1.

Networking:
➢ The act of connecting computers together into a network is called Networking.
2. Computer Network:
➢ A computer network can be defined as a group of computers and other peripheral
devices that are linked together for the purpose of sharing data and hardware
resources.
3. Why do we need a network?
➢ If you want to share files, we need a network or even if we want to print something
than we also need a network between computer and a printer.
So, the answer is simple, we need a network for communication or to share our
resources.
Some people think network means the internet, but network does not mean the only
the internet. Yes, the internet is the largest network in the world where thousands of
network devices are connected. But if we connect two computer (or any two devices)
for the purpose of communication (or share resources) that is also a network. So, a
network can be a small as two computer or as big as the internet.

• Advantages of Computer Network:

o Sharing of resources as printers, scanners and cameras.
o Sharing of expensive software’s and database.
o Communication from one computer to another computer.
o Exchange of data and information among user via network.
o Sharing information over geographically wide areas.

• Disadvantages of Computer Network:

o The network system is more complex to run. This can add to costs and may need
specialist staff to run the network.
o Computer network faults can cause loss of data and resources.
o File security is more important if connected to WANs e.g.: Protection from computer
viruses.
4. Network components: The main component essential for the successful operation of a
computer network can be divided into two types: these are: Hardware component and
software components.
➢ Hardware Component:
a. Network server:
o A server is a powerful machine,
which provides some services to its
clients.
o When a computer shares resources
with the client machines, they are
called servers.
o They can handle many clients at a
time.
o These are also called host computer.
b. Client:
o A client is a network
computer that utilizes the
resources of another
network computer.
o Actually, the client machine
provides an interface to a
user to request services
from the server machine, and the server machine responds to the client request to give
result.
(Video Source: Coding Fact)-YouTube Channel
c. Network connector:
o The connector is used to connect network cables to terminals or
other devices, or it the device that connect two devices or network
together.
o There are several types of connector: a) Registered Jacks b) RJ 45
connector 3) RJ 11 connector 4) Coaxial
connector etc.
d. Network cables:
o Network cables is the medium through which
information moves from one network devices to
another.
o There are several types of cables. Some of the most
common network cables are:
 a. Twisted pair cables: there are two twisted cables:
i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: UTP is a popular type of cable that consist of
two unshielded wires around each other. Due to its low cost,
UTP cabling is used extensively for LAN and telephone
connections.
ii) Shielded Twisted cables (STP): Shielded twisted pair is
suitable for environment with electrical interference;
however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky.

b. Coaxial cables: Coaxial cable is a type

of transmission line, used to carry
high-frequency electrical signals. It is
used in such applications as
telephone trunk lines, broadband
internet networking cables, high-
speed computer data busses, cable
television signals.

c. Fiber optic cable: A fiber-optic cable,

also known as an optical-fiber cable,
it is an electrical cable but
containing one or more optical
fibers that are used to carry light.

(Network Cables: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tlHPUQuLu2U)

e. Network Card: A network card (also known

as NIC (Network Interface Controller) or
LAN adapter is an electronic device that
connect a computer to a network, usually a
LAN. It is considered as a piece of computer
hardware. (Currently most computer
motherboards come with the inbuilt
network card.
Note: Any device which wants to connect to
the network most contain a NIC card, even
switch and routers also consist NIC in
order to connect to the network.
f. Hub: A hub is a networking device that is used to connect multiple devices or segment on a
local network.

o It is a physical layer device that simply broadcasts

all incoming data to all other output ports.
Notes: If a Hub has eight ports, then any input data that arrives on port 1 will be
transmitted on all ports.
o Hub device can only be used in local network.
o It works on Half-duplex mode (only one computer can transfer data at a particular time if
another computer wants to transfer data, then it has to wait.
g. Switch: A switch is a networking device that has multiple ports that are used to connect
multiple devices and create a network.

o It is an intelligent device because it has a memory where it maintains the table called CAM
table (Content Accessible Memory) and stores the port number and MAC address of all
devices which helps to identify every device on a network.
o Multiple computers can connect using the switch and communicate with each other.
o Switch is works on full-duplex mode means each computer is able to send and receive data
at the same time.

h. Modem: A modem is a networking device that is used to connect the computer to the
internet where it converts data signals into digital and analog forms.
o It allows you to connect your home network to the internet and enables you to access
websites, send emails, stream videos, and engage in other activities.
 o A modem works by converting digital signal from a computer into an analog signal
for transmission over a telephone line or cable network and then converting incoming
analog signal back into digital signals for the computer to use.
o The modem has two components: they are: Modulator and Demodulator.
(Video Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yS6URj-R0eo&t=87s

➢ Software Components: The software component required to run a computer

network are of two types. These are:
a. Network Operating system (NOS): NOS is a
software program that controls other
software and hardware that runs on a
network. It provides printer sharing, common
file sharing, and database sharing,
application sharing, and the ability to
manage a network security and other aspects
of a computer network.
- Examples of NOS: UNIX,
Windows 2000 server and NetWare.
b. Network protocol: It is a set of rules by which
computers communicate with each other over a
network. These rules include the following
characteristics of a network: access method, allowed
physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of
data transfer.
- Some of the popular protocols are TCP/IP,
HTTP, SMTP and POP3 etc.
- TCP/IP= Transmission control
protocol/Internet Protocol
- HTTP: Hypertext transfer Protocol.
- SMTP: Simple mail Transfer protocol.
- POP3= Post Office Protocol Version 3.

5. Computer Network Model: Computer Network Model is a design specification for how the
nodes on a network interact and communicate.
There are three primary network models:
i) Centralized computing network: It is a network model in
which a host computer connected to other computer
or terminals provides data or computing services via
network. The host computer is the core of the
centralized computing model. A host computer
provides information resources, services and
application to user. It is expensive to implement.
ii) Client/server network: Client/Server network is a
network model that consist of at least one server and
other computer on the network, called client, makes a
service request from the server. Server provide access
to share files, printer, hardware and applications.
 iii) Peer-to-peer network: A peer-to-peer (P2P) network is a type of network in which
each participant (or "peer") can act as both a client
and a server, allowing them to share resources and
information directly with one another without the
need for a central server. P2P networks are easy and
inexpensive to implement but they are only practical
in very small organization.

6. Computer Network Categories

There are different types of networks available. Network can be differentiated by their size,
structure, distance and purpose. Mostly, computer is classified on the basis of geographical
spread and on the basis, there are three types of networks.

a) PAN (Personal Area Network)

o PAN is the smallest network which is very
personal to a user.
o This network normally ranges within around
10 meters.
o Personal area network may include
Bluetooth enable devices or infrared enable
device.
o All the Bluetooth devices like: Bluetooth
enable headphones, speakers etc.
o Infrared devices Like: Tv remote, cordless
keyboard/Mouse etc.

b) LAN (Local Area Network)

o Lan is a small network that covers small
area like an office, school building, college
building etc.
o LAN network is privately owned network
which means anyone can create this
network easily, we just need some cables
like ethernet cable or central devices like a
hub or switch.
o It is the most secured network because
there is no outside connection with the local
area network.
o Data transfer speed is faster, which can
reach up to 1000 Mbps.
 c) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
o MAN, or Metropolitan area Network covers a
larger area than that covered by a LAN and
a smaller area as compared to WAN. MAN
has a range of 5-50 km.
o In other words, when two or more LANs
network connected for the purpose of
communication then it becomes a MAN
network. So, these types of networks are
bigger than the LAN network but smaller
than the WAN network.
o Man’s Network mostly uses fiber optic cables so this network data delivery rate
is faster and more efficient. These networks are typically owned and operated
by a single organization.
o Cable TV, Phone cellular phone network are the good example of such network.

d) WAN (Wide Area Network)

o WAN or Wide Area Network is a
computer network that extends over a
large geographical area, although it
might be confined within the bounds of
a state or country.
o WAN has a range of above 50 km.
o The technology is high-speed and
relatively expensive. WAN is difficult to
design and maintain.
o Internet is the best example of WAN
networks.

(Categories of Network: https://youtu.be/AHJSOnXAZb0?si=-Eji8TqLkZ7Qc9yN )

7. Network Topologies
Network Topology refers to the shape of network in which all the computer are connected
together. There are two types of Network topologies:
Note: Node is any device that is connected to the network and is capable of sending
and receiving data OR A connection point in a network)
➢ Logical topology: Logical Topology means how the information is passed between
two nodes in a network.
➢ Physical Topology: Physical Topologies means how devices are physically
connected with each other. Most commonly used Physical Topologies are: Bus, Star,
Ring, and Mesh. Let’s discuss about this physical Topologies.
a. Bus Topology: A bus topology is a network topology in
which all the computers and peripheral devices are
connected to a common single cable called bus. On
a bus, only one computer can transfer information at a
time.

❖ Advantages
o It is easy to install and connect a new device to the network.
o It requires less cable length than the star topology.
o It is inexpensive, as only one cable is required.
o The failure of a single node does not affect the network.

❖ Disadvantages
o Failure in the cable results in shutting down of the entire network.
o In case of network shutdown, it becomes very difficult to identify the problem.
o As the number of nodes increase, the speed of the network slows down.
b. Star Topology: A star topology is a network topology
where each of the devices and computers on a
network connect to one central switch, hub or
computer. Data on a star network passes though
the hub. Hub controls all function of the network.
❖ Advantages
o Star network is the easy to install.
o New nodes can be connected easily.
o The network does not get disturb when
any device is added or remove from it.
o Failure of any other node (except the
hub) does not affect the network.
❖ Disadvantages
o It requires more cable length.
o If the central hub fails, the entire network shut down.
o It is more expensive than bus topology because of the cost of hubs, cable, etc.

c. Ring Topology: A ring topology is a network topology

in which each network node is attached along the
same signal path to each other, forming a path in a
shape of ring. The information on a ring network
travels in one direction only either clockwise or anti-
clockwise direction.

❖ Advantages
o It is more reliable than star topology as the communication does not depend on
a single hub.
o It is easy to install.
o It can span over the large distances.
o Every node has each chance to transmit data.
❖ Disadvantages
o Ring topology cause delay in communication.
o In case of network failure, it is difficult to diagnose the fault.
 o If one node fails, the entire network is shut down because the ring is not
complete.
o It is difficult to add or remove nodes from the
network.

d. Mesh Topology: A mesh topology is a network topology where

every node is connected to every other node on the network using
a separate physical link.
For example, if a message has to be sent from A to B via C, then
if node C fails, then the message can be sent to B via other nodes
on the network.
❖ Advantages
o Failure of a node does not affect the entire network; only the communication
with that particular node is affected.
o Communication is fast as there is direct link between the nodes.
o Ensures security of data because every message travels along a dedicated link.
o It is easy to detect network errors.

❖ Disadvantages
o It is the most expensive network as, for n nodes, n(n-1)/2 physical link (cable)
are required.
o It is difficult to install.
(Network Topology: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M0bQmc-3JmI

8. Communication Media
Communication media refer to the mode of physical connection needed for data
transmission. It forms the path over which data travels as it passes from a sending device
to a receiving device in a telecommunication system.
There are two types of communication media:

o Bounded/wired/Guided Media: It is any network

media that travels in a contained conductor. This
conductor can be a metal wire through which
electricity flows or a glass strand through which
pulses of light flows. Bounded media offer higher
speed, good security and low cost. Some of the
examples of bounded media are: Twisted pair wire,
coaxial cable and fiber optic cable.

o Unbounded/Unguided/ Wireless Media.

Unbounded media is the transmission medium in
which data/signal is sent through the air instead
of cable. It includes:
i) Microwave Transmissions: It is a form of
wireless transmission in which signals are
sent via pulses of electromagnetic energy. It
is used in satellite communication.
ii) Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a radio communication technology that enables low
power, short distance wireless networking between phones, computer and
other network devices.
 iii) Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is a wireless networking technology that uses
radio waves to provide wireless high-speed internet and network connections.
iv) WiMAX: It is a wireless communication standard designed for creating MANs.

(Communication Media: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUITfjrGXzY)

The Internet
The internet is a collection of millions of computers of
different types belonging to various networks all over the
world. It allows the vast amount of information. The internet
is the world largest computer network and it is called
network of network.

The major services provided by the internet are listed

below:

o Send files, data and information through

electronic mail.
o Allows the user to communicate with various other user online by using internet
chat.
o Allow to locate and download free computer software and other program
available.
o Allows to play the interactive multimedia games, listen music and watch digital
movies.
o Acts as a vast virtual market place where people can advertise and order their
products.
(How Internet Works: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_RabAsnu7Uk)

History of the Internet

The seeds of today's Internet were planted in 1969, when U.S. Department of Defense sponsored
a project named ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network). They designed a network
of four computers to exchange and share their data. The goal of this project was to connect
computers at different universities and U.S. defense. In mid-80's, another federal agency, the
National Science Foundation, created a new, high-capacity network called NSFnet. NSFnet allowed
only the academic research on its network. When ARPANET and NSFNET were linked, the modern
Internet was born, and the phenomenal growth began. Today, the Internet connects computers all
over the globe and supplies information to people of all ages and interests.
 W.W.W (World Wide Web)
The world wide web is an information system of interconnected hypertext documents that are
accessed via the internet. It contains large collection of linked text, images, sound, and video
files. It was created by Timothy Berners Lee and his colleagues at CERN Geneva, Switzerland in
1989 and introduced to the in 1991 A.D.
(www Video Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lYUMqsqNAdM&t=17s)

Components of World Wide Web

a. Website: A website is a collection of web pages giving information about an
organization, a person, etc. websites are created by an individual, group, business or
organization to serve a variety of purposes. For e.g: https://www.daraz.com.np/#?

b. Web Pages: A web pages is a document stored in an electronic form on a computer

connected to the internet.

c. Web Server: A web server is a computer on which web pages are kept. It responds to
request from web browser to retrieve information.

d. Web browser: A web browser (also called internet browser) is a software that allows your
computer to access, download and view web pages. For. e.g: Mozilla Firefox, Google
Chrome, Microsoft Internet Explorer, Apple Safari, and the Opera browser etc.

e. Home Page: Home page is the first page someone sees when s/he open a websites on the
internet.

f. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): A URL (Uniform Resource Locator, also called a web
address) is a unique identifier used to locate a resource on the internet.

E-mail (Electronic Mail)

Electronic Mail (E-Mail) is the transmission of messages over

communications networks. The messages can be notes entered from the
keyboard or electronic files stored on disk. Companies that are fully
computerized make extensive use of e-mail because it is fast, flexible, and
reliable. The most popular Web-based email services are
www.hotmail.com, www.yahoomail.com and www.rocketmail.com.

Understanding E-Mail Address

An email address is the name for an electronic postbox that can receive (and send) email messages
on a network. A complete e-mail address is made up of two parts- the username and the host
name. The first part identifies the user's name to whom the mail is to be sent and the second part
represents the Fully Qualified Domain Name of the server or host on which the user has an
account. These two parts are separated by a '@' symbol. [email protected] is an
example of email address.

Thank you!!!
 EXTRA NOTES
1. Internetworking: An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial or
governmental computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
❖ An interworking uses the internet protocols.
❖ The reference model used for internetworking is open system interconnection (OSI).

Types of
Internetworking
a. Extranet:
✓ An extranet is a communication networks based on the internet protocol such as
transmission control protocol and internet protocol (TCP/IP).
✓ It is used for information sharing.
✓ An extranet is the lowest level of networking.
b. Intranet:
✓ An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as TCP/IP.
✓ The main aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the
organization employes.
✓ An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconference.

Chronological Development
Of the Internet
1. 1969-ARPANET (Advance Research Project Agency Network): The first attempt to link
computer into the network.
2. 1973-1983 (The Internet)
3. 1992-Mbone (Multicast Backbone)
4. 1996- The internet 2
5. 1996- The Grid
6. 2000- A Bone (Active Bone)
7. 2002- Planet lab

Chronological Development
Of the Network Protocol
1. 1969- Arpanet Introduce.
2. 1970-NCP (Network Control Protocol) introduced.
3. 1972- Telnet Protocol was introduce. (Telnet is used for terminal emulation to connect
dissimilar system)
4. 1973- FTP (File transfer protocol) was introduced (FTP is used to exchange file between
dissimilar system)
5. 1974-TCP (Transmission control protocol) (TCP replaced NCP and provided enhance
reliable communication services)
6. 1981- IPv4 (Internet protocol version 4) (It provides addressing and routing functions for
end-to-end delivery)
7. 1982- Defense Communication Agency (DCA) and ARPA established TCP/IP protocol suite
introduce.
8. 1984- (DNS- Domain Name System) was introduce.
9. 1995- ISP (Internet service provider began to offer the internet access to business and
individual.
10. 1996- HTTP (Hyper Text transfer protocol) was introduced.
11. 1996- The first set of IPv6 were published.
 Network Devices

Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and router)
Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical devices that
allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with one another. For
example: Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, router, and NIC, etc.

a. Gateway: A Gateway is a network node used in telecommunication that connects two

networks with different transmission protocol together.
*A gateway is a networking device that acts as a bridge between two networks,
allowing data to flow between them (With different network protocol).
Types of Gateways
1. Web application firewalls
2. Cloud storage gateway.
3. API, SOA or XMC gateways.
4. Lot Gateway
5. Media gateway
6. Email security gateways
7. VOIP trunk gateway

c. Router: A router is a device that connects multiple networks together and allows
them to communicate with each other. It can also provide Wi-Fi access to devices
like computers, phones, and tablets.
 Gateways and routers are similar in that they both can be used to regulate traffic
between two or more networks, However, they both are different:
S.N Gateways S.N Routers
1. A gateway is used to join the two 1. A router is used to join two similar
dissimilar networks. types of networks.
(Dissimilar means using different
protocol)
2. A gateway is not always considered 2. A router may be considered a
a router. gateway.

3. Repeater: A repeater is an electronic device that receives a

signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise, regenerates it, and
retransmits it at a higher power level, so that the signals can
cover longer distances without degradation.
Repeater works on the physical layer of the OSI Model.

4. Bridges: A networking device which connects multiple network segments at the data link layer
of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection Model). (Note: Brides do send broadcasts to all parts
except that one on which the broadcast was received)
 Networking Cabling
and Cable Testing
1. Cabling: Cabling is the set of wires made of either copper or glass that is used to connect
computers and other networks components to enable them to communicate.
*Cabling is the medium through which information usually moves from one network
device to another.
#There are to basic types of cabling used in LAN networking environment:
a. Copper cabling.
b. Fiber-optic cabling.

2. Cable Testing: A cable tester is a device used to test the

strength and connectivity of a particular types of cable or
other wired assembles.
*A Cable taster can test whether a cable or wire is set up
properly, connected correctly, and the communication
strength between the sources and destination.

#Familiarly with IP address, Subnet Marks, DNS, Static and Dynamic

Address Assignment
❖ IP Address: An IP address is a numerical label such as 192.0.2.1 that is
connected to a computer network that uses the internet protocol for
communication. An IP address serves two main functions: Network interface
identification ii) Location Addressing
IPv4 defines a IP address as a 32 bit number. However, because of the growth
of the internet and the depletion of available Ipv4 address, a new version of
IPv6, using 128 bits for the IP address, was standardized in 1998. Ipv6
deployment has been going since the mid-2000s.
o Static and Dynamic IP address address Assignment
- The difference between the static and dynamic Ip address is that the static IP
address is a fixed address assigned to a device manually by a network administrator
while the dynamic Ip address is an address assigned to a device automatically by a
DHCP server.
S.No. Static IP address Dynamic IP address
1. It is provided by ISP. While it is provided by DHCP
(Dynamic host configuration protocol)
2. Static IP address does not change While dynamic IP address change any
any time. It means if a static ip time.
address is provided then it can’t
change or modified.
3. It is less secure. In dynamic Ip address, there is low
amount of risk than static IP
address’s risk.
4. It is difficult to designate. It is easy to designate.
5. The device designed by static IP The device designed by dynamic Ip
address can be trace. address can’t be trace.
6. It is more stable than dynamic Ip It is less stable than static IP address.
address.
 7. The cost to maintain the static IP While the maintaining cost of
address is higher than dynamic Ip dynamic Ip address is less than static
address. IP address.
8. It is used where computational It is used where data is more
data is less confidential. confidential and needs more security.

❖ Subnet Masks: Mask is used to define the beginning address in the block
when an address is given. A mask is 32-bit number that gives the first address
in the block when bitwise AND is with an address in the block.
The subnet mask is used to identify the sub network part of an IP address.
Number of 1s in the default mask is predetermined (8,16, and 24). But the
number of 1s in the subnet mask is more than the number of 1s in the
corresponding default mask.

❖ DNS (Domain Name System): The DNS is the hierarchical and decentralized
naming system used to identify computers, services, and other resources
reachable through the internet or other internet protocol (IP) networks.
DNS is that it serves as the phone book for the internet by translating human
friendly computer hostnames into IP address. For example, the domain name
www.example.com translate to the address 93.184.216.34 (ipv4) and
2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946 (IPv6). The DNS can be quickly and
transparently updated, allowing a service’s location on the network to change
without affecting the end user, who continue to use the same hostname.
Types of Domains:
1. Generic Domain: The generic domain defines registered host according to
their generic behavior.
a. Country Domain:
✓ Country domain uses two-character country abbreviations.
✓ Second labels can be more specific, national designation.
✓ For Eg: for Nepal the country domain name is .np, Australia is “.au”, India is
.in, U.K is .uk etc.
b. Inverse Domains:
✓ Inverse domain is used to map an address to a name.
✓ For example, a client sends a request to the server for performing a particular
task, server finds a list of authorized clients. The list contains only Ip Address
of the client.
✓ The server sands a query to the DNS server to map an address to a name to
determine if the client is on the authorized list.
✓ This query is called an inverse query.
✓ This query is handled by first level node called Arpa.
 Application of Network Utilities
➢ Network utilities are basic software tools designed for analyzing and configuration
various aspects of computer network. Network utilities help you to keep your
network functioning properly by allowing you to check the various aspects of your
network, such as connections between devices, packets loss, and latency between
connections.

1. Ipconfig: Ipconfig is an application run on the console used for displaying

information on TCP/Ip configuration and information pertaining to the DNS and
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol). This is the fast way of determining
your Ip address too. After you type ipconfig into the command prompt. You will se
the Ip address and the default gateway.

2. Ping: Ping the basic networking utility that comes with your operating system. You
can use it to check whether an IP address can be reached. Using pin is simple open
a terminal and type in the command ping. Ping does two things: First (it checks
whether there is connection between machines), Second (It looks at the speed of the
connection, also known as latency time). (Latency Time: It is the round-trip time, or
the time a packet takes to reach other IP address and return, measured in
millisecond.

3. Tracert: Tracert, also known as traceroute, is another basic networking utility.

Tracert is useful in a similar way to ping. In that it looks at the connection between
the sender and the destination. Unlike ping, however, tracert provides details on the
“hops” the packet went through to get to the destination, including switches and
router, along with the IP address and DNS information of each.

4. Nslookup: Nslookup, which stands for “server lookup, “s used to query the domain
name system (DNS) for domain name or IP address mapping or to obtain other kinds
of DNS records. You can use nslookup to troubleshoot issues related to DNS. For
example, if there’s an issue with name resolution for DNS, you can use nslookup to
check the Ip address linked to a domain name, or to look at which domain name is
linked to which IP address. This way you can check whether the address is resolved
correctly.