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Rethinking Meditation
 Rethinking Meditation
Buddhist Meditative Practices in Ancient and Modern
Worlds

David L. McMahan
 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the
University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing
worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and
certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
© Oxford University Press 2023
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in
writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under
terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning
reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same
condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: McMahan, David L., author.
Title: Rethinking meditation : Buddhist meditative practices in ancient and modern worlds /
David L. McMahan.
Description: 1. | New York, , NY, United States of America : Oxford University Press, [2023]
|
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023007155 (print) | LCCN 2023007156 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197661741 (c/p) | ISBN 9780197661765 (epub) | ISBN 9780197661772
Subjects: LCSH: Meditation—Buddhism—History. | Mindfulness (Psychology)
Classification: LCC BQ 5612 . M 36 2023 (print) | LCC BQ 5612 (ebook) |
DDC 294 . 3/4432—dc23/eng/20230222
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023007155
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023007156
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197661741.001.0001
Contents

List of Abbreviations
Acknowledgments

I. THINKING ABOUT MEDITATION

1. Introduction
Meditative Practices, Ancient and Modern—Filters and
Magnets—Themes of the Book: Historical and
Genealogical Study; Theoretical Argument; Individuals,
Cultures, and the Underlying Conceptual Architecture of
late Modernity; Meditation as a Cultural Practice;
Meditation and Secularism; Ethical Subjects
2. Neural Maps and Enlightenment Machines
The Enlightenment Machine—Meditation as a Science of
Mind—The Theater-of-the-Mind Model of Mindfulness—
The Self-as-Brain Model of Mindfulness—Meditation in
Context: Initial Reflections
3. What Difference Does Context Make?: Meditation and
Social Imaginaries
The Work Meditation Does—Meditation in a Social
Imaginary

II. MEDITATION IN CONTEXT

4. Meditation in the Pali Social Imaginary I: The
Phenomenology and Ethics of Monastic Mindfulness
The Historical and Cultural Context of Early Buddhist
Meditative Practices—Meditation as Self-Cultivation in
 the Pali Suttas—Phenomenological and Psychological
Reflections—Mindfulness and the Habitus of Monastic
Comportment
5. Meditation in the Pali Social Imaginary II: Corporeal
and Cognitive Mindfulness
The Body: As It Is—Corporeal Crisis—Doctrinal
Contemplations—Rethinking the Foundations of
Mindfulness
6. Meditation and Cultural Repertoires
Taxonomies, Symptoms, and Cultural Contexts—Two
Meditators Again—And Yet . . .
7. Deconstructive Meditation and the Search for the
Buddha Within
The Dharma Game: Categories and the Way Things Are
—Emptiness and the Way Things Are—Beyond
Categories—Meditation and the Buddha Within—
Implications of Innateism, Insinuations of Emptiness

III. MEDITATION AND THE ETHICAL SUBJECT

8. Secularism and the Ethic of Appreciation
The Subject of Ethics and the Ethical Subject—
Secularism and the Secular Meditator—The Underlying
Ideals of Secular Meditation—“Appreciate Your Life”:
Strawberries and the Ethic of Appreciation—Preparing
the Way: Transcendentalism and Attentive Appreciation
—Meditation in the Immanent Frame
9. Meditation and the Ethic of Authenticity
Authenticity in Modern Western Thought—Meditation
and the Ethic of Authenticity—Alienation and the
Modern Meditator—Evaluating the Ethic of Authenticity
—The Real Thing
10. Meditation and the Ethic of Autonomy
Introducing Autonomy—Freedom in Classical Buddhism
—Meditation and Modern Conceptions of Freedom—
Liberalism and the Autonomous Self—The Inner Citadel
of the Mind—The Feminist Interrogation of the
Autonomous Self—Alternative Models of Agency in
Meditative Traditions—Spontaneity and Submission:
Alternative Models of Agency in Meditative Traditions—
Meditation and Autonomy
11. Affordances, Disruption, and Activism
Navigating the Internal Affordance Landscape—
Ruptures, Breakdown, and Ethics—Meditation, Social
Change, and “Interruptive Agency”—Social and Political
Affordances—Conclusions on Meditation, Autonomy,
and Ethics
12. Individualism and Fragmentation in the Mirrors of
Secularism: The Ethic of Interdependence
Hand Mirrors and Infinity Mirrors—Modernity and the
Fragmentation of the Self—Fragmented Selves and
Nonself—Two Poles of Mindfulness—Secularity and
Interdependence—Fractal Order and Fragmented Chaos
Postscript: The Iron Age and the Anthropocene

Notes
Works Cited
Index
Abbreviations

A Anguttara Nikāya
Aṣṭa Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
D Dīgha Nikāya
M Majjhima Nikāya
S Saṃyutta Nikāya
Skt. Sanskrit
SP Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta
Acknowledgments

Two previously published book chapters are reworked and

incorporated into this book: “How Meditation Works: Theorizing the
Role of Cultural Context in Buddhist Contemplative Practices,” in
David McMahan and Erik Braun, eds., Meditation, Buddhism, and
Science (Oxford University Press, 2017); and “Buddhism and Secular
Subjectivities: Individualism and Fragmentation in the Mirrors of
Secularism,” in Richard Payne, ed., Secularizing Buddhism: New
Perspectives on a Dynamic Tradition (Shambhala, 2021). I thank the
publishers for permission to use them.
This book came together with the help of several conferences,
grant projects, and individuals. The project was kicked off with a
Mind & Life Contemplative Studies Fellowship. I am appreciative of
Mind & Life’s support as well as their invitations not only to
collaborate but also to serve as a gentle critic. Any views, findings,
conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do
not necessarily reflect those of the Mind & Life Institute.
Other collaborative projects that have fed this work include the
putting together of the volume Meditation, Buddhism, and Science
with Erik Braun. At the time, I saw that volume as a side project,
and sometimes I came to think of it as a diversion from completing
this book, but the excellent contributors all brought something that
helped me think through this work. So thanks to Erik Braun, Julia
Cassaniti, Joanna Cook, Bill Edelglass, Bob Sharf, Evan Thompson,
Bill Waldron, and Jeff Wilson.
This book has also been enriched by a thoughtful group of
international scholars brought together via a grant from the German-
Israel Foundation for Scientific Research and Development to
research the topic of the ethical foundations of Buddhist meditation.
Thanks especially to Eviatar Shulman and Michael Zimmerman for
inviting me on board.
The Mangalam Research Center has been part of the incubation of
some of the ideas in this work. Thanks to Jack Petranker’s
indefatigable efforts to bring people together to discuss all things
Buddhist, I have benefited from being part of two summer seminars
that have proven valuable: “Putting the Buddhism/Science Dialogue
on New Footing,” funded by the Templeton Foundation, and “The
Imagination and Imaginal Worlds in the Mirror of Buddhism,” funded
by the National Endowment for the Humanities.
Franklin & Marshall College has been a splendid professional home
that has given me the freedom to pursue my interests wherever they
lead. Thanks especially to my wonderful departmental colleagues,
Annette Aronowicz, Stephen Cooper, John Modern, SherAli Tareen,
and Rachel Feldman. And to the F&M students I have taught
throughout the years, who make several appearances in the book.
Thanks as well to various friends and colleagues who have
supported my work in a variety of ways, like inviting me to give talks
or contributing chapters that fed into this book, reviewing my
manuscripts, writing letters of recommendation for grant proposals,
or hanging out in offices, conferences, and bars talking through
relevant issues. They include, but I’m certain are not limited to, John
Dunne, Ira Helderman, Jonathan Gold, Wendi Adamek, Chuck
Prebish, Georges Dreyfus, Justin Brody, Martijn van Beek, Richard
Payne, Jay Garfield, Francisca Cho, Hal Roth, Nathan McGovern,
David Germano, Greg Johnson, John Harding, Ann Gleig, Linda
Heuman, Bernard Faure, Dan Smyer Yü, and members of the Red
Rose Sangha (and its offshoots).
Finally, none of this would have meant much without the
ridiculously wonderful love and support of partner extraordinaire,
Karen Sattler, and son extraordinaire, Caden McMahan.
 PART I
THINKING ABOUT MEDITATION
1
Introduction

Dispatches from the Worlds of Meditation: 1a

A young Tibetan Buddhist nun, Sherab Zangmo, enters a pitch-black room for
a “dark retreat,” in which she meditates in complete darkness for forty-nine
days, the same number of days one spends in the bardo, the realm in
between death and rebirth. During this time, she has a vivid vision of Yeshe
Sogyal, an influential eighth-century female Buddhist teacher believed to be
the consort of Padmasambhava, who brought Buddhism to Tibet and with
whom Sogyal performed karmamudrā, meditative sexual yoga. In the vision,
the legendary heroine makes three symbolic hand gestures (mudrās), after
which another historical figure, Yang Gyamtso, the founder of Sherab
Zangmo’s monastery, also appears. Sherab Zangmo then merges with Yang
Gyamtso. “He came to rest on my head and then he dissolved into my body,
speech and mind. We became one. I cried and cried. That moment I had a
direct experience of the nature of my mind. I have had many experiences,
good and bad, but my mind has remained stable, neither good nor bad.”1

Dispatches from the Worlds of Meditation: 1b

A young woman in a puffy gray dinosaur costume, its head careening and
bobbing several feet above her own, walks across Westminster Bridge in
London. She is joined by several thousand others who block bridges
throughout the city, snarling traffic and carrying signs: “rebel for life”; “fossil
fuel era over”; “system change, not climate change.” Other actions by the
activists, who call themselves Extinction Rebellion, have included a topless
protest in which women blockaded Waterloo Bridge with messages written
across their bare chests: “climate rape,” “climate abuse,” and “climate justice”;
and another in which men and women in nothing but their underpants
stormed Britain’s House of Commons during Brexit negotiations, gluing their
hands to the glass partition that divides the public from Parliament. Many
members of the group are Buddhists or practice Buddhist meditation. At some
of their blockades, protestors can be seen sitting cross-legged in meditation
posture. Online notices for Extinction Rebellion DC include a meditation and
discussion in Malcolm X Park:
“This event is part of an ongoing, peer-led exploration of how we can respond
to the climate and ecological emergency with the support of Buddhism,
meditation, and other contemplative practices. Our intention is to strengthen
our internal and social resources for the challenging work of standing up for a
livable and just planet. In recent months, our conversations have focused on
the pandemic and racial justice along with the climate crisis. Many of us are
members of Extinction Rebellion, a nonviolent international movement
demanding action on the climate crisis through non-violent civil
disobedience.”2

Dispatches from the Worlds of Meditation: 1c

A shaven-headed man sits stone-still, legs crossed, back straight, lined up
with two dozen others identically clad in black robes on two long, raised
platforms in a Zen training monastery in Japan. Another man slowly walks
between the two rows of meditators carrying a long wooden stick flattened at
the end. He turns to the seated meditator, and they bow slowly to each other,
each with his palms pressed together in front of his chest, the meditator
bending his head a bit lower than that of the stick-wielder. The meditator
remains bent as the other man gently taps his stick on his shoulder, then
raises it in the air and smacks the shoulder four times, the staccato cracks
echoing sharply through the hall. After he repeats the blows on the other
shoulder, they bow solemnly to each other again, and he moves on. Later, on
the way to the dining hall, the meditator passes another senior member of
monastery and briefly allows his gaze to meet his. The superior punches him
in the chest.3

Dispatches from the Worlds of Meditation: 1d

A small group saunters into the multipurpose room of a Unitarian church.
They are men and women, mostly white, some young but most graying,
wearing t-shirts, jeans, sweatpants, and yoga pants. Some bring their own
cushions and place them alongside some chairs for those with bad backs.
They chat casually until the meditation teacher rings a bell and they take their
seats. She welcomes everyone and goes through a brief set of instructions,
which most have heard before: straighten the back, relax the body, focus on
the breath and count each one silently in cycles of ten; if your attention
wanders and you lose count, don’t fret about it, just calmly bring it back to
the breath and begin the counting again at one. Try to remain in the present
moment and not drift to anticipation of the future or rumination about the
past. Observe your thoughts or feelings; do not judge them. She rings the bell
again, and meditators sit for 25 minutes. Afterward, another participant reads
aloud a short chapter from a book on Buddhism written by a well-known
contemporary meditation teacher. The group discusses the reading for fifteen
minutes or so, then they disassemble the makeshift meditation room, chat a
 bit more, and make their way home. The next day, the teacher gives the
same instructions, purged of any reference to Buddhism, to employees at a
midsized tech company.

Meditative Practices, Ancient and Modern

These snapshots of Buddhist and Buddhist-derived meditative
practices today represent only a few of the dizzying array that have
emerged in the long and culturally diverse history of Buddhism,
spanning many cultural and geographic regions and over 2,500
years. Others include practices aimed at transcending the world
entirely and existing eternally in a state of disembodied bliss;
practices in which meditators imagine external images of a buddha
being inhaled through the nostrils, deposited, and arranged in
specific places in the body, where they will grow like babies in the
womb into a fully awakened buddha within (Crosby 2013); practices
involving the detailed visualization of corpses decaying; meditative
programs requiring a period of three years and three months
isolated in a mountain cave or retreat (Kongtrul 1994); practices
involving intricate visualizations of energy-channels, written letters,
and deities circulating within the body (Hatchell 2014); practices that
require the gathering back of kwan, “spirits of the person,” that
normally inhabit the body but have strayed, causing depression, ill-
health, or affliction by malign spirits (Cassiniti 2017).
Yet if you are seeking out meditation today in North America and
Europe—and, increasingly, in the rest of the world as well—you will
likely encounter one particular type, the one illustrated in the fourth
example above, often under the label “mindfulness.” There are many
places in the United States, where I live, to encounter Buddhist and
Buddhist-derived meditative practices under this label: Zen
monasteries, Insight Meditation centers, health clubs, colleges,
psychologists’ offices, corporations, liberal Christian churches, and
cardiac rehabilitation centers. If you pursue meditation or
mindfulness practices in any of those widely diverse settings, you will
likely get the same basic initial instructions and the same concept of
what mindfulness is and what it does. One of the most influential
formulations is that of one of the pioneers of the contemporary
mindfulness movement, Jon Kabat-Zinn. Mindfulness, according to
Kabat-Zinn, is “the awareness that arises from paying attention, on
purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally” (2013
[1990], lvii). Although the term has a long and diverse history,
mindfulness today has come to mean the nonjudgmental awareness
of the present moment mentioned above—what I have come to
think of as the Standard Version of meditation. There are many
variations, but the basic approach is strikingly similar in all of them,
whether you are at a YMCA in Salt Lake City or a Buddhist
monastery in the Catskills. When I refer to it as the Standard
Version, I don’t mean it in a derogatory way. I have done it myself
and have recommended it to those I think it might benefit from it.
But as a historian of religion, I am struck by the way one particular
form of meditation has quickly become dominant in so many
settings, and I decided it was worthy of historical, cultural, and
philosophical investigation.
Indeed, this practice has become ubiquitous across “the West”
today and has circulated back to Asia, where, for example, a
resident of Tokyo might be more likely to meditate at a mindfulness
class in the neighborhood gym than at the local Buddhist temple.
Countless articles in popular magazines promote its benefits, often
depicting it as a panacea for problems as wide-ranging as anxiety,
depression, heart disease, relationship issues, inability to focus,
eating disorders, and psoriasis. It is widely used in psychotherapy
(Helderman 2019), and there are bestselling books on mindfulness
and meditation not only by Buddhist monks but also by medical
doctors, psychologists, computer engineers, business consultants,
and a US congressman (Tim Ryan (D), Ohio). It is taught in public
schools and universities, corporations, hospitals, prisons, and the US
military, and is offered by Britain’s National Health Service. In North
America, several basic forms of Buddhist meditation began gaining
traction in the counterculture movements of the mid-to-late
twentieth century and more recently have seeped into countless
cultural niches, including the most mainstream. In the 1980s, when I
first encountered it, it was still a fringe activity, the province of Beat
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Fig. 261.—Valves of a Chiton
separated to show the
various parts (anterior valve
uppermost): a, a,
articulamentum; b, beak; j,
jugum; pl, pl, pleura; t, t,
tegmentum.
 Fig. 262.—Valves of Chitonellus
separated out (anterior valve
uppermost): a, a,
articulamentum; t, t,
tegmentum. × 2.
The Polyplacophora are characterised, externally, by their usually
articulated shell of eight plates or valves, which is surrounded and
partly kept in position by a muscular girdle. These plates overlap like
tiles on a roof in such a way that the posterior edge of the first,
cephalic, or anterior valve projects over the anterior edge of the
succeeding valve, which in its turn overlaps the next, and so on
throughout. Seven-valved monstrosities very rarely occur.
A certain portion of each valve is covered either by the girdle or by
the valve next anterior to it. This portion, which is whitish in colour
and non-porous in structure, forms part of an inner layer which
underlies the rest of the substance of the valve, and is called the
articulamentum. The external portion of the valves, or tegmentum, is
generally more or less sculptured, and is largely composed of chitin,
impregnated with salts of lime, thus answering more to a cuticle than
to a shell proper. It is very porous, being pierced by a quantity of
minute holes of two sizes, known as megalopores and micropores,
which are connected together by minute canals containing what is
probably fibrous or nerve tissue, the mouths of the pores being
occupied by sense organs connected with these nerves. The
tegmentum of the six intermediate valves is generally divided into
three triangular areas by two more or less prominent ribs, which
diverge from the neighbourhood of the median beak or umbo. The
space enclosed between these ribs is known as the median area or
jugum, the other two spaces as the lateral areas or pleura. The ribs
terminate with the edge of the tegmentum, and are not found on the
articulamentum. In certain genera these areas are either non-
existent, or are not distinctly marked. The sculpture of the lateral
areas (which is, as a rule, much stronger than that of the median
area) will generally be found to resemble that of the anterior valve,
which has no proper median area. In the posterior valve the median
area is very small, while the sculpture of the rest of the valve
corresponds to that of the lateral areas generally (see Fig. 261).
 Fig. 263.—First, fourth, and eighth
valves of a Chiton, showing l.i,
laminae of insertion; n, n,
notches; s.l, s.l, sutural
laminae. × 2.
The articulamentum of the intermediate valves is divided into two
equal parts in the middle of the anterior edge, opposite to the beak,
by a sinus. Each of the portions thus formed is again divided by a
notch or suture into two unequal parts, the anterior of which is known
as the sutural lamina, and is more or less concealed by the valve in
front of it, while the lateral part, or lamina of insertion, is entirely
concealed by the girdle. The articulamenta of the anterior and
posterior valves are either simple or pierced by a series of notches
(Fig. 263).
The girdle of the Chitonidae varies considerably in character.
Sometimes its upper surface is simply corneous or cartilaginoid, with
no other sculpture than fine striae, at others it is densely beset with
spines or bristles, or tufted at intervals with bunches of deciduous
hairs; again it is marbled like shagreen or mossy down, or covered
with serpent-like scales. The width of the girdle varies greatly, being
sometimes very narrow, sometimes entirely covering all the valves
(Cryptochiton). As a rule, its outer edge is continuous, but in
Schizochiton it is sharply notched over the anus.
A description has already been given of the dorsal eyes in Chiton
(p. 187), the nervous system (p. 202), the branchiae (p. 154), the
radula (p. 228), and the generative system (p. 126).

Fig. 264.—Girdles of various Chitonidae. A, Radsia sulcata

Wood, × 2; B, Maugeria granulata Gmel., × 3; C,
Enoplochiton niger Barnes, × 3; D, Acanthochiton fascicularis
L., × 4; E, Tonicia fastigiata Sowb., × 4.
The recent Chitons are thus classified by Dr. W. H. Dall:—
Section I. Chitones Regulares.—Anterior and posterior valves
of similar character.
A. Leptoidea.—Insertion plates obsolete, or, if present, unslit;
Leptochiton, Hanleyia, Hemiarthrum, Microplax.
B. Ischnoidea.—Insertion plates sharp, smooth, fissured; with
eaves; Trachydermon, Callochiton, Tonicella, Schizoplax, Leptoplax,
Chaetopleura, Spongiochiton, Ischnochiton, Callistochiton.
C. Lophyroidea.—Insertion plates broad, pectinated, projecting
backward; Chiton, Tonicia, Eudoxochiton, Craspedochiton.
 D. Acanthoidea.—Insertion plates thrown forward; Sclerochiton,
Acanthopleura, Dinoplax, Middendorffia, Nuttallina, Arthuria,
Phacellopleura.
Section II. Chitones Irregulares.—Posterior valve abnormal, or
with a sinus behind.
E. Schizoidea.—Posterior valve fissured; Lorica, Schizochiton.
F. Placiphoroidea.—Posterior valve unslit, internally ridged, umbo
nearly terminal; Enoplochiton, Ornithochiton, Plaxiphora.
G. Mopaloidea.—Posterior valve with posterior sinus and one slit
on each side; Mopalia, Katherina, Acanthochiton, Notoplax.
H. Cryptoidea.—With double sutural laminae; Cryptoconchus,
Amicula, Cryptochiton.
I. Chitonelloidea.—Posterior valve funnel shaped; laminae thrown
forward; Chitonellus, Choneplax.

Fig. 265.—Chitonellus fasciatus Quoy; ant, anterior

end.
Sub-order 2. Aplacophora.—Animal vermiform, foot absent, or a
mere groove, cuticle more or less covered with spicules.
According to Marion, one of the principal authorities on the group,
the Aplacophora are perhaps Amphineura whose development has
been arrested at an early stage, their worm-like exterior being due to
adaptation to surroundings. They have hitherto been found chiefly in
the N. Atlantic and Mediterranean, generally at considerable depths,
and often associated with certain polyps in a way which suggests a
kind of commensalism.
Fam. 1. Neomeniidae.—Foot a narrow groove, intestinal tube
without differentiated liver, kidneys with common exterior orifice,
sexes united, ctenidia present or absent. Genera: Neomenia (Fig.
266), Paramenia, Proneomenia, Ismenia, Lepidomenia, Dondersia.
 Fig. 266.—Neomenia carinata
Tullb.: a, anus; gr, ventral
groove; m, mouth.

Fig. 267.—Chaetoderma
nitidulum Lov.: a, anus; m,
mouth. × 3.
Fam. 2. Chaetodermatidae.—Body cylindrical, no ventral groove,
liver a single sac, kidneys with separate orifices into the branchial
cloaca, two bipectinate ctenidia. Single genus, Chaetoderma (Fig.
267).

Order II. Prosobranchiata

 Visceral loop twisted into a figure of 8 (streptoneurous), right half
supra-intestinal, left half infra-intestinal; heart usually in front of the
branchia (ctenidium), which is generally single; head with a single
pair of tentacles; animal dioecious, usually marine, more or less
contained within a shell, operculum generally present. Cambrian to
present time.
Sub-order 1. Diotocardia.—Heart with two auricles (except in the
Docoglossa and Helicinidae), branchiae bipectinate, front end free;
two kidneys, the genital gland opening into the right (except in
Neritidae); nervous system not concentrated; no proboscis or siphon,
penis usually absent.
(a) Docoglossa (p. 227).—Heart with a single auricle, ventricle
not traversed by the rectum, visceral sac not spiral, shell widely
conical, non-spiral, no operculum; radula very long, with few hooked
teeth in each row.
Fam. 1. Acmaeidae.—Left ctenidium alone occurring, free on a
long stalk. Cretaceous——. Principal genera: Pectinodonta, front
part of head much produced, radula 0 (1. 0. 1.) 0; Acmaea (=
Tectura), with sub-genera Collisella and Collisellina, no accessory
branchial ring, shell closely resembling that of Patella, but generally
with a distinct internal border; Scurria, accessory branchial ring on
the mantle.
Fam. 2. Lepetidae.—No ctenidia or accessory branchiae, animal
generally blind. Pliocene——. Principal genera: Lepeta; Propilidium,
apex with internal septum; Lepetella.
Fam. 3. Patellidae.—No ctenidia, the osphradial patch at the base
of each alone surviving, a circlet of secondary branchiae between
the mantle and sides of the foot. Ordovician——. (i.) Patellinae.—
Three lateral teeth on each side, two of them anterior. Principal
genera: Patella, branchial circlet complete; chief sections Patella
proper, Scutellastra, Ancistromesus (A. mexicana Brod., measures
8–14 in. long); Helcion, branchial circlet interrupted in front;
Tryblidium (Ordovician).—(ii.) Nacellinae.—Two developed laterals
on each side, one anterior. Genera: Nacella, branchial circlet
complete; Helcioniscus, branchial circlet interrupted in front.
 (b) Rhipidoglossa (p. 225).—Ventricle of the heart traversed by
the rectum (except in Helicinidae), one or two ctenidia; jaw in two
pieces, radula long, marginals multiplied, rows curved.
Of all the Gasteropoda, this section of the Diotocardia approach
nearest to the Pelecypoda, particularly in the least specialised forms.
The auricle, the branchiae, and the kidneys are in many cases
paired, and more or less symmetrical. The ventricle is generally
traversed by the rectum, there is a long labial commissure between
the cerebral ganglia, special copulative organs are usually absent,
while the shell is often nacreous, like those of Pelecypoda of a
primitive type.
Section I. Zygobranchiata.—Two ctenidia, shell with apical or
marginal slit or holes, corresponding to an anal tube in the mantle (p.
265).
Fam. 1. Fissurellidae.—Two symmetrical ctenidia and kidneys,
visceral mass conical, shell conical, elevated or depressed, with a
single anterior or apical slit or impression; no operculum. Jurassic
——. (i.) Fissurellinae. Shell wholly external, apex entirely removed
by perforation, apical callus not truncated posteriorly; central tooth
narrow. Genera: Fissurella (Figs. 171, p. 261; 178, p. 265),
Fissuridea, Clypidella. (ii.) Fissurellidinae. Shell partly internal,
otherwise as in (i.); central tooth broad, mantle more or less reflected
over the shell, apical hole very wide. Genera: Fissurellidaea,
Pupillaea, Lucapina, Megatebennus, Macroschisma, Lucapinella.
(iii.) Emarginulinae. Shell usually wholly external, apex usually not
removed by perforation, sometimes with internal septum, anal tube
in a narrow slit or sinus. Genera: Glyphis, externals of Fissurella, but
holecallus truncated behind; Puncturella (sub-genera Cranopsis and
Fissurisepta), slit just anterior to the apex, a small internal septum;
Zeidora, large internal septum as in Crepidula: Emarginula, shell
elevated, slit very narrow, on the anterior margin (in subg. Rimula, it
is between the apex and the margin), radula bilaterally asymmetrical;
Subemarginula, margin indented by a shallow groove; Scutus (=
Parmophorus) shell oblong, depressed, nicked in front, largely
covered by the mantle.
 Fig. 268.—Scutus australis Lam.,
Australia: m, m, mantle; sh,
shell, × ⅔.
Fam. 2. Haliotidae.—Right ctenidium the smaller, epipodial line
broad, profusely lobed; shell rather flattened, spire short, last whorl
very large, with a row of perforations on the left side, which become
successively obliterated; through these holes, the posterior of which
is anal, pass tentacular appendages of the mantle; no operculum.
Cretaceous——. Single genus, Haliotis; principal sub-genera
Padollus, Teinotis.
Fam. 3. Pleurotomariidae.—Central tooth single, narrow, about 26
laterals, 60 to 70 uncini. Shell generally variously trochiform,
nacreous, operculate, with a rather broad marginal sinus in the last
whorl; as this sinus closes up it forms an “anal fasciole” or “sinus
band.” Cambrian——. Principal genera: Scissurella, epipodial line
with several long ciliated appendages at each side, shell very small,
slit open, sinus band extending nearly to apex; Schismope, anal slit
closed in the adult into an oblong perforation; Murchisonia
(Palaeozoic only), shell long, turreted, whorls angulate or keeled with
a sinus band; Odontomaria (Palaeozoic only), shell tubular, curved;
Polytremaria (Carboniferous), shell turbinate, slit a series of small
holes connected by a passage; Trochotoma, shell trochiform,
perforation consisting of two narrow holes united by a slit;
Pleurotomaria, branchiae almost symmetrical, radula as above, shell
variously spiral.
In Pleurotomaria we have the case of a genus long supposed to
be extinct. More than 1100 fossil species have been described, and
within the last 38 years about 20 specimens, belonging to 5 species,
have been discovered in a living state.

Fig. 269.—Pleurotomaria
adansoniana Cr. and F., Tobago.
× ½.
Fam. 4. Bellerophontidae.—Shell nautiloid, spire generally
concealed, aperture large, sinus or perforations central (Fig. 179, p.
266). Ordovician—Trias. Genera: Bellerophon, Trematonotus,
Cyrtolites.
Section II. Azygobranchiata.—One ctenidium (the left) present.
Fam. 1. Cocculinidae.—A single cervical ctenidium, foot broad, no
eyes, shell patelliform, with caducous spire. Single genus, Cocculina.
Deep water.
Fam. 2. Stomatellidae.—A single (left) ctenidium, front third free,
shell nacreous, spiral or patelliform, depressed, last whorl large.
Jurassic——. Genera: Stomatella (subg. Synaptocochlea, Niphonia),
shell depressed, spirally ribbed, spire short, operculum present;
Phaneta, fluviatile only, shell trochiform, imperforate, last whorl
keeled, sinuate in front; Stomatia, spire short, surface tubercled or
keeled, no operculum; Gena, shell haliotis-shaped, surface smooth,
aperture very large; Broderipia, shell patelliform, spiral apex often
lost.
 Fam. 3. Cyclostrematidae.—Tentacles ciliated, thread-like, snout
bilobed, foot truncated in front, angles produced into a filament, shell
depressed, umbilicated, not nacreous. Eocene——. Principal
genera: Cyclostrema, Teinostoma, Vitrinella.
Fam. 4. Liotiidae.—Epipodial line with a lobe behind each eye-
peduncle, shell solid, trochiform, longitudinally ribbed or trellised,
aperture round, operculum multispiral, hispid, corneous, with a
calcareous layer. Silurian——. Principal genera: Liotia,
Craspedostoma (Silurian), Crossostoma (Jurassic).

Fig. 270.—Monodonta canalifera

Lam., New Ireland. (After
Quoy and Gaimard.)
Fam. 5. Trochidae.—Snout short, broad, frontal lobes often
present, epipodial line furnished with cirrhi; shell nacreous, variously
spiral, operculum corneous, multispiral, nucleus central (Fig. 182, p.
268). Silurian——. (i.) Trochinae.—Frontal lobes present, lateral
teeth (= side centrals) 5 only, no jaws, peristome incomplete.
Principal genera: Trochus (subg. Cardinalia, Tectus, Infundibulum,
Clanculus), Monodonta (subg. Diloma), Cantharidus (subg. Bankivia,
Thalotia), Gaza (subg. Microgaza), Callogaza, Bembix, Chlorostoma.
(ii.) Gibbulinae.—Frontal lobes and jaws present, laterals often more
than 5, peristome incomplete. Principal genera: Gibbula (subg.
Monilia, Aphanotrochus, Enida), Minolia, Circulus, Trochiscus,
Livona, Photinula, Margarita, Solariella, Calliostoma, Turcica,
Basilissa, Euchelus (subg. Olivia, Perrinia). (iii.) Delphinulinae.—No
frontal lobes, jaws present; shell solid, surface spirally lirate, scaly,
spinose, umbilicate, peristome continuous. Single genus, Delphinula.
(iv.) Umboniinae.—Eyes pedunculate, left tentacle attached to a
frontal appendage, mantle reflected over edge of aperture, lateral
teeth 6 on each side; shell polished, peristome incomplete, umbilicus
generally closed by a callosity. Principal genera: Umbonium, Ethalia,
Isanda, Camitia, Umbonella, Chrysostoma.

Fig. 271.—Phasianella australis

Gmel., Australia.
Fam. 6. Turbinidae.—Epipodial line with slender cirrhi, snout
broad, short, eyes pedunculate at outer base of tentacles, a frontal
veil between tentacles; shell turbinate, solid, aperture continuous,
operculum solid, calcareous, usually paucispiral, convex exteriorly
(Fig. 182, p. 268). Silurian——. (i.) Phasianellinae.—Shell bulimoid,
polished, not nacreous, coloured in patterns, aperture oval. Single
genus, Phasianella (Fig. 271). (ii.) Turbininae.—Shell very solid,
nacreous within, aperture circular or long oval. Principal genera,
Turbo, whorls rounded above and below, spines, if present,
becoming more prominent with age, operculum smooth or granulose,
nucleus sub-central; subg. Callopoma, Ninella, Marmorostoma,
Sarmaticus, Prisogaster; Astralium, whorls flattened above and
below, spines, if present, becoming less prominent with age,
operculum oblong, often excavated at centre, last whorl large,
nucleus marginal or sub-marginal; subg. Lithopoma, Imperator,
Guildfordia, Bolma, Cyclocantha, Uvanilla, Cookia, Pomaulax,
Pachypoma. (iii.) Cyclonematinae.—Shell nacreous, umbilicate,
operculum conical outside, whorls scalariform. Principal genera:
Cyclonema, Horiostoma (?), Amberleya (Silurian to Lias). (iv.)
Leptothyrinae.—Shell small, solid, depressed, operculum nearly flat,
nucleus sub-central. Genera: Leptothyra, Collonia (?).
 Fam. 7. Neritopsidae.—Tentacles wide apart, long, eyes on short
peduncles at the outer base; shell solid, neritiform or naticoid,
aperture semi-lunar or oval; operculum (Fig. 183, p. 269) thick,
calcareous, non-spiral, exterior face smooth, interior face divided into
two unequal parts, with a broad median appendage. Devonian——.
Principal genera: Neritopsis (one recent species), Naticopsis
(Devonian to Miocene).
Fam. 8. Macluritidae.—Shell discoidal, whorls few, longitudinally
grooved behind, right side convex, deeply umbilicated, left side flat;
operculum very thick, nucleus excentrical, internal face with two
apophyses, one very large. The general appearance is more that of
an inequivalve bivalve, such as Requienia, than of a spiral
gasteropod. Palaeozoic——. Single genus, Maclurea.
Fam. 9. Neritidae.—Snout short, tentacles long, eyes pedunculate
at their outer base, branchia triangular, free at the front end,
epipodium without cirrhi, penis near the right tentacle; shell solid,
imperforate, turbinate to almost patelliform, spire short, internal
partitions absorbed (p. 168), columellar region broad, edge simple or
dentate, operculum calcareous, spiral or non-spiral, with prominent
apophyses on the interior face, one of which locks behind the
columellar lip. Jurassic——. Principal genera: Nerita (Fig. 13, p. 17);
Neritina (chiefly brackish water and fluviatile), sub-genus Clithon,
usually coronated with spines; Velates (Tertiary), Neritoma
(Jurassic), Deianira (Cretaceous), Septaria (= Navicella), shell more
or less narrowly patelliform, with terminal apex, aperture very large,
with a broad columellar septum, operculum too small for the
aperture, more or less covered by the integument of the foot;
fluviatile only; Pileolus (Jurassic to Cretaceous).
Fam. 10. Hydrocenidae.—Branchia replaced by a pulmonary
chamber, eyes at the outer base of the tentacles, marginals of the
radula very oblique, centrals often wanting; shell small, conical,
whorls convex, operculum calcareous, with a prominent apophysis.
Recent. Principal genera: Hydrocena, Georissa.
Fam. 11. Helicinidae.—Branchia replaced by a pulmonary
chamber, heart with one auricle; shell globular, with a short spire,
internal partitions absorbed; operculum without apophysis.
Carboniferous——. Principal genera: Helicina (Fig. 18b, p. 21; subg.
Alcadia, Schasicheila, Heudeia, Calybium), Eutrochatella (subg.
Lucidella), Stoastoma, Bourcieria, Dawsonella (Carboniferous).
Fam. 12. Proserpinidae.—Branchia replaced by a pulmonary
chamber, mantle partly reflected over the shell, eyes sessile; shell
depressed, discoidal, columella folded or truncated at the base,
whorls with one or more internal plicae, internal partitions absorbed,
no operculum. Eocene——. Single genus; Proserpina, subg.
Proserpinella, Cyane, Dimorphoptychia (Eocene), and Ceres (Fig.
18c, p. 21).
Sub-order II. Monotocardia.—Heart with one auricle, one
ctenidium (the left), monopectinate, fused with the mantle (except in
Valvata), one kidney, not receiving the genital products, nervous
system somewhat concentrated, proboscis and penis usually
present.
(a) Ptenoglossa.—Radula with formula ∞. ᴑ. ∞, teeth similar
throughout, outermost largest (p. 224).
Fam. 1. Ianthinidae.—Snout prominent, blunt, no eyes, shell
helicoid, fragile, bluish, no operculum; eggs carried on a raft of
vesicles attached to the foot (Fig. 42, p. 126). Pelagic only. Pliocene
——. Genera: Ianthina, Recluzia.
Fam. 2. Scalariidae.—Shell long, turriculate, whorls often partly
uncoiled, with longitudinal ribs and prominent lamellae, aperture
circular, operculum spiral, corneous, animal carnivorous. Ordovician
——. Principal genera: Scalaria, Eglisia, Elasmoneura (Silurian),
Holopella (Silurian to Trias), Aclis.
(b) Taenioglossa.—Radula with normal formula 2.1.1.1.2,
marginals sometimes multiplied (p. 223).
Section I. Platypoda.—Foot more or less flattened ventrally.
Fam. 1. Naticidae.—Foot very large, produced before and behind,
propodium reflected upon the head, eyes absent or buried in the
integument, central and lateral tooth of the radula tricuspid, middle
cusp strong; shell globular or auriform, outer lip simple, operculum
corneous or calcareous, nucleus excentrical. Carboniferous ——.
Principal genera: Natica, with many sub-genera; Ampullina (Tertiary);
Amaura; Deshayesia (Tertiary); Sigaretus (Fig. 91, p. 186), shell
auriform, last whorl very large, operculum much too small for the
aperture.
Fam. 2. Lamellariidae.—Mantle reflected over more or less of the
shell, shell delicate, no operculum. Eocene——. Principal genera:
Lamellaria, shell completely internal, transparent, auriform; some
species deposit their eggs on compound Ascidians (p. 74); Velutina,
shell almost entirely external, paucispiral, with a thick periostracum;
Marsenina, shell auriform, partly internal; Onchidiopsis, shell a
membranous plate, internal.
Fam. 3. Trichotropidae.—Branchial siphon short, eyes on the outer
side of the tentacles; radula closely allied to that of Velutina; shell
conical, last whorl rather large, periostracum thick and hairy,
operculum blunt claw-shaped, nucleus terminal. Cretaceous——.
Genera: Trichotropis, Torellia.
Fam. 4. Naricidae.—Tentacles broad in the middle, with sessile
eyes at the exterior base, propodium narrow, quadrangular, a large
epipodial veil on each side of the foot; shell naticoid, cancellated,
with velvety periostracum. Jurassic——. Single genus: Narica.
Fam. 5. Xenophoridae.—Foot divided by a groove, anterior portion
the larger; central tooth heart-shaped, with blunt cusps, lateral large,
roughly triangular, marginals long, falciform; shell trochiform,
somewhat flattened, attaching various fragments externally.
Devonian——. Single genus, Xenophora (Figs. 25, 26, p. 64).
Fam. 6. Capulidae.—Ctenidium deeply and finely pectinate,
visceral sac scarcely spiral, penis long, behind the right tentacle;
shell roughly patelliform, with scarcely any spire, interior polished,
usually with a septum or internal plate of variable form, no
operculum. Devonian——. Principal genera (Fig. 155, p. 248);
Capulus, shell cap-shaped, no internal plate; Platyceras (Palaeozoic,
see p. 76), Diaphorostoma (Palaeozoic), Addisonia (?); Crucibulum,
internal appendage funnel-shaped; Crepidula (including Crepipatella
and Ergaea), shell slipper-shaped, with a large septum; Calyptraea
(including Galerus and Trochita), internal lamina semi-spiral.
Fam. 7. Hipponycidae.—Foot aborted, animal sedentary,
adductor-muscle shaped like a horse’s hoof, fastened on the ventral
side to the region of attachment, or to a thin calcareous plate which
closes the aperture like a valve; ventral side of the body surrounded
by a mantle with papillose border, which corresponds
morphologically to the epipodia, head emerging between the dorsal
and ventral mantles. Shell thick, bluntly conical, surface rugose.
Eocene ——. Genera: Hipponyx; Mitrularia, a narrow half funnel-
shaped appendage within the shell.

Fig. 272.—Two specimens of

Crepidula (marked a and b)
on an old shell of Murex
radix Gmel.
Fam. 8. Solariidae.—Foot large, eyes sessile, near the outer base
of the tentacles, radula abnormal (p. 224); shell more or less
depressed, lip simple, umbilicus wide, margins often crenulated,
operculum variable. The proper position of the family is quite
uncertain. Ordovician——. (i.) Solariinae. Genera: Solarium, shell
depressed, highly finished, angular at periphery, operculum
corneous, central tooth absent, laterals and marginals numerous,
long, and narrow; Platyschisma (Silurian). (ii.) Toriniinae. Genera:
Torinia, whorls usually rounded, operculum (Fig. 183) conically
elevated, spiral externally, central tooth present, marginals few, edge
pectinated; Omalaxis. (iii.) Euomphalinae, shell planorbiform, whorls
rounded. Genera: Euomphalus, Ophileta, Schizostoma,
Eccyliomphalus (all Palaeozoic).
Fam. 9. Homalogyridae.—Tentacles absent, eyes sessile, central
tooth unicuspid on a quadrangular base, laterals and marginals
replaced by an oblong plate; shell very small, planorbiform. Recent.
Single genus: Homalogyra, whose true position is uncertain.

Fig. 273.—Solarium
perspectivum Lam., Eastern
Seas.
Fam. 10. Littorinidae.—Proboscis short, broad, tentacles long,
eyes at their outer bases, penis behind the right tentacle;
reproduction oviparous or ovoviviparous, radula very long; shell
turbinate, solid, columella thickened, lip simple, operculum corneous,
nucleus excentrical. Jurassic——. Principal genera: Littorina (radula,
Fig. 16, p. 20), Cremnoconchus (p. 16), Fossarina; Tectarius, shell
tubercled or spinose; Risella, base slightly concave; Lacuna, shell
thin, grooved behind the columellar lip.
Fam. 11. Fossaridae.—Shell turbinate, solid, small, white, spirally
ribbed, outer lip simple. Miocene——. Principal genus, Fossarus.
Fam. 12. Cyclophoridae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary
sac, tentacles long, thread-like (radula, Fig. 17, p. 21); shell variously
spiral, peristome round, often reflected, operculum circular.
Terrestrial only. Cretaceous——. (i.) Pomatiasinae, shell high,
conical, longitudinally striated, operculum consisting of two laminae
united together. Single genus, Pomatias. (ii.) Diplommatininae, shell
more or less pupiform, peristome thickened or reflected, often
double. Genera: Diplommatina (subg., Nicida, Palaina, Paxillus,
Arinia), shell dextral or sinistral, small, columella often denticulated;
Opisthostoma (Fig. 208, p. 309), last whorl disconnected, often
reflected back upon the spire. (iii.) Pupininae, shell more or less
lustrous, bluntly conical, lip with a channel above or below. Genera:
Pupina (subg., Registoma, Callia, Streptaulus, Pupinella, Anaulus),
Hybocystis (Fig. 205, p. 305), Cataulus, Coptochilus,
Megalomastoma. (iv.) Cyclophorinae, shell turbinate or depressed,
operculum corneous or calcareous. Genera: Alycaeus,
Craspedopoma, Leptopoma, Lagochilus, Cyclophorus (Fig. 206, p.
306); including Diadema, Aulopoma, Ditropis, and others),
Aperostoma (including Cyrtotoma and others), Cyathopoma,
Pterocyclus (subg., Myxostoma, Spiraculum, Opisthoporus, and
Rhiostoma (Fig. 180, p. 266), Cyclotus, Cyclosurus, and
Strophostoma.
Fam. 13. Cyclostomatidae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary
sac, tentacles obtuse, foot with a deep longitudinal median groove;
central tooth, lateral, and first marginal more or less bluntly cusped,
second marginal large, edge pectinate; shell variously spiral, spire
usually elevated, aperture not quite circular; operculum generally
with an external calcareous and an internal cartilaginoid lamina,
rarely corneous. Terrestrial only. Cretaceous——. Genera:
Cyclostoma (subg., Leonia, Tropidophora, Rochebrunia, Georgia,
Otopoma, Lithidion, Revoilia), Cyclotopsis, Choanopoma (subg.,
Licina, Jamaicia, Ctenopoma, Diplopoma, Adamsiella), Cistula
(subg., Chondropoma, Tudora), Omphalotropis (subg., Realia,
Cyclomorpha), Hainesia, Acroptychia.
 Fig. 274.—Cyclostoma
campanulatum Pfr., Madagascar.
Fam. 14. Aciculidae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary sac,
tentacles cylindrical, pointed at the end, eyes behind their base, foot
long and narrow; central tooth and lateral very similar, pinched in at
the sides, external marginal broad, edge finely pectinate; shell small,
acuminate, with a blunt spire, operculum corneous. Terrestrial only.
Tertiary——. Genus, Acicula (= Acme).
Fam. 15. Truncatellidae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary
sac, proboscis very long, eyes sessile, behind the base of the
tentacles, shell small, evenly cylindrical, apex truncated in the adult.
Eocene——. Genera: Truncatella (subg., Taheitia, Blanfordia, and
Tomichia), Geomelania (subg., Chittya and Blandiella), Cecina (?).
Fam. 16. Rissoidae.—Eyes at the external base of the tentacles,
epipodium with filaments, operculigerous lobe with appendages;
central tooth pleated at the basal angles, lateral large, bluntly
multicuspid, marginals long, narrow, denticulate at the edge; shell
small, acuminate, often elaborately sculptured, mouth entire or with a
shallow canal, operculum corneous. Marine or brackish water.
Jurassic——. Principal genera: Rissoa (subg., Folinia, Onoba,
Alvania, Cingula, Nodulus, Anabathron, Fenella, Iravadia, and
others), Scaliola (shell agglutinating fragments of sand, etc.),
Rissoina (lip thickened, operculum with an apophysis as in Nerita),
Barleeia, Paryphostoma (Eocene).
Fam. 17. Hydrobiidae.—Eyes at the outer base of the tentacles,
penis behind the right tentacle, prominent, operculigerous lobe
without filaments; radula rissoidan, central tooth often with basal
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