Let z be the
distance between car A and B at any time t. Given
dx dy
= 50km/h and = 60km/h. We are required
dt dt
dz
to find when x = 0.3km and y = 0.4km.
dt
 Step II: At time t the distance between A and B
is z 2 = x2 + y 2 .

 Step III: Differentiating implicitly with respect to t, we obtain

dz dx dy dz 1 dx dy
( )
2z = 2x + 2y ⇒ = x +y (∗)
dt dt dt dt z dt dt

 Step IV: When x = 0.3km and y = 0.4km, we have

√ √
z= x2 + y2 = (0.3)2 + (0.4)2 = 0.5km

dx dy
Substituting x = 0.3km, y = 0.4km, z = 0.5km, = −50km/h and = −60km/h in
dt dt
dz 1
equation (∗) yields = ((0.3)(−50) + (0.4)(−60)) = −78. Therefore, the two cars are
dt 0.5
approaching each other at a rate of 78km/h.

Exercise:

1. Water is running out at the rate of 5cm3 /s. If the radius of the base of the funnel is 10cm and
the altitude is 20cm, find the rate at which the water level is dropping when it is 5cm from the
top.

Solution

Let r be the radius, h the height of the surface

of the water, and V the volume of water in the
cone at time t. The volume of the cone at time t
is given by the equation
1
V = πr2 h
3

( )2
r h h 1 h
But by similar triangles, we have = ⇒ r = . Therefore, V = π h ⇒
10 20 2 3 2
π
V = h3 . Differentiating implicitly with respect to t, we obtain
12
dV π dh dh 4 dV
= h2 ⇒ =
dt 4 dt dt πh2 dt
dV dh 4 4
Substituting = −5cm3 /s and h = 20 − 5 = 15cm, we get = (−5) = − .
dt dt π(15)2 45π
4
Therefore, the water level is dropping at the rate of cm/s.
45π
2. Gas is escaping from a spherical balloon at the rate of 0.02m3 /s. How fast is the surface area
shrinking when the radius is 4m.

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Solution
dV 4
Given = −0.02m3 /s. At time t, the sphere has radius r. So, volume, V = πr3 and surface
dt 3
area, S = 4πr2 . Now,
dV dr dS dr dS 2 dV
= 4πr2 and = 8πr ⇒ =
dt dt dt dt dt r dt
dS 2
When r = 4m, = (−0.02m3 /s) = −0.01m2 /s.
dt 4m
3. Water is running out of a conical funnel at the rate of 1000m3 /s. If the radius of the base of
funnel is 40mm and the altitude is 80mm, find the rate at which the water level is dropping
when it is 20mm from the top.

Solution

Let r be the radius and h be the height of the surface of the water at time t and V be the volume
1
of the water in the cone. So, V = πr2 h. Given further that r = 40mm when h = 80mm ⇒
3
r 40 h
= ⇒ r = . Now,
h 80 2
dV 1 dh 2 dr dr 1 dh
= πr2 + πrh and =
dt 3 dt 3 dt dt 2 dt
dV 1 dh 2 1 dh 1 dh 2 dh 1 dh
⇒ = π(h/2)2 + π(h/2)h = πh2 + πh2 = πh2
dt 3 dt 3 2 dt 12 dt 12 dt 4 dt
Therefore,
dV 1 dh
= πh2
dt 4 dt
dV
When = −1000m3 /s, h = 80mm − 20mm = 60mm = 0.06m. Hence,
dt
1 dh dh −1000m3 /s × 4 −10
−1000m3 /s = π(0.06)2 m2 ⇒ = 2 2
= m/s
4 dt dt π(0.06) m 9π

4
4. Sands falling from a chute form a conical pile whose altitude is equal to the radius of the base.
3
(a) How fast is the volume increasing when the radius of the base is 0.3m and is increasing at
the rate of 0.025m/s.

Solution
Let r be the radius of the base, h be the height, and V be the volume of the conical pile at
1 4
time t. So, V = πr2 h. Given further that h = r. Now,
3 3
dV 1 dh 2 dr dh 4 dr
= πr2 + πrh and =
dt 3 dt 3 dt dt 3 dt

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dV 1 4 dr 2 4 dr 4 dr 8 dr 4 dr
( ) ( )
⇒ = πr2 + πr r = πr2 + πr2 = πr2
dt 3 3 dt 3 3 dt 9 dt 9 dt 3 dt
Therefore,
dV 4 dr
= πr2
dt 3 dt
dr
When r = 0.3m, = 0.025m/s. Hence,
dt
dV 4
= π(0.3m)2 (0.025m/s) = 0.003πm3 /s
dt 3
(b) How fast is the radius increasing when it is 0.6m and the volume is increasing at the rate
of 0.024m3 /s.

Solution
dV
When r = 0.6m, = 0.024m3 /s. Hence,
dt
4 dr dr 0.024m3 /s × 3 1
0.024m3 /s = π(0.6m)2 ⇒ = 2
= m/s
3 dt dt 4π × (0.6m) 20π

5. A spherical balloon is blown up so that its volume increases at a constant rate of 2cm3 /s. Find
the rate of increase of the radius when the volume of the balloon is 50cm3 .

6. Ink is dropped onto blotting paper forming a circular stain which increases in area at the rate
of 5cm2 /s. Find the rate of change of the radius when the area is 30cm2 .

7. A rectangle is twice as long as it is broad. Find the rate of change of the perimeter when the
breadth of the rectangle is 1m and its area is changing at the rate of 18cm2 /s, assuming the
expansion is uniform.

5.4 Turning points/Stationary points/Critical points/Extrema

The points at which the slope (gradient) of a curve is zero are called stationary/turning points. For
example, consider the following curve y = f (x):

A- a maximum turning point

B- a minimum turning point

C- a point of inflection

To classify the stationary values, consider the points A1 and A2 , B1 and B2 , C1 and C2 which are left
and right of A, B, and C, respectively, and close to them.

(1) First derivative test (or sign test)

dy
This test relies on the sign of just to the LHS and just to the RHS of the turning point.
dx
dy
Consider the behaviour of the gradient at points A, B and C.
dx
 For A (a maximum point)
dy
at point A1 , is positive (+ve)
dx
dy
at point A, is zero (0)
dx
dy
at point A2 , is negative (-ve)
dx

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 For B (a minimum point)

dy
at point B1 , is negative (-ve)
dx
dy
at point B, is zero (0)
dx
dy
at point B2 , is positive (+ve)
dx
 For C (a point of inflection)
dy
at point C1 , is positive (+ve)
dx
dy
at point C, is zero (0)
dx
dy
at point C2 , is positive (+ve)
dx
Summary:

Maximum Minimum Inflection

dy
Sign of when +0− −0+ + 0 + OR − 0 −
dx 
moving through a stationary value      OR 


dy d2 y dy
(2) Second derivative test: first compute and 2
. Now, when passing through point A,
dx dx dx
dy
changes from +ve to -ve i.e., decreases as x increases
dx
d2 y d2 y
is negative (i.e., < 0)
dx2 dx2
dy dy
Similarly, when passing through point B, changes from -ve to +ve i.e., increases as x
dx dx
increases
d2 y d2 y
is positive (i.e., > 0)
dx2 dx2
Summary:

Maximum Minimum Inflection

d2 y
Sign of at negative positive zero
dx2 ( ) ( ) ( )
d2 y d2 y d2 y
a turning point i.e., <0 i.e., >0 i.e., =0
dx2 dx2 dx2

In summary, the steps for finding critical points are?

i) Find the first derivative

ii) Set it to zero

iii) Find the turning points

iv) Use the second derivatives to check whether the points you found are maxima/minima/points
of inflection.

Example(s):

1. Find the stationary points of the following curves and classify them.

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(a) y = x4 + 4x3 − 6.

Solution
Differentiating the given curve, we obtain

dy d2 y
= 4x3 + 12x2 and = 12x2 + 24x
dx dx2
dy
At a stationary point, = 0, i.e., 4x3 + 12x2 = 0. Solving yields x = 0 or x = −3. The
dx
value of y at x = 0 is y = (0)4 + 4(0)3 − 6 = −6. Similarly, the value of y at x = −3 is
y = (−3)4 + 4(−3)3 − 6 = −33. So the turning points are (0, −6) and (−3, −33). Using the
second derivative test, we classify the points as follows:
d2 y
 When x = −3, we have = 12(−3)2 + 24(−3) = 36 > 0. Therefore, the point
dx2
(−3, −33) is a minimum point.
d2 y
 When x = 0, we have 2 = 12(0)2 + 24(0) = 0. Therefore, the point (0, −6) is a point
dx
of inflection.
(b) y = x2 (x + 1).

Solution
Differentiating the given curve, we obtain

dy d2 y
= 3x2 + 2x and = 6x + 2
dx dx2
2
At a stationary point, 3x2 +2x = 0. Solving yields x = 0 or x = − . The value of y at x = 0
3
2 2 2 2 4
( ) ( )
2
is y = (0) (0 + 1) = 0. Also, The value of y at x = − is y = − − + 1 = . So
3 3 3 27
2 4
( )
the turning points are (0, 0) and − , . Using the second derivative test, we classify
3 27
the points as follows:
d2 y
 When x = 0, we have = 6(0) + 2 = 2 > 0. Therefore, (0, 0) is a minimum point.
dx2
2 d2 y 2 2 4
( ) ( )
 When x = − , we have = 6 − + 2 = −2 < 0. Therefore, − , is a
3 dx2 3 3 27
maximum point.

Exercise:

1. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function y = 2 sin t + cos 2t. [ans: max point
π 3 π
( , ), min point ( , 1)]
6 2 2
2. Find the turning points and point of inflection on the curve y = x5 − 5x4 + 5x3 − 1. [ans: max
point (1, 0), min point (3, −28), point of inflection (0,-1)]

3. Discuss the nature of the points on the curve y = 3x4 − 8x3 − 24x2 + 96x at which the tangent
to the curve is parallel to the x−axis.

4. Find the nature of the stationary points of the function y = 3x5 + 6x4 − 4x3 + 1.
√
5. Show that the minimum value of the curve y = a sec θ − b tan θ is a2 − b2 .

 Areas where concept of maxima and minima is applied

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5.4.1 Optimization

Example(s):

1. A box with a square base and an open top is to have volume 62.5 in3 . Neglect the thickness of
the material used to make the box, and find the dimensions that will minimize the amount of
material used.

Solution

Let the base width be x in. Thus, the height is

62.5
in. The surface area is given by
x2
62.5 250
( )
A = x2 + 4x = x2 +
x2 x

dA 250 d2 A 500
Thus, = 2x − 2 and 2
=2+ 3 .
dx x dx x

dA 250
For maximum or minimum area, = 0. That is, 2x − 2 = 0. Solving yields x = 5. At
dx x
d2 A 500
x = 5, 2
= 2+ = 6 > 0. Therefore, the box has a minimum area when its base is 5 in
dx (5)3
62.5
by 5 in and height is = 2.5 in.
(5)2
2. Find the height of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume which can be cut from a sphere
of radius a.

Solution

Let the radius of the cylinder be r and its height

be h. From triangle OBX, Pythagoras theorem
yields
h2
r2 + = a2
4
h2
Thus, r2 = a2 − . The volume of the cylinder
4
is given by

( ) ( )
2 h2 2 2h3
V = πr h = π a − h=π a h−
4 4
dV 3 d2 V 3 dV
( )
Thus, = π a2 − h2 and 2
= − πh. For maximum or minimum volume, = 0.
dh ( )4 dh 2 dh
3 2a 2a d2 V 3πa
That is, π a2 − h2 = 0. Solving yields h = √ . At h = √ , 2
= − √ < 0. Therefore,
4 3 3 dh 3
2a
the cylinder has a maximum volume when its height is √ .
3
3. Find the values of x and y that will maximize the function f (x, y) = xy subject to the constraint
4x + 2y = 40.

Solution

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Given 4x + 2y = 40, we have y = 20 − 2x. Substituting in f (x, y) = xy, we get

f (x) = x(20 − 2x) = 20x − 2x2

Differentiating with respect to x, we have f ′ (x) = 20 − 4x. At maxima or minima, f ′ (x) = 0,

i.e., 20 − 4x = 0 ⇒ x = 5. Substituting in the given constraint, we get y = 10. To classify
the optimal value, we use second derivative test. Now, f ′′ (x) = −4 < 0. Therefore, x = 5 and
y = 10 will maximize xy.

Exercise:

1. Find the height of the right circular cone of maximum volume, given that the sum of the height
and radius of the base is 0.12m [ans: h = 0.04m]

2. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of greatest area which can be inscribed in a circle of radius
√
r. [ans: a square of side 2r]

3. A manufacturer wants to design an open box having square base and surface area of 108 square
meters. Find the dimensions of the box that will give maximum volume. [hint:
x 3
x2 + 4xh = 108, V = 27x − , ans: length x= 6m and height h= 3m]
4
4. ABCD is a square ploughed field of side 132m, with a path along its perimeter. A man can walk
at 8 km/h along the path, but only at 5 km/h across the field. He starts from A along AB,
leaves AB at a point P, and walks straight from P to C. Find the distance of P from A, if the
time taken is the least possible.

5. (a) Choose x and y to maximise xy subject to the constraint 3x + y = 60. (Note: you do not
need to confirm that your solution is a maximum).
(b) Choose x and y to maximise xy 2 subject to the constraint x + y = 200. [ans: x = 200/3
and y = 400/3]

5.4.2 Economics: cost, revenue and profit

 The cost function, C(x), is the (total) cost incurred in producing x units of a commodity.

 Marginal cost (MC) is the rate of change of the cost function with respect to the number of
dC
units produced, i.e., MC = . It represents the extra cost incurred in producing one extra
dx
unit when the level of production is already at x.
C(x)
 Average cost (AC) is given by AC = .
x
 Revenue, R(x) is the (total) revenue received when x units of a given commodity are produced
and sold at a unit price p(x) (or demand function). Thus, R(x) = x · p(x), where x is the number
of units produced and sold.
dR
 Marginal revenue, MR = .
dx
 Profit function, P (x) or Π(x), is given by total revenue minus total cost, i.e., P (x) = R(x)−C(x).
dP
 Marginal profit, MP = .
dx
P (x)
 Average profit = .
x
dC dR dP
At maxima or minima, we have MC = = 0, or MR = = 0 or MP = = 0. The values of
dx dx dx
x are the critical points.

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→ Note: Break Even point refers to the point in which total cost and total revenue are equal, i.e.,
C(x) = R(x).

Example(s):
1. In marketing a certain commodity, a business has discovered that the demand for the commodity
50
is represented by p(x) = √ . The cost of producing x units of the commodity is given by
x
C(x) = 0.5x + 500. Find the price per unit that will yield maximum profit. (Note: p is in
dollars)

Solution
The profit function is given by
50 √
P (x) = xp(x) − C(x) = x √ − (0.5x + 500) = 50 x − 0.5x − 500
x
dP 25 dP
The marginal profit (MP) is given by MP = = √ − 0.5. At maxima or mimima, = 0.
dx x dx
That is,
25
√ − 0.5 = 0 ⇒ x = 2500
x
d2 P
We need to test if this value of x will lead to maximum profit. Now, = −12.5x−3/2 . When
dx2
x = 2500, P ′′ (x) = −12.5(2500)−3/2 = −0.0001 < 0. Hence, the business will realize maximum
profit if 2500 units of the commodity are produced. The optimal price per unit (demand) is
50 50
p(2500) = √ = = 1 dollar.
2500 50
2. A certain company faces market demand given by p = 48 − 3x. This company has cost given by
C(x) = 2x2 − 12x + 100. Find:
(a) Price when revenue is maximized. [hint: R(x) = xp = 48x − 3x2 , ans: p = 24]
(b) Revenue when cost is maximized. [ans: R(3) = 117]
(c) Maximum possible profit. [hint: P (x) = −5x2 + 60x − 100, ans: P (6) = 80]
(d) Break Even point. [hint: R(x) = C(x), ans: x = 2 and x = 10]
3. A monopolist faces the demand function p = 200 − x. The total cost is C = 100 − 40x + 5x2 .
(a) Write down the monopolist’s profit as a function of the quantity produced x.
(b) Find the profit-maximizing level of production and confirm that your solution is a
maximum.
(c) How does the profit-maximizing level of production change if the government imposes a
lump sum tax, L?

Solution
(a) Given x = 200 − p, we have p = 200 − x. The profit function is given by
( )
P (x) = xp(x) − C(x) = x(200 − x) − 100 − 40x + 5x2 = −6x2 + 240x − 100

dP
(b) The marginal profit (MP) is given by MP = = −12x + 240. At maxima or minima,
dx
dP
= 0. That is,
dx
−12x + 240 = 0 ⇒ x = 20
d2 P
We need to test if this value of x will lead to maximum profit. Now, = −12 < 0.
dx2
Hence, the business will realize maximum profit if 20 units of the commodity are produced.

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(c) Since the government imposes a lump tax of L per each unit sold, the total tax bill is given
by
T = Lx
The profit function, given a lump sum tax L, is given by P = −6x2 + 240x − 100 − T , i.e.,

P = −6x2 + 240x − 100 − Lx

dP
At maximum or minimum, = 0. That is, −12x + 240 − L = 0.
dx
L
⇒ x = 20 −
12
This is the optimal level of production. The government raises a total tax bill of

L L2
( )
T = Lx = L 20 − ⇒ T = 20L −
12 12
dT L
Differentiating with respect to L, we have = 20 − . To maximize the government’s
dL 6
dT
tax revenue, then = 0. That is,
dL
L
20 − =0 ⇒ L = 120
6
Thus, L = 120 maximizes the government’s tax revenue? Therefore, the new
L 120
profit-maximizing level of production is x = 20 − = 20 − = 10 units.
12 12

Exercise:

1. For a production level of x units of a commodity, the cost function is C(x) = 100 + 30x and the
demand function is p(x) = 90 − x. What price p will maximize profit?

Solution
The profit function is given by

P (x) = xp(x) − C(x) = x(90 − x) − (100 + 30x) = 90x − x2 − 100 − 30x = 60x − x2 − 100

dP dP
The marginal profit (MP) is given by MP = = 60 − 2x. At maxima or minima, = 0.
dx dx
That is,
60 − 2x = 0 ⇒ x = 30
d2 P
Now, = −2. When x = 30, P ′′ (x) = −2 < 0. Hence, the profit-maximizing level of
dx2
production x = 30 units. Therefore, the optimal unit price is p(30) = 90 − 30 = 60 dollars.

2. A monopolist faces the demand function x = 10−0.5p. The total cost consists of a fixed overhead
of 28 dollars plus production cost of 2 dollars per unit. [hint: C(x) = 2x + 28]

(a) Write down the monopolist’s profit as a function of the quantity produced x.
(b) Find the profit-maximising level of production and confirm that your solution is a maximum.
(c) Find the break-even points. What is the slope of the profit function at each of the break-
even points?
(d) Assume now that the government imposes a fixed tax of t dollars per each unit sold. What
t maximises the government’s tax revenue?

3. A manufacturer estimates that if x units of a particular commodity are produced, the total cost
will be C(x) dollars, where C(x) = x3 − 24x2 + 350x + 338.

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(a) At what level of production will the marginal cost be minimized?

(b) At what level of production will the average cost be minimized?

4. A manufacturer can produce digital recorders at a cost of 50 dollars each. It is estimated that
if the recorders are sold for p dollars each, consumers will by x = 120 − p recorders each month.

(a) Express the manufacturer’s profit P as a function of x. [ans: P (x) = 50x − x2 ]

(b) What is the average rate of change in profit obtained as the level of production increases
from x = 0 to x = 20 recorders. [ans: = 30]
(c) At what rate is profit changing when x = 20 recorders are produced? Is the profit increasing
or decreasing at this level of production? [ans: P ′ (20) = 10, increasing]

5.4.3 Kinematics
The motion of a particle P along a straight line is completely described by the equation S = f (t),
where t > 0 is time and S is the distance of P from a fixed point O in its path. The velocity of P at
dS
time t is V = .
dt
 If V > 0, P is moving in the direction of increasing S.

 If V < 0, P is moving in the direction of decreasing S.

 If V = 0, P is instantaneously at rest.
dV d2 S
The acceleration of P at time t is a = = 2.
dt dt
 If a > 0, V is increasing.

 If a < 0, V is decreasing.

 If V and a have the same sign, the speed of P is increasing.

 If V and a have the opposite signs, the speed of P is decreasing.

Example(s):

1. A body moves along a straight line according to the law S = t3 − 6t2 + 9t + 4. Find

(a) S and a when V = 0

(b) S and V when a = 0
(c) when is S increasing?

Solution
dS dV
(a) = V = 3t2 − 12t + 9 = 3(t − 1)(t − 3) and a = = 6t − 12 = 6(t − 2). When V = 0,
dt dt
t = 1 or t = 3.
 When t = 1, S = (1)3 − 6(1)2 + 9(1) + 4 = 8 and a = 6(1 − 2) = −6.
 When t = 3, S = (3)3 − 6(3)2 + 9(3) + 4 = 4 and a = 6(3 − 2) = 6.
(b) When a = 0, we have 6(t − 2) = 0 ⇒ t = 2. When t = 2, S = (2)3 − 6(2)2 + 9(2) + 4 = 6
and V = 3(2 − 1)(2 − 3) = −3
(c) S is increasing when V > 0 i.e., when t < 1 and t > 3.

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2. A body moves in a straight line so that the distance moved S metres is given in terms of the
time t seconds by S = t3 − t2 . Find an expression for the acceleration of the body at time t and
find the times at which the body is at rest.

Solution
dS d2 S dV
= V = 3t2 − 2t and = = a = 6t − 2. The body is at rest when V = 0, i.e.,
dt dt2 dt
2
3t2 − 2t = 0 ⇒ t = 0 or t = seconds.
3
3. The distance S moved in a straight line by a particle in time t is given by S = bt2 + ct + d, where
b, c and d are constants. If V is the velocity of the particle at time t, show that 4b(S−d) = V 2 −c2 .

dS
Proof. V = = 2bt + c. Now,
dt
4b(S − d) = 4b(bt2 + ct + d − d) = 4b2 t2 + 4bct) = (2bt + c)2 − b2
= V 2 − c2

Exercise:

1. The displacement S at time t of a moving particle is given by √

S = b sin 2t + c cos 2t, where b and
c are constants. If V is the speed at time t, prove that V = 2 b2 + c2 − S 2 .

2. A particle moves in a horizontal line according to the law S = t4 − 6t3 + 12t2 − 10t + 3. Find

(a) the velocity and acceleration

(b) when the particle is at rest

3. If the velocity of a body varies inversely as the square root of the distance, prove that the
acceleration varies as the fourth power of the velocity.

4. A body moves in a straight line so that its distance S metres from a fixed point O at time t
seconds is given by S = (t − 2)2 (2t − 7). Find when the body passes through O and the velocity
and acceleration each time it passes. Find also the minimum value of the velocity.

5. The velocity V m/s of a particle which has traveled a distance S metres from a fixed point is
given by V 2 = 16S. Find the acceleration of the particle.

6. A ball is thrown vertically upwards so that its height S metres after t seconds is given by
1 √
S = t2 + 4 t. Find its:
27
i) velocity at any time t.
ii) acceleration when t = 1.
iii) maximum height reached.

Lecture 11

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c
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6 Introduction to integration
dy
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. Suppose = f (x). To obtain y, we integrate
dx
the function f (x) with respect to the independent variable x. This is put in notation form as
∫
y= f (x)dx + C,

dy
where C is a constant of integration and f (x) is the integrand. For example, if = cos x then
∫ dx
y= cos xdx = sin x + C. The following are some important results of integration:

xn+1
∫ ∫
(1) 1dx = x + C (2) xn dx =
+ C, for n ̸= −1
n+1
1
∫ ∫
(3) dx = ln |x| + C (4) ex dx = ex + C
x
sin(kx) cos(kx)
∫ ∫
(5) cos(kx)dx = + C, for k ̸= 0 (6) sin(kx)dx = −
+ C, for k ̸= 0
∫ k ∫ k
(7) sec2 xdx = tan x + C (8) cosec2 xdx = − cot x + C
∫ ∫
(9) sec x tan xdx = sec x + C (10) cosec x cot xdx = −cosec x + C

These types of integrals are called indefinite since they lack limits of integration.

6.1 Techniques of integration

6.1.1 Power rule of integration

xn+1 .
∫
xn dx = + C, for n ̸= −1 ,
n+1
where C is a constant of integration.

Example(s):
x3+1 x4
∫
(a) x3 dx = +C = + C.
3+1 4
x−7+1 x−6
∫
(b) x−7 dx = +C =− + C.
−7 + 1 6
1
√ x 2 +1 2
∫ ∫
(c) xdx = x1/2 dx = 1 + C = x3/2 + C.
2 + 1 3

x2 x3 x2
∫ ∫
(d) x(1 − 3x)dx = (x − 3x2 )dx =
−3· = − x3 + C.
2 3 2
4
∫ ∫
(e) (2x − 3)2 dx = (4x2 − 12x + 9)dx = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + C.
3
(f)
∫ √ √ ∫ ( 1/2 )
x+ 3x+6 x x1/3 6
∫ (
− 23 − 35
)
−2
dx = + + dx = x + x + 6x dx
x2 x2 x2 x2
1 3 2
= −2x− 2 − x− 3 − 6x−1 + C
2
x3
∫
(g) dx.
x+1

Solution
Since the degree of the polynomial in the numerator is greater than that in the denominator,
long division yields

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x2 − x + 1
x3
)
x+1
− x3 − x2
− x2
x2 + x
x
−x−1
−1

Therefore,

x3 1 x3 x2
∫ ∫ ( )
2
dx = x −x+1− dx = − + x − ln |x + 1| + C
x+1 x+1 3 2

6.1.2 Substitution method

This technique requires that a new variable, say u, is introduced in the integrand to reduce the problem
to a form in which power rule of integration can be applied.

Example(s):
∫
(a) Evaluate (2x + 1)1/3 dx.

Solution
du du
Let u = 2x + 1. Differentiating with respect to x yields =2 ⇒ dx = . Substituting
dx 2
in the given integral, we get

1/3 du 1 1 3 4/3 3
∫ ∫ ∫ [ ]
1/3 1/3
(2x + 1) dx = u = u du = u + C = (2x + 1)4/3 + C
2 2 2 4 8

x
∫
(b) Evaluate dx.
(1 − x2 )3

Solution
du du
Let u = 1 − x2 . Differentiating with respect to x yields = −2x ⇒ dx = − .
dx 2x
Substituting in the given integral, we get
x x du 1 1 1 −2 1
∫ ∫ ( ) ∫ [ ]
dx = − =− u −3
du = − u + C = (1 − x2 )−2 + C
(1 − x2 )3 u 3 2x 2 2 −2 4
∫
(c) Evaluate sec2 (5x + 1)dx.

Solution
du du
Let u = 5x + 1. Differentiating with respect to x yields =5 ⇒ dx = . Substituting
dx 5
in the given integral, we get
du 1 1 1
∫ ∫ ( ) ∫
sec2 (5x + 1)dx = sec2 (u) = sec2 (u)du = tan u + C = tan(5x + 1) + C
5 5 5 5

Exercise:

1. Evaluate the following integrals

1
∫
(a) (7x − 2)3 dx. [hint: put u = 7x − 2, ans: = (7x − 2)4 + C]
28

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1
∫ √
(b) 3x 1 + 2x2 dx. [hint: put u = 1 + 2x2 , ans: = (1 + 2x2 )3/2 + C]
2
1 −1
∫
(c) dx. [hint: put u = x + 1, ans: = + C]
(x + 1)2 x+1
1
∫
(d) (3x + 5)−2 dx. [hint: put u = 3x + 5, ans: = − (3x + 5)−1 + C]
3
x−1 x−1
∫ ( ) ( )
(e) cosec2 dx. [hint: put u = , ans: = −3 cot x−1
3 + C]
3 3
(ln x)2 1
∫
(f) dx. [hint: put u = ln x, ans: = (ln x)3 + C]
x 3
1
∫
(g) x(3 − 5x2 )4 dx. [hint: put u = 3 − 5x2 , ans: = − (3 − 5x2 )5 + C]
50
x+1 5
∫
(h) √ dx. [hint: put u = x2 + 2x + 7, ans: = (x2 + 2x + 7)4/5 + C]
5
x2
+ 2x + 7 8
( )
1 (2 + 3x)6 2(2 + 3x)5
∫
4
(i) x(2 + 3x) dx. [hint: put u = 2 + 3x, ans: = − + C]
3 18 15
1 (
∫
)4
(j) x2 (1 + 4x3 )3 dx. [hint: put u = 1 + 4x3 , ans: = 1 + 4x3 + C]
48

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