IMPORTANT GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS

For successful performance and report of a class experiment, students are

advised to read and take note of the following guidelines:
Laboratory regulations/requirements
1. Each student must come to the laboratory with the following materials
 A complete mathematical set.
 A high-quality practical physics notebook with graph on alternate pages.
 A scientific calculator.
 A long transparent ruler (30cm long).
 Small notebook for rough work.
2. All students should come to the laboratory in their lab coat.
3. There should be no movement from table to another during practical.
4. Once you step into the laboratory there should be no noise.
5. Find out the experiments you are to perform the following week from
those in charge of experiments.
6. Convince yourself that the sets materials given to you are complete. Ask
those in charge for any missing apparatus.
7. Do not rush through your work, this leads to inaccurate result. Work
quickly but with care.
8. Do not waste time writing the method and theory of the experiments
unless the question specifically requires this.
9. Make sure you complete and report the experiment in the laboratory within
the stipulated time.

PRESENTATION FORMAT ON PRACTICALS

Please always write your physics practical report in the following format.
1. Title and date: write the number, title of the experiment and the date on
which it is performed
2. Aim of the experiment: write the purpose or objective of the experiment.
You can use ‘to measure……………..’ ‘to determine……………’ ‘to verify…………’ and so
on. Example experiment on Snell’s law. Aim: to verify Snell’s law
3. Apparatus: write down all the apparatus
4. Diagram: draw a very simple diagram of the set up and label them
5. Readings: always write your result in tabular form indicating title and units
in each column e.g. in recording the values of I, V, and R
I(v) V(v) R()

1
Approximate all measurement to the required accuracy. Remember; do not
exceed the accuracy of your measuring instrument.
6. Graph: a graph is a representation of the variation of one physical quantity
with respect to another.
To draw a good graph the following rules are applicable
i. Determine which variable is independent and which one is dependent.
The independent is to be graphed on the horizontal axis (x-axis) and the
dependent variable on the vertical axis (y-axis).
ii. Choose a scale that will spread the variable across the graph page.
Avoid taking scales like 5cm to 6cm, but always use the form 1,2 ,5 or 10cm on
the graph represent 1,2,5,10 units (or multiple of these).
iii. Label the axes indicating the quantities which are graphed and the unit
in which they are measured.
iv. Locate each point by making a dot in pencil when you are sure that you
have made no mistake, mark it ‘x’ or ‘o’.
Draw a line of best fit with a ruler if the point seems to lie along a straight line. If
the point seems to lie along a curve, draw a smooth curve.

V(v)

I (A)

(a) like this

(b) not like this

Remember do not try to force your line through all the points as in figure 1(b)
above.
v. If you are to find a slope choose a large right-angle triangle to occupy
the plotted points (where necessary). Remember to state the unit (if any) of the
slope. If you are to find an intercept, make sure that the scale chosen is the right
one so that the graph cuts the appropriate axis. State the unit of the intercept
while recording it.
7. Calculations/deductions: all calculations involved should be clearly

2
substituted and correctly done.
8. Sources of errors: write at least two possible sources of unavoidable
errors which might have eventually affected the result. From which precautions
(necessary steps taken to minimize or avoid such errors) can be stated.
9. Precautions: these are things you have done to enable you get accurate
result in your experiment. It should be in past tense or reported speech. e.g.
(a) I ensured tight connections.
(b) I checked the zero error of the galvanometer
(c) I repeated my reading to avoid systematic error
10. Conclusion: This should be a full statement always reflecting the aim of
the experiment and indicating a comparison with the standard value of the
quantity measured.
MORE ON GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
A graph is a two-dimensional representation of the way in which a dependent
variable (y-axis) varies in response to changes in an independent variable (x-axis).
The purpose of the graph includes:
 To present a lot of information about the relationship between two
variables/quantities in a simple form.
 To average out random errors from a set of experimental results and from
the shape of the graph determine the law relating two or more
variables/quantities.
 For a system that is time dependent, the graph is used to present records,
which serve as basis for predicting future trends or occurrences.
 Determination of the average value of constants in relationship
expressions.

RULES OF GRAPH PLOTTING

In order to obtain a graph with a high degree of accuracy, the following rules
should be observed:
 Title of experiment:
The title of the experiment performed should be clearly and legibly written.
 Scale:
A scale that is easily divisible should be given for the two axes of your graph (e.g.
1, 2, 5,10cm to represent 1, 2, 5,10 units (or their multiples such as 0.1, 0.2, 0.25,
0.01, 0.02, 0.025, 0.04 etc).
Avoid odd scales such as 3, 7cm to represent 3, 7 units (and multiples of this).

3
The scale should be well marked on the different axes to show what they
represent.
Also, a considerably large scale should be chosen such that your graph occupies
at least three quarter (75%) of the whole graph book provided.
To choose a scale divide the highest number by the number of available
centimeters on the required axis and scale the result to the next available number;
e.g if you have 5.49 as the highest number to be placed on the vertical axis and
there are 29cm, then 5.49/29=0.1891…this mean that 1cm (on the graph)
represent 0.2 unit
 Labeling
Make sure the axes are well labeled with both quantity and units. The axes
should also be labeled with arrows pointing to the direction of increase of the
different variables.
 Points & Plots
The independent variable/quantity should be plotted on the abscissa (x-axis)
while the dependent variable/quantity should be plotted on the ordinate (y axis).
 Points must be plotted using consistent and a clear point types (eg
circled dot (.) Asterisks (*), cross (+) etc. Do not use ordinary dots (.)
 Always use pencil for plotting and drawing lines.
 Graph lines should be as clear and neat as possible (preferably thin lines)
 Draw straight lines with clear plastic rule in order to get the line of best fit.
In case of curves, French curves or flexible broom stick could be used.
GRAPH FITTING
Straight line graphs can generally be represented by the equation
y = mx + c…………………….1
Where m is the slope (gradient) and c is the intercept on the ordinate (vertical)
axis, y and x being the dependent (ordinate) and independent (abscissa)
variables respectively.
Most graphs that would be drawn from laboratory experiments will be straight
line graphs. However, the equation that would relate the various quantities being
measured may not be in form of equation (i) above, but such relationship
expressions could be transformed to give an equation similar to equation (i)
above.
Examples of straight lines are:
y = ax + b
y = ax - b

4
 Now consider a situation where a quantity y is related to another quantity x by the
equation:
-1 n
y = ax …………………………..2
We need to convert equation (2) above to a linear form in (in this case by taking
log of both sides). The result is given by:
1
log y  log a  log x
n

This gives a straight line with

Log y as the dependent variable
Log x as the independent variable.
Log a as the intercept on the ordinate.
1
- as the slope (gradient) of the graph.
n
This concept of transforming a nonlinear expression to linear form is known as
Linearization.
Plotting Graphs
When plotting graphs: The points are joined together to form a line or curve as
the case may be (or some special shapes sometimes).
In a straight line graph all points may not lie on a perfect straight line, given rise
to the need for a line of best fit. this is done through the use of a clear
transparent Rule to draw a line which passes through most of the points and at
the same time leaves the two sides of the line with equal /almost equal point
density as shown in the sketch below.
Dependent variable

Best line of fit

Independent variable
5
To avoid points being clustered in one area, the graph may not be started from
origin.
30

Best line of fit

20
10

120 122 124 126

Curves can be accurately drawn using a flexible broom stick.

However, accurate curves can also be gotten using free hand drawing. All you
need do is ensure that your hand falls inside the arc when joining points on the
curve.

Like this Not like this

6
 Deductions form Graphs
 Centroid
Centroid is the center or mid-point of the plotted points. It is obtained by finding
the mean (average value) of all the x- and y- coordinates of the plotted points.
̅ ∑x ̅ ∑y
Given that x = and y = where n is the number of observations
n n
̅ ̅
( x , y ) is the CENTROID.
Note: that the centroid should be on the line of best fit. So, when drawing your
line of best fit, make sure it passes through the centroid.
 Slope (Gradient)
The slope (gradient) of a graph is given by the expression
∆y
s=
∆x
Where ∆y is the change in the value of variable y (∆y = ymax - ymin)
∆xis the change in the value of variables x (∆x = xmax - xmin)
In practical, the largest triangle which includes all the points within it is usually
drawn for the determination of the slope. This is done to minimize error in the
value of the slope.
The slope of a non-linear graph at any point can be found by evaluating the slope
of the tangent to the curve at that point.
 Intercept
The intercept is the point where the graph line cuts the ordinate (or in some
cases the abscissa).
In situations where the intercept is required and the points would be clustered
to the right if the graph is drawn from origin (0.0), the graph may not be started
from origin. The intercept (c) can then be estimated by deriving an expression
for the slope in terms of a points P (x1, y1) and the intercept as shown below:
When a graph of an equation containing one or more constants is plotted. The
value of the constants can be gotten from the intercept and the slope if the
mathematical relationship between the constant and the slope/intercept is
known.
-1 n
For instance the value of the constant, a, in the equation (ii):y = ax can be
found by evaluating the antilog of the intercept (C) since theoretically, we know
1
that a plot of log y against log x will give an intercept c as log aand - the slope of
n
the graph.

7
 Empirical Relationship Expression
This is the simplest way of expressing the relationship between a set of
quantities, it is gotten by substituting the values gotten for the constants into the
relationship expression. It gives the expression with which the dependent
quantity can be estimated mathematically using varying values of the
independent quantity.
Let’s take equation (ii) as an example:
If a is gotten to be -3 and n to be 2. Then: the empirical expression of equation (ii)
-1 2
is y = -3x
 Errors in Graph
Errors in the value of the slope and the intercept can be estimated from the graph.
Error In slope
Having found the slope (m) of the line of best fit, this error can be evaluated by
first finding the centroid. The lines of greatest slope and Least Slope are then
drawn both passing through the centroid and their respective slopes (m1and m2)
found.

∆m
The error in the slope is given by Em =
m
Where ∆m is the difference in the values of either m1 and m or m2 and m
(whichever is larger).
Error in intercept.
∆C
The error in the intercept is given by EC =
C

8
Where C is the difference in the values of either C1 and C or C2 and C (whichever
is larger).
 Error in Values
If we have a set of values taken for the same variable/quantity under the same
condition at different times, say: x1,x2 ,x3…..xn
The error is given by:

∑(x-̅ x )
2

E=
n(n-1)
To analyze error in a value from a plotted graph, determine the deferent slopes
(mand m1) or intercepts (Cand C1) which ever implies, from which you are to
determine the values of the quantities and use the formula:

Error in the quantity EQ =

|Q-Q1| where Q obtained from either m or C and Q is
Q 1

obtained from either m1 or C1

In summary, Experiment can be presented in the following format.