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The document discusses the dual nature of radiation and matter, focusing on the photoelectric effect and electron emission. It explains key concepts such as the work function, thermionic emission, field emission, and photoelectric emission, along with historical observations by Hertz, Hallwachs, and Lenard. Additionally, it highlights Einstein's postulate of energy quantization and the significance of photons in the photoelectric effect.

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7 views

Document 4

The document discusses the dual nature of radiation and matter, focusing on the photoelectric effect and electron emission. It explains key concepts such as the work function, thermionic emission, field emission, and photoelectric emission, along with historical observations by Hertz, Hallwachs, and Lenard. Additionally, it highlights Einstein's postulate of energy quantization and the significance of photons in the photoelectric effect.

Uploaded by

Junaid Sayyad
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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CHAPTER

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND


MATTER
SUBJECT: PHYSICS PROF.R.M KHAN
• Introduction
 In earlier chapters you have studied various optical phenomena like reflection,
refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization of light.
 Light is electromagnetic radiation and most of the phenomena mentioned have been
explained consider in light as a wave.
 We are also familiar with the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation in other
regions like X-rays, y-rays, infrared and ultraviolet radiation and microwaves apart
from the visible light.
 The idea of 'quantization of energy' was first proposed by Planck to explain the black
body spectrum. Planck proposed a model that : (i) energy is emitted in packets and
(ii)at higher frequencies, the energy of a packet is large.
 The discovery of X-rays by Roentgen in 1895, and of electron by J. J. Thomson in 1897,
were important milestones in the understanding of atomic structure.

• Electron Emission
 We know that metals have free electrons (negatively charged particles) that are
responsible for their conductivity. However, the free electrons cannot normally
escape out of the metal surface.
 If an electron attempts to come out of the metal, the metal surface acquires a
positive charge and pulls the electron back to the metal. The free electron is thus
held inside the metal surface by the attractive forces of the ions.
 Consequently, the electron can come out of the metal surface only if it has got
sufficient energy to overcome the attractive pull.
 A certain minimum amount of energy is required to be given to an electron to pull it
out from the surface of the metal. This minimum energy required by an electron to
escape from the metal surface is called the work function of the metal.
 It is generally denoted by f0 and measured in eV (electron volt). One electron volt is
the energy gained by an electron when it has been accelerated by a potential
difference of 1 volt, so that 1 eV = 1.602 ×10 –19 J.
 This unit of energy is commonly used in atomic and nuclear physics. The work
function (Symbol)depends on the properties of the metal and the nature of its
surface.
 The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal surface can
be supplied to the free electrons by any one of the following physical processes:
 (i) Thermionic emission: By suitably heating, sufficient thermal energy can be
imparted to the free electrons to enable them to come out of the metal.
 (ii) Field emission: By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 V m–1)
to a metal, electrons can be pulled out of the metal, as in a spark plug.
 (iii) Photoelectric emission: When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal
surface, electrons are emitted from the metal surface. These photo(light)-generated
electrons are called photoelectrons.

• Photoelectric Effect:
1. Hertz’s observations:
 Heinrich Hertz discovered photoelectric emission in 1887 while he was
working on the production of electromagnetic waves by spark discharge. He
noticed that when ultraviolet light is incident on a metal electrode, a high
voltage spark passes across the electrodes. Actually, electrons were emitted
from the metal surface. The surface which emits electrons, when illuminated
with appropriate radiation, is known as a photosensitive surface.
 Diagram: 12th board page number –306(fig.14.1)

2. Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations:


 Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard investigated the phenomenon of
photoelectric emission in detail during 1886-1902. Lenard (1862-1947) observed
that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an
evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in
the circuit (Fig. 11.1)[12th ncert-2,page-277] .
 As soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow also
stopped. These observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiations fall on the
emitter plate C, electrons are ejected from it which are attracted towards the
positive, collector plate A by the electric field.
 The electrons flow through the evacuated glass tube, resulting in the current
flow. Thus, light falling on the surface of the emitter causes current in the
external circuit.
• Experimental Set-up of Photoelectric Effect:
 A typical laboratory experimental set-up for the photoelectric effect (12th board
Fig. 14.2 ,page - 307) consists of an evacuated glass tube with a quartz window
containing a photosensitive metal plate - the emitter E and another metal plate -
the collector C.
 The emitter and collector are connected to a voltage source whose voltage can
be changed and to an ammeter to measure the current in the circuit.
 A potential difference of V, as measured by the voltmeter, is maintained
between the emitter E (the cathode) and collector C (the anode), normally C
being at a positive potential with respect to the emitter.
 A source S of monochromatic light (light corresponding to only one specific
frequency) of sufficiently high frequency (short wavelength ≤ 107 m) is used.
 Light is made to fall on surface of the metal plate E and electron are ejected
from the metal through its surface. These electrons, called photoelectrons, are
collected at the collector C (photoelectron are ordinary electrons, they are given
this name to indicate that they are emitted due to incident light).

• Observations From Experiment on Photoelectric Effect:


 When ultraviolet radiation was incident on the emitter plate, current I was
recorded even if the intensity of radiation was very low.
 There was no time lag between the incidence of light and emission of electrons.
The photocurrent started instantaneously (within 10-9 s) on shining the radiation
even if the intensity of radiation was low.
 the photo current increased linearly with intensity as shown in Fig. 14.3.(12 th
board ,page – 308)
 Also read remaining 6 observation from board text book.(page –307,308,309)

• Einstein’s Postulate of Quantization of Energy and The Photoelectric Equation


 Planck's hypothesis of energy quantization to explain the black body radiation
was extended by Einstein in 1905 to all types of electromagnetic radiations.
Einstein proposed that under certain conditions, light behaves as if it was a
particle and its energy is released or absorbed in bundles or quanta. He named
the quantum of energy of light as photon.
 In 1905, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) proposed a radically new picture of
electromagnetic radiation to explain photoelectric effect. In this picture,
photoelectric emission does not take place by continuous absorption of energy
from radiation.
 It may be noted that the equation E = hv, where v is the frequency of light and h is
a constant defined by Planck in his model to explain black body radiation. It is
now known as the Planck's constant and has a value 6.626 x 10-34 J s.

Observation of Einstein theory:

 Einstein argued that when a photon of ultraviolet radiation arrives at the metal
surface and collides with an electron, it gives all its energy hv to the electron.
The energy is gained by the electron and the photon no longer exists.
 If the work function of the material of the emitter plate, then electrons will be
emitted if and only if the energy gained by the electrons is more than or equal to
the work function.
 Energy is given by the photon to the electron as soon as the radiation is incident
on the surface. The exchange of energy between the photon and electron.
 is instantaneous. Hence there is no time lag between the incidence of light and
emission of electrons.
 According to Einstein's proposition, if the intensity of incident radiation for a
given wavelength is increased, there will be an increase in the number of energy
quanta (photons) incident on unit area in unit time; the energy of each quantum
being the same.
 Once the electron is emitted from the surface, if the collector is at a higher
potential than the emitter, the electric field will accelerate the electrons
towards the collector. Higher is the accelerating potential, more will be number
of electrons reaching the collector.
 Increasing the incident intensity will increase the number of incident photons
and eventually the saturation current.
 The electrons that are emitted from the metal surface have different kinetic
energies. The reasons for this are many- fold: all the electrons in a solid do not
possess the same energy, the electrons may be ejected from varying depths
inside the metal surface and may lose their energy etc.
• Wave Particle Duality of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Photocell
• De Broglie Hypothesis
• Davison And Germer Experiment
• Wave Particle Duality of Matter

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