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 CONTENTS

UNIT TITLE PAGE

NO.
1 ELECTROSTATICS 1

2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 8

3 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT 12

4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING 17

CURRENT
5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES\ 22

6 RAY OPTICS 25

7 WAVE OPTICS 30

8 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER 34

9 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS 38

10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 43

11 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS 48

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BASED QUESTIONS 50

 APPLICATIONS BASED QUESTIONS 52

 PROPERTIES BASED QUESTIONS 54

 LAWS BASED QUESTIONS 55

 CHARACTERISTICS BASED QUESTIONS 57

 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES BASED QUESTIONS 57

 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS BASED QUESTIONS 58

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SCHOOL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, VELLORE DISTRICT, +2 PHYSICS LEARNING MATERIAL (2024-2025)
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 UNIT 1. ELECTROSTATICS

2 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. State coulomb‟s law in electrostatics. Give its vector form
 The electrostatic force is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two
point charges and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. (i.e)
����
� =K
��
2. What is meant by quantisation of charges?
 The charge ‘q’ of any object is equal to an integral multiple of this fundamental unit of charge
‘e’ (i.e) q = ne
3. State Gauss law in electrostatics.
�
 The total electric flux through a closed surface �� = Here Q is the net charge enclosed by
∈�
the surface and ∈0 is the permittivity of free space.
4. What is an electric dipole? Give few examples.
 Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance constitute an electric dipole.
Examples : Water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), HCl and CO.
5. What is the general definition of electric dipole moment? Give its unit.
 The magnitude of the electric dipole moment is equal to the product of the magnitude of
one of the charges and the distance between them. (i.e) � = q x 2a
 Its unit is coulomb meter (C m).
6. Define “Electrostatic potential”. Give its unit.
 The electrostatic potential at a point is equal to the work done by an external force to bring a
unit positive charge with constant velocity from infinity to that point in the region of the
external electric field.
 Its unit is volt (V).
7. What is an Equipotential Surface?
 An equipotential surface is a surface on which all the points are at the same electric potential.
8. Define Electrostatic potential energy . Give its unit.
 Electrostatic potential energy for system of charges is equal to the work done to
arrange the charges in the given configuration.
 Its unit is joule ( J ).
9. Define electric field. Give its unit.
 The electric field at a point is defined as the force experienced by a unit charge placed at
�
that point. = Its unit is NC -1 (or) V m -1
��
10. Define Electric flux. Give its unit.
 The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept normal to the electric field
lines is called electric flux. ɸ E = � . ��
 Its unit is ����-1
11. What are non polar molecules? Give examples
 A non polar molecule is one in which the centers of the positive and negative
charges coincide.
 It has no permanent dipole moment. Examples : O2, H2, CO2.

1
12. What are polar molecules ? Give examples.
 A polar molecule is one in which the centers of the positive and the negative charges are
separated. They have a permanent dipole moment. Examples: N2O, H2O, HCl, NH3.
13. What is corona discharge (or) action at points ?
 Leakage of electric charges from the sharp edge of the charged conductor is called corona
discharge or action at points.
14. Define capacitance of a capacitor. Give its unit.
 The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of charge on either
�
of the conductor plates to the potential difference existing between them . (i.e) � = �
 Its unit is farad ( F ) or C V -1
15. Why is it safer to be inside a car than standing under a tree during lightning?
 The metal body of the car provides electrostatic shielding, since the electric field inside is
zero.
 During lightning the electric discharge passes through the body of the car.
16. The electric field lines never intersect. Justify.
 If two lines cross at a point, then there will be two different electric field vectors at the same
point.
 If some charge is placed at the intersection point, then it has to move in two different
directions at the same time, which is physically impossible. Hence electric field lines do not
intersect.
17. What is dielectric strength?
 The maximum electric field the dielectric can withstand before it breakdowns is called
dielectric strength.
 The dielectric strength of air is 3 X 10 6 -1
Vm .

3 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Derive an expression for torque experienced by an electric dipole placed in the uniform electric
field.
 Consider an electric dipole AB placed in an uniform electric field � at an angle �.
 The force on +q = q� ; The force on -q = − q�.
 Due to these two forces the dipole experiences a torque.

 Torque (�) = qE x 2a sin�

 Since ( p = 2qa) � = pE sin�.

 In vector notation, �= �×�

2. Obtain an expression for electric potential at a point due to a point charge.

 Consider a point charge +� at origin. ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from
�
 Electric potential at P, � = − � . � �
 By definition, at P the electric field,∞
� �
 � =
��Ɛ� ��
� � �
 �= − . � � ;
∞ ��Ɛ�
��
�
 �=
��Ɛ� �

2
3. Obtain Gauss’s law from Coulomb’s law.
 A positive point charge Q is surrounded by an imaginary sphere of radius r. Then the total
electric flux through the closed surface of the sphere.
 ɸ E = � . �� cos ɵ = � �� - - - - - -(1) ( Here θ = 0 then cos 0 = 1)

 E is uniform on the surface of the sphere

ɸ E = E �� - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(2)
� �
 Substitute � =
��Ɛ � � ; �� = ����
�
� � �
�� = ��Ɛ ��
X ���� = Ɛ�
�
�
 �� = Ɛ�
This is Gauss’s law. So we can able to derive Gauss’s law from Coulomb’s law.
4. Derive an expression for energy stored in capacitor .
 The work done to transfer ′��′ amount of charge
� �
dW = V dQ = dQ ( V = )
� �
 The total work done to charge a capacitor,
� � ��
W= � �
dQ = ��
 This work done is stored as electrostatic energy of the capacitor,
�� �
U= ( or ) U= CV2
�� �
5. Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.
 Consider a capacitor consisting of two parallel plates each of
area ‘A’ separated by a distance ‘d’.
�
 Let ‘�′ be the surface charge density of the plates � =
�
� �
 The electric field between the plates �= =
Ɛ� �Ɛ �
�
 The potential difference between the plates � = � � = �Ɛ �
�
� Ɛ��
 The capacitance of the capacitor � = �
; � = �
5 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :
1. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its axial line.
 AB – dipole, O – it’s midpoint, C – a point on axial line AB= 2a, OC = r
 Electric field at C due to +q,
� �
�+ =
��Ɛ� (� − �)�
 Electric field at C due to −�,
� �
�− = －
�� Ɛ� (� + �)�
 The total electric field at ‘C’ due to dipole is
���� = �+ ＋ �－

� � �
���� = －
��Ɛ� (� − �)� (� +�)�

� (� +�)� − (� −�)�
���� =
��Ɛ� (� −�)� (� +�)�

3
 � ���
���� = ∵ r >> a ; (� 2 − �2 )2 ≈ � 4 ,
��Ɛ� (�� −�� )�

� ��
���� = ��Ɛ� ��
∵ � = 2aq
 The direction of � is in the direction of �.
2. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its equatorial line.
 AB – dipole, O- it’s midpoint, C – a point on equatorial plane. AB=2a, OC = r

 Electric field C due to + q (along BC )

� �
�+ = ��Ɛ �� + ��
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
�
 Electric field C due to - q (along CA )
� �
�− = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
��Ɛ� �� + ��

 Here �+ �−
 Resolve �+ and �− in to two components.
 Here the perpendicular components �+ ��� ɵ and �− ��� ɵ are equal and opposite will
cancel each other.
 But the horizontal components �+ ��� ɵ and �− ��� ɵ are equal and same direction
(- ) will be added up to given total electric field. Hence
���� =－2 �+ ��� � - - - - - - - - - - - (3)
�
Here, ��� � = � - - - - - - - - - - - (4)
�� +�� �

 Substitute equation (1)> (4) to (3)

���
���� = － � r >> a then
��Ɛ� �� +�� �

�
���� = － ��Ɛ � ∵ � = 2aq
��
 The direction of ���� is opposite to the direction of �.

3. Derive an expression for electrostatic potential due to electric dipole.

 Consider an electric dipole AB along X - axis. Let ‘P’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from its
midpoint ‘O’
 Electric potential at P due to +q
� �
�� =
��Ɛ� ��
 Electric potential at P due to −q
−� �
�� =
��Ɛ� ��

4
  Then total potential at ‘P’ due to dipole is
� = �� + ��
� � �
� = −
��Ɛ� �� ��
� � � ��� � � � � ��� �
= �+ and> = �−
�� � � �� � �

� � ��� �
� = ��Ɛ ��
(∵ � = 2aq )
�
� �.�
�=
��Ɛ� ��
( ∵ �. = � ��� �)
 Special cases:

θ=�� � �
�=
��Ɛ� �
�
θ=���� � �
�=－
��Ɛ� ��
θ=��� � =0
4. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an infinitely long charged wire.
 Total charge enclosed by the closed surface
 ����� = �� - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
 The electric flux for the curved surface:
�� = ������ �. �� ��� � = �(����) � = �
�������
 The electric flux for top and bottom surfaces: �� = 0
 Then the total electric flux �� = E(2rL) - - - - - (2)

�
 According to Gauss law, �� = - - - - - - - - - (3)
Ɛ�
 Substitute equation (1) and (2) in (3)
��
E(2rL) =
Ɛ �
� � �
� =
��Ɛ � �
(or) � = ��Ɛ � �
 The direction of E is perpendicular to wire If λ > 0, then pointing outward, if λ < 0, then
pointing inward.

5. Explain in detail the construction and working of Van de Graff generator.

 Principle : Electrostatic induction and Action at points
 Construction:
1. A - Large hollow spherical conductor
2. B,C- Pulleys. A silk belt runs over the pulleys
3. C is driven by a motor.
4. D, E – comb shaped conductors placed near B and C.
5. D is connected to positive of 104 V power.
 Working:
 Ionization near D: Positive charges stick to moving silk belt.
5
  Electrostatic induction near E: Positive charges are induced on either side of comb E
 Corona Discharge in the belt: The negative charges nullify the positive charges in the
belt. Thus the sphere acquires charge until the outer surface reaches 107 V.

 Reducing Leakage: The machine is enclosed in a gas filled Steel chamber at high
pressure.
 Uses: To accelerate positive charges for nuclear disintegration.

6. Derive the expression for resultant capacitance, when capacitors are connected in series and in
parallel.

Capacitors in series Capacitors in parallel

Each capacitor has same amount of charge (Q). Each capacitor has same potential difference
But potential difference across each capacitor will (V). But charges on each capacitor will be
be different. different .
� = �� +�� +�� � = �� + �� + ��

� � � � � = �� � ; � = �� � ; � = �� � ; � = �� �
� = ; �� = ; �� = ; �� =
�� �� �� ��

� � � � ��� = ��� + ��� + ���

= + +
�� �� �� ��
� � � � �� = �� + �� + ��
= + +
�� �� �� ��

7. Explain in detail the effect of introducing a dielectric medium between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor, when the capacitor is disconnected from the battery.

Quantity Connected battery and before After Dis Connecting battery and
introducing dielectric after introducing dielectric
Charge �� ��
Voltage �� �
Electric field �� �
Capacitance �� �
� = Ɛ� � � = Ɛ� ��
�� =
�� �

 Effect of dielectric medium between the plate

6
 Quantity Value Effect of dielectric When Ɛ� > 1
Electric field �� � < �� Decreased
�=
Ɛ�
Potential difference �� � < �� Decreased
�=
Ɛ�
Capacitance � = Ɛ� �� � > �� Increased

Energy �� � < �� Decreased

�=
Ɛ�

8. Obtain an expression for electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell.

At a point outside the At a point on the surface of the At a point inside the shell
shell shell
R -radius of spherical shell R -radius of spherical shell R -radius of spherical shell
Gaussian surface : Gaussian surface : Gaussian surface :
Sphere with radius r Sphere with radius r Sphere with radius r
r > R r = R r < R

According to Gauss’s law According to Gauss’s law According to Gauss’s law

� �
Gaussian �. �� = Gaussian �. �� =
� Gaussian �. �� =
surface Ɛ� Ɛ� surface Ɛ�
surface

�� = ����
�� = ���� �� = ����
��� = �
��� = � ��� = 0

Substitute Substitute
� Substitute
� (���� ) = �
� (���� ) =
�
Ɛ� � (���� ) = Ɛ�
Ɛ�

Substitute r = R
� � � �
�= �= �=�
��Ɛ� �� ��Ɛ� ��

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SCHOOL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, VELLORE DISTRICT, +2 PHYSICS LEARNING MATERIAL (2024-2025)
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7
 2.CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. Define current density and give its unit.
�
 Current flowing per unit area of cross section of the conductor J = � Its Unit is Am-2
2. Define electrical resistivity and give its unit.
 Resistance offered to the current flow by a conductor of unit length having unit area of cross
��
section. � = � Its unit is Ω m (ohm meter).
3. Define temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
 It is defined as the ratio of increase in resistivity per degree rise in temperature to its resistivity
at To. Its unit is per ℃.
4. State the Principle of potentiometer.
 The emf of a cell is directly proportional to balancing length. ie.. Ɛ ∝ �
5. State Joule’s law of heating
 Heat librated by Joule’s heating effect, H=�� R t
 square of the current (H ∝ I2)
 Resistance of the conductor (H ∝ R)
 time of flow(H ∝ t)
6. What is Seeback effect?
 In a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the junctions are maintained at
different temperatures an emf (potential difference) is developed. This phenomenon is called
Seeback effect.
7. What is Thomson effect?
 If two points in a conductor are at different temperatures the density of electrons at these
points will differ and as a result the potential difference is created between these two points.
 Hence heat is evolved or absorbed throughout the conductor. This is called Thomson effect.
8. What is Peltier effect?
 When an electric current is passed through a circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at
one junction and absorbed at the other junction. This is known as Peltier effect.
9. State Ohm’s law.
 At a Constant temperature, the steady current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.
10.What are the properties of the substance used as heating element?
 An alloy of nickel and chromium called Nicrome is used as heating element. It has
 a high specific resistance
 high melting point
 heated to very high temperature without oxidation

5 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Describe the microscopic model of current and obtain general form of ohm’s law.
 Number of electrons per unit volume in a conductor = n
 Cross sectional area of a conductor = A
 Drift Velocity of an electron = ��
 Time taken to travel dx distance = dt.
dx = vd dt
 Total Charge in the volume element
d� = ( n A �� dt)e

��
 Current I= ��
I = nA�� e
� �� �
 Current density � =
�
= －� �
� (or) � = －σ� ( o r ) � = σ�

8
2. Explain the determination of the internal resistance of a cell using voltmeter.
 When the electric circuit is open, the reading in voltmeter(v), is equal to the electro motive
force (�)
 � = Ɛ - - - - - - -(1)
 Potential drop across R is V = IR - - - (2)
 V = Ɛ - Ir (or) Ir = Ɛ - V - - - - - (3)
�� Ɛ−�
 Eq ( 3 ÷ 2) =
�� �
Ɛ−�
 Internal resistance r= ( �
)R
3. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and resistor network.
 R1, R2 and R3 are resistances connected in series
 V - Potential difference applied; I-Current in series , I – Same but V – different
 � = �� + �� + ��
 � = ��� ; �� = ��� ; �� = ��� ; �� = ���
 ��� = ��� + ��� + ���
 Effective Resistance �� = �� + �� + ��
4. Explain the equivalent resistance of a Parallel resistor network.
 R1, R2 and R3 are resistances connected in Parallel
 V - Potential difference applied; I-Current in series , V – Same; but I different
�
 � = �� + �� + �� ; �=�
�

� � � �

��
= ��
+ ��
+ ��
� � � �
 = + +
�� �� �� ��

5. Explain series connections in cells.

 Cells in Series: n cells having internal resistance r and emf Ɛ are connected in series.
 Total emf = nƐ
 Total resistance = nr + R
�Ɛ
 Current in the circuit I =
�� + �
�Ɛ
 If r << �, I= �
Ɛ
 If r >> �, I= �
6. Explain parallel connections in cells.
 Cells in Parallel: n cells having internal resistance r and emf Ɛ are connected in series.
 Total emf = nƐ
�
 Total resistance = +R
�
�Ɛ
 Current in the circuit I= � + ��
Ɛ
 If r << �, I= �
�Ɛ
 If r >> �, I= �
9
7. Explain the Principle of a Potentiometer.
 Primary circuit: The battery (Bt), key (k) and Potentiometer wire (CD) are Connected in
Series to form Primary Circuit.
 Secondary circuit: The Positive terminal of a cell of emf Ɛ is connected to the point C and
negative is connected to the Jockey J through a galvanometer G and a high resistance HR.
This forms a secondary circuit.

 Potential difference across CJ = � � �

 emf of the cell = potential difference across CJ
  = ���
 Ɛ ∝ � (Since I, r are constants)
8. Explain the determination of the internal resistance of a cell using potentiometer.
 Primary circuit: Potentiometer is connected in series with battery (Bt) and Key (K1).
 Secondary circuit: The cell whose internal resistance is to be calculated is connected in
parallel with resistance box R and key K2 is open.

 According to the principle of Potentiometer  ∝ �1 - - - - - - -(1)

Ɛ�
 When the key K2 is closed, the balancing length l2 is determined ∝ �2 - - - - - -(2)
�+�
 Eq (1) ÷ Eq (2) we get
�� − ��
� = ��
R - - - - - - - - - (3)
 Substituting R1, �1, �2 in equation 3, the internal resistance ‘r’ can be calculated.
9. How the emf of two cells are compared using potentiometer?
 Primary circuit: The battery (Bt), key (k) and Potentiometer wire (CD) are Connected in
Series to form Primary Circuit.
 Secondary circuit: The end C is connected to one terminal M of DPDT switch and
another central terminal N is connected to jockey through a galvanometer G and high
resistance HR.
 The cell whose emf Ɛ� and Ɛ� to be compared are connected to M1N1 and M2N2 of DPDT
switch. The cell of emf Ɛ� and Ɛ� is included in the secondary circuit. The balancing length
�1 and �2 is found by adjusting jockey for zero deflection.
 Ɛ1 = Ir��

 Ɛ2 = Ir��

Ɛ� ��
 =
Ɛ� ��

10
10. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in wheatstone’s bridge.
 Applying Kirchhoff’s current rule to junction B and D respectively.

�1− �� − �3 = 0 - - (1)

�2 + �� − �4 = 0 - - (2)

 Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage rule to loop ABDA & BCDB. We get

�1 � + �� � − I2 � = 0 - - (3)

�3 � − �� � − I4 � = 0 - - (4)

 Substitute �� = 0 in equation (1) (2) (3) &(4)

�1 = �3 - - (5)
�2 = I4 - - (6)
�1� = I2 � - - (7)

�� � �� �
Eq (7) ÷ (8)
�� �
= ���

� �
 Using equations (5 ) and (6 )
�
= �

11. Explain the determination of unknown resistance using metre bridge.

 Meterbridge is another form of Wheatstone‟s bridge.

 In the gap G1 unknown resistance P,
 In the gap G2 standard resistance Q .
 The position of the jockey on the wire
is adjusted so that the galvanometer
shows zero deflection.

 The resistances corresponding to AJ (�1) and JB (�2) of the bridge wire form the resistances
‘R’ and ‘S’ of the wheatstone’s bridge

� � ���
�
= �
= ���
(r- resistance per unit length)

� �� ��
= =
� �� ��

��
 Unknown resistance P = Q
��
 Specific resistance of the material of the wire

�� ����
� = �
= �

11
 UNIT 3 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT
2 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :
1. Define Magnetic flux. Give its unit.
 The number of magnetic field lines crossing per unit area is called magnetic flux
�� = � . � = �� ��� � S.I unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb)
 Its dimensional formula is [ML2T-2A-1]

2. State Coulomb’s inverse law of magnetism.

 The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly proportional
to the product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
�� ��� ���
�=
�� ��
3. State tangent law.
 When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely suspended in two mutually perpendicular
uniform magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction of the resultant of the two fields.
B = BH ��� ɵ

4. Define curie temperature.

 At a particular temperature, ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic. This
temperature is known as Curie temperature (TC).
5. State Fleming’s left hand rule.
 Stretch out forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand such that they are in
three mutually perpendicular directions.
 Forefinger - direction of magnetic field
 Middle finger - direction of the electric current
 Thumb - direction of the force experienced by the conductor.

6. Define one ampere.

 One ampere is defined as that constant current when it is passed through each of the two infinitely
long parallel straight conductors kept at a distance of one metre apart in vacuum causes each
conductor to experience a force of 2 × 10−7 newton per metre length of the conductor.
7. How the current sensitivity of a galvanometer can be increased?
 By increasing the number of turns (N )
 By increasing the magnetic induction (B )
 By increasing the area of the coil (A)
 By decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire .

8. State Ampere’s circuital law.

 It state that the line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is �� times net current
enclosed by the loop. � . �� = �� ��

9. What are the limitations of cyclotron?

 The speed of the ion is limited.
 Electron cannot be accelerated.
 Uncharged particles cannot be accelerated.

12
 3 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :
1. How is a galvanometer converted into an ammeter?
 A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance called shunt
in parallel with the galvanomete
V������������ = V �h���

(� − ��) � = �� ��
��
� = ��
(� − ��)

 Let Ra be the resistance of ammeter, then

� � � �� �
����
= ��
+ �
���� =
�� + �
= ��
 An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.

2. How is galvanometer converted into a voltmeter ?

 A galvanometer is converted in to voltmeter by connecting high resistance inseries
with the galvanometer.
 Here the current in the electrical circuit is same as the current passing through the
galvanometer.
�g = �
�
�g =
�� + ��

�
Rg + Rh =
��
 Let �� be the resistance of voltmeter, then

Rv = Rg + Rh
 An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.
5 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :
1. Obtain an expression for magnetic field due to the current carrying wire of infinite
length using Ampere’s law.

 Consider a straight conductor of infinite length carrying current ‘I’ Imagine an Amperian
circular loop at a distance ‘r’ from the centre of the conductor.
 From Ampere’s circuital law,
� . �� = �� �

� �� = �� �

�(���) = �� �
�� �
� =
���
 In vector notation,
�� �
� =
���

13
IMPORTANT
INSTRUCTION FOR
PUBLIC
EXAM
Use this Material for
Final Revision
MAX 75 MARKS
For centum..,
This is not enough !
2. Obtain an expression for magnetic field due to long current carrying solenoid.
 Consider a solenoid of length ‘L’ having ‘N’ turns.

 We use Ampere circuital law to calculate the

magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid.
 Let as consider an Amperian loop ‘abcd’
 From Ampere circuital law,
� . �� = �� �� - - - - - - -(1)
� � � �
�.�� = � � . �� + �� . �� + � � . �� + � � . ��
 Here ab = h.
 If we take large loop such that it is equal to length of the solenoid, we have

� . �� = �� - - - - - - - - -(2)
 Let ‘I’ be the current passing through the solenoid of ‘N’ turns, then
�� = �� - - - - - - - - -- - -(3)
 Put equation (2) and (3) in (1) we get
�� ��
� = - - - - - - - - - -(4)
�
�
 Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then n =
�

 Hence, Magnetic field due to long current carrying solenoid, � = �0 ��

3. Obtain an expression for the force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
 Let a current ‘I’ flows through a conductor of length ‘L’ and area of cross-section ‘A
 Consider a small segment of wire of length ‘dl’
 The relation between current and drift velocity is,
� = �����
 Average force experienced by the electron in the wire is
� = - e (�� � �)
 Total number of free electrons in the small element
� = ����
 Hence Lorentz force on the small element,
�� = N�
�� = - e���� (�� � �) = � �� � �

 Therefore, the force in a straight current carrying conductor of length ‘l’ placed in a
uniformmagnetic field � =���

 In magnitude, � = ��� ��� �

special case :
i) If the conductor is placed along the direction of the magnetic field, θ = 00 then F = 0.
ii) If the conductor is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field,θ =900 then
F= BIl=Maximum.

14
4. Describe the principle, construction and working of Cyclotron.
 Principle:
 Lorentz force
 Construction:
 It consists two semi circular metal containers called Dees.

 The Dees are enclosed in an evacuated chamber and it is

kept in a region of uniform magnetic field acts normal
to the plane of the Dees.
 Dees are connected to high frequency alternating potential difference.
 After one semi-circular path in Dee-1, the ion reaches the gap between Dees.
 At this time the polarities of the Dees are reversed, so that the ion is now accelerated
towards Dee-2 with a greater velocity.
 centripetal force = Lorentz force
���
= ���
�
The radius of the circular path. ��
�=
��
Time period of the oscillation ���
�=
��
Frequency of the electrical oscillator ��
�=
���
kinetic energy of the charged particle �� � � � �
�� =
��
5. Deduce the relation for magnetic field at a point due to an infinitely long straight
conductor carrying current.
 Consider a long straight wire YY’ carrying a current I. Let P be a point at a distance ‘a’
from ‘O. Consider an element of length ‘dl’ of the wire at a distance ‘r’ from point ‘O’
 Biot savart law
�� � �� ��� ɵ
�� =
�� ��

�� ��� ɵ = r ��

�� � ��
�� =
�� �
�
Δle
OPA r=
��� �
�� �
�� = ��� � ��
�� �
�� �
� = ( ��� �� + ��� �� ) For an infinitely long straight wire, �1 = �2 = 90°
�� �
 Magnetic field B in Magnitude and Vector form
�� � �� �
�= ; � =
��� ���

15
6. Obtain a relation for the magnetic field at a point along the axis of a circular coil carrying
current.
 Consider a current carrying circular loop of radius R , I be the current flowing through the
wire. Let ‘P’ be the point on the axis at a distance ‘z’ from centre ‘O.
 According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic field at P due to the current element.
�� � �� ��� ɵ �� � ��
�� =
�� ��
= �� ��
[ ∵ � = 900 ]
 The net magnetic field at the point P
� = �� = �� ��� �
�
��� � = � ; �� = �� +��
�� +�� �

�� � ��
� = �
�
�� +�� �

 If the circular coil contains N turns

�� �� ��
� = �
�
�� +�� �

 The magnetic field at the centre of the coil [ ∵ z = 0 ]

�� ��
� =
��
7. Obtain a force between two long parallel current carrying conductors.
 Consider two long straight parallel conductors A and B separated by a distance r are
kept in air carrying current I1 and I2 passing in the same direction ( z - axis) .

Conductor A
�� ��
 Current in the conductor � � , Magnetic filed at r, �1 = －
���
�� �� �� ��
 Force on the element dl of conductor B �� = �2 � ×�� =－
���
� �� �� ��
 Force per unit length of conductor B due to A �
=－
���
 Conductor B
� � ��
 Current in the conductor � � , Magnetic filed at r, �2 =
���
�� �� �� ��
 Force on the element dl of conductor A �� = �1 � ×�1 =
���
� �� �� ��
 Force per unit length of conductor A due to B =
� ���

 The force experienced by two parallel current carrying conductors is attractive if they
carry current in same direction.
 On the other hand, the force experienced by two parallel current carrying conductors is
repulsive if they carry current in opposite direction.

16
 UNIT 4. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

2 -MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. State Lenz’s law.

 Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current is such that is always opposes the
��
cause responsible for its production. Ɛ = - �
��
2. State Fleming’s right hand rule.(Generator rule)
 The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right hand are stretched out in mutually
perpendicular directions .
 The Index finger - The direction of the magnetic field
 The thumb - The direction of motion of the conductor
 The middle finger - The direction of the induced current.
3. What the methods of producing induced emf ?
 By changing the magnetic field ‘B’
 By changing the area ‘A’ of the coil
 By changing the relative orientation ‘θ’ of the coil with magnetic field.
4. What is called self induction?
 The phenomenon of inducing an emf in a coil, when the magnetic flux linked with the coil
itself changes is called self induction.
5. Define the unit of self - inductance (or) Define one henry.
 The inductance of the coil is one henry, if a current changing at the rate of 1 A s-1
induces an opposing emf of 1 V in it.
6. Define mutual inductance or coefficient of mutual induction.
 Mutual inductance is also defined as the opposing emf induced in the one coil, when the
rate of change of current through the other coil is 1 A s-1
-1 -1
 Its S.I unit is H (or) WbA (or) VsA

7. Define mean value or average value of AC.

 The average of all values of current over a positive half-cycle or negative half-cycle.
8. Define RMS value of AC.
 The square root of the mean of the squares of all currents over one cycle.
�
 I RMS = �� = 0.707 Im
9. What are phasors?
 A sinusoidal alternating voltage (or) current can be represented by a vector which rotates
about the origin in anti-clockwise direction at a constant angular velocity. Such a rotating
vector is called a phasor.
10. Define electric resonance.
 When the frequency of the applied alternating source is equal to the natural frequency of the
RLC circuit, then the circuit is said to be in electrical resonance.
11. Define inductive reactance.
 The resistance offered by the inductor in an ac circuit is called inductive reactance and it is
given by ��=�� = ���� Its unit is ohm (�)
12. Define capacitive reactance.
 The resistance offered by the capacitor is an ac circuit is called capacitive reactance and it is
� �
given by �� = = Its unit is ohm (�)
�� ��f�
13. Why capacitor blocks DC?
 For a steady current, frequency f = 0. So XC = ∞. Thus a capacitive circuit offers infinite
resistance to the steady current.
14. Define power factor.
 Power factor is defined as the ratio of true power to the apparent power.
17
15. Define Q - factor or quality factor.
Voltage across L or C at resonance 1 �
 Q - factor =
Applied Voltage
(or) Q - factor =
� �
16. Define resonance frequency.
 The frequency at which resonance takes place is called resonant frequency.
 Hence the condition for resonance is : X L = X C
17. An inductor blocks AC but it allows DC. Why?
 For a steady current, frequency f = 0. So X L = 0. Thus a inductive circuit offers zero resistance
to the steady current.
3 -MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. Mention the various energy losses in a transformer. How it is minimized?
S.
N
Name of losses Source of losses Method to minimise
Iron loss Transformer core is magnetized and Using steel of high
1 (i)Hysteresis demagnetized repeatedly. silicon content in
loss making transformer
core.
(ii) eddy loss Alternating magnetic flux in the core induces Using very thin
eddy currents in it. laminations of
transformer core.
2 Copper loss When an electric current flows through Using Wires of larger
windings, some amount of energy is dissipated diameter.
due to Joule heating.
3 Flux leakage The magnetic lines of primary coil are not winding coils one
completely linked with secondary coil. over the other.

2. Obtain the expression for Self-inductance of a long solenoid.

 Consider a long solenoid of length ‘l’, area of cross section ‘A’ having ‘N’ number of turns
 Let ‘n’ be number of turns per unit length (i.e.) turn density
 magnetic induction inside solenoid � = �0 �� - - - - -(1)
 The magnetic flux linked with the solenoid is,
� = �� = �0 �� � - - - - - (2)
 The total number of turns � = ��
 The total magnetic flux linked in N turns (i.e.) flux linkag
�� = �� ( �0 �� � ) = �0 �2 �� �- - - (3)

 According to definition, NΦB = Li -- - - - - - - (4)

2
 Compare (3) and (4) �� = �0 � �� �
2
 Self-inductance of a long solenoid � = �0 � ��

3. How will you induce an emf by changing the area enclosed by the coil.
 Consider a conducting rod of length ‘l ’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ towards left on a
rectangular metallic frame work.
 The whole arrangement is placed in a uniform magnetic field ‘�’
acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil inwards.
 Changing area enclosed by loop dA = � �� = �� ��
 Changing magnetic flux link with loop ��� = � �� ��
 Magnitude of the induced emf
���
Ɛ= = � ��
��
18
4. An inductor of inductance ‘L’ carries an electric current ‘ i ’. How much energy is stored
while establishing the current in it?
 Whenever a current is established in the circuit, the inductance opposes the growth of the
current.
 To establish the current, work has to done against this opposition. This work done is
stored as magnetic potential energy.
��
Induced emf Ɛ = －L
��
 Let ‘dW’ be the workdone in moving a charge ‘dq’ dW = - Ɛ i dt = L i di
� �
W= �
�� �� = L�2
�
 Magnetic potential energy
�
UB = �
L�2
5. Find out the phase relationship between voltage and current in a pure resistive circuit.
 Let a pure resistor of resistance ‘R’ connected across an alternating voltage source ‘v’

 The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is given by,

�= �m sin �� - - - - - - - - - -(1)
 According to Ohm’s law �R = � � - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - (2)
 According to Kirchoff’s law � − �R = 0 � = �R - - - - - - -(3)
 Compare equation (1) & (2) �m sin �� = � �
��
�= �
sin ��
��
 Here, Im = → Peak value of AC
�
 The applied voltage and the current are in phase with each other.
6. Find out the phase relationship between voltage and current in a pure inductive circuit.
 Let a pure inductor of inductance ‘L’ connected across an alternating voltage source ‘v’

 The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is given by, � = �m sin ��

��
 Induced emf Ɛ = －L
��
 Kirchhoff’s loop rule, � − (−�) = 0 (��) � = −�
��
�m sin �� = L
��
�
 ‘i’ be the alternating current flowing in the circuit � = �m ��� (�� − )
�
��
 Here, Im = �
→ Peak value of AC
�
 It is clear that current lags behind the applied voltage by
�
19
7. Find out the phase relationship between voltage and current in a pure capacitive circuit.
 Let a pure capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connected across an alternating voltage source ‘v’
 The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is given by, � = �m sin ��

�
 Let ‘q’ be the instantaneous charge on the capacitor. � = ; q = C�
�

q = C�m sin ��
�
 ‘i’ be the alternating current flowing in the circuit � = �m ��� (�� + )
�
��
 Here, Im = �
→ Peak value of AC
�
 it is clear that current leads the applied voltage by
�
5 -MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. Show mathematically that the rotation of a coil in a magnetic field over one rotation induces
an alternating emf of one cycle.
 Consider a rectangular coil of ‘N’ turns kept in a uniform magnetic field ‘B’
 The coil rotates with an angular velocity ω about an axis perpendicular to the field.
 The component (B sin ωt) parallel to the plane has no role in electromagnetic
induction.

��� = ��� cos �� ( ∵ �� = �� cos �� )

�(���)
 According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced at that instant is � = −
��
� = ���� sin ��
 Maximum value of induced emf is �� = ����
 The value of induced emf at any instant is then given by � = �� sin ��
 Instantaneous current � = �� sin ��

2. Explain the working of a single-phase AC generator with necessary diagram.

 Principle : Electromagnetic induction
 Stator:
 The stationary part which has armature windings
mounted in generator is called stator.
 It has two components, namely stator core and
armature winding.
 Rotor:
 Rotor contains magnetic field windings.
 The magnetic poles are magnetized by DC source.

20
  Working:
 The relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field changes the magnetic flux
linked with the conductor which in turn induces an emf and its direction is given by
Fleming’s right hand rule.

Rotationof Orientation of Induced Current Position in

field magnet field magnet emf graph
w.r.t initial w.r.t coil
position
Perpendicular Zero No induced current Point ‘O’
00
900 Parallel Maximum induced current along PQRS Point ‘A’

1800 Perpendicular Zero No induced current Point ‘B’

2700 Parallel Maximum induced current along SRQP Point ‘C’

3600 Perpendicular Zero No induced current Point ‘D’

3. Explain the construction and working of a transformer.

 Principle : Mutual induction between two coils.
 Construction :
 It consists of two coils of high mutual inductance wound over the same transformer
core made up of silicone steel. To avoid eddy current loss, the core is generally
laminated. The alternating voltage applied across prim (P), and the output is taken
across secondary coil (S)
 The emf induced in the primary coil ‘∈ P ’
���
�� = ∈ � = －� � - - - - - - -(1)
��

 The emf induced in the secondary coil ‘∈S’

���
�� = ∈ � = － � � - - - - - - - (2)
��

 Dividing equation (1) by (2),

�� ��
= = K - - - - - - - - - - - - - (3)
�� ��

K → transformation ratio
 For an ideal transformer, input power = output power
�� �� = �� ��
�� �� ��
= = = K - - - - - - - - -(4)
�� �� ��

K>1 step up transformer K < 1 step down transformer

NS > NP NS < NP
VS > VP VS < VP
iS < iP iS > iP
������ �����
 The efficiency of a transformer η= ����� �����
X 100％

21
4. Derive an expression for phase angle between the applied voltage and current in a series
RLC circuit.
 Consider a circuit containing a resistor of resistance ‘R’, a inductor of inductance ‘L’ and
a capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connected across an alternating voltage source.
 The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is given by � = �� �����
 VR = i R ( VR is in phase with i )
�
 VL = i XL ( VL leads i by �
)
�
 VC = i XC ( VC lags i by �
)

 � = �� � + (�� − �)�

 � = �� �� + (��� − ��� )�

 � = � �� + (�� − �� )�

 ( � ) Current flowing through the RLC circuit

�
 �=
�� + (�� − �� )�

�
 �=
�

 � = �� + (�� − �� )�

 � is called impedance of the circuit

 From the phasor diagram, the phase angle between ‘v’ and ‘i’ is found out by
�� − �� �� − ��
 ��� � =
��
= �
UNIT 5 . ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

2 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. What are electromagnetic waves?
 Electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical waves which move with speed equals to the
speed of light in vacuum.
2. What are Fraunhoffer lines? Give its application.
 The dark lines in the solar spectrum are known as Fraunhofer lines.
 It helps to identify elements in Sun’s atmosphere.
3. What is displacement current?
 The current present in the region in which the electric field or the electric flux are changing
with time.
4. Write down the integral form of modified Ampere’s circuital law.
 Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital law as . � �.�� = �� ( �� + �� ) Here i= i c + i d
 Where, i - Total current ; i c – Conduction current ; i d –Displacement current.
5. Write notes on Ampere-hrough that path.Maxwell law.
�
 � �.�� = �� ( �� + �� ) = �� �� + �� Ɛ � �� � � .��
 This law relates the magnetic field around any closed path to the conduction current
and displacement current through that path.

22
6. Write short notes on [i) microwaves (ii) X-ray (iii) radio waves (iv) visible spectrum
 Microwaves:
 It is produced by special vacuum tubes (magnetron, gun diode)
 It undergoes reflection and polarization.
 X-ray:
 It is produced when there is a sudden stopping of high speed electrons by high-atomic
number target and also by electronic transitions among innermost orbits of atoms.
 X-rays have more penetrating power than ultraviolet radiation.
 Radio waves:
 It is produced by accelerating charges in conducting wire.
 It undergoes reflection and diffraction.
 It is used in radio and television communication systems.
 Visible light:
 It is produced by incandescent bodies and also it is radiated by excited atoms in gases.
 It obeys the laws of reflection and refraction.
 It undergoes interference, diffraction, polarization and photo-electric effect .
3 & 5 Mark Questions And Answers:
1. Describe production of electromagnetic waves by Hertz experiment.
 Construction:
 Two small spherical metals as electrodes
 These are connected to larger spheres
 Ends are connected to induction coil to produce Emf.
 Air between electrodes gets ionized to produce spark
 This discharge of electricity affects another set of ring
shaped electrodes at far distance
 If receiver is rotated 900, no spark is seen.
 This confirms EM waves are transverse
 Speed of EM Wave = 3 x 108ms-1 in vacuum.
2. Write down Maxwell equations in integral form.
Maxwell’s (Gauss’s law in electrostatics)
1stequation It relates the net electric flux to net electric charge enclosed in a surface.
���������
�
� . �� = Ɛ�
� is the electric field � is the net charge

Maxwell’s (Gauss’s law in magnetism)

nd
2 equation The surface integral of magnetic field over a closed surface is zero.

�
� . �� = 0 � is the magnetic field.
Maxwell’s (Faraday’s law of electro - magnetic induction)
3rdequation This law relates electric field with the changing magnetic flux.
���
�
� . �� =－ �� changing magnetic flux.
��
Maxwell’s (Ampere - Maxwell’s law)
4thequation This law relates the magnetic field around any closed path to the conduction
current and displacement current through that path.

�
�
�.�� = �� �� + �� Ɛ � � .��
�� �

23
3. What is emission spectrum? Classify with example.

 When the spectrum of self luminous source.

 Types of emission spectrum: Continuous emission spectrum, Line emission spectrum, Band
emission spectrum
Types of Explanation Examples
emission
spectrum

Continuous
 If the light from incandescent lamp is  spectrum obtained from carbon
emission allowed to pass through prism. arc and incandescent solids
spectrum  It splits into seven colours.
 Its contain all the visible colour ranging
from violet to red.
 spectra of atomic hydrogen,
Line  Light from hot gas is allowed to pass
helium.
emission through prism, line spectrum is observed.
spectrum
 sharp lines of definite wavelengths

 Due to excited atoms of elements.

 These lines are the characteristics of the

element.
 several number of very closely spaced  spectra of Ammonia gas
Band
spectral lines which overlapped to form
emission
bands with dark spaces.  Use: Study structure of
spectrum
 sharp edge at one end and fades out at the molecules.
other end.
 Due to excited of molecules.
 These lines are the characteristics of
molecules.

4. What is absorption spectra? Classify with example.

 When light is allowed to pass through a medium or an absorbing substance then the
spectrum obtained is known as absorption spectrum

 Types of absorption spectrum: Continuous absorption spectrum, Line absorption spectrum,

Band absorption spectrum.
Types of Explanation Examples
absorption
spectrum

Continuous  White light through a blue glass plate, it  This is an example for
absorption absorbs all the colours except blue continuous absorption spectrum.
spectrum
 White Light is passed through cold gas, it  Light is passed through
Line
absorption
is obtained sodium vapour, a continuous
spectrum spectrum of carbon arc with
two dark lines in the yellow
region are obtained.
 White Light is passed through the  white light is passed through
Band
absorption iodine vapour, diluted solution of blood or
spectrum chlorophyll band absorption
spectrum is obtained.

24
5. Explain the Maxwell’s modification of Ampere’s circuital law.
 Let the current which is passed through the wire called as conduction current Ic.
 A magnetic field produced around the current carrying wire.
 To calculate the magnetic field at a point P near the wire and outside the capacitor, let us
draw a circular Amperian loop which encloses surface S1.
 Using Ampere’s circuital law ,we get

 � . �� = �� �
 � . �� = �
�
 �� = � .�� = �� =
Ɛ�

 The current present in the region in which the electric field or the electric flux are changing
���
with time. �� = Ɛ �
��
���
 � . �� = ��( �� + �� ) = �� �� + �� Ɛ �
��

UNIT 6. RAY OPTICS

2-MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. State the laws of refraction.(Snell’s law)
 The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the refracting surface are all coplanar.
��� � ��
=
��� � ��
2. State the laws of reflection.
 The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the surface all are coplanar.
 The angle of incidence (i) is equal to angle of reflection (r). That is i = r
3. What is optical path?
 Optical path of a medium is defined as the distance �′ light travels in vacuum in the same
time it travels a distance d in the medium. �′ = n d
4. What is principle of reversibility?
 The principle of reversibility states that, light will be following exactly the same path if its
direction of travel is reversed.
5. Why do stars twinkle?
 Actually stars do not twinkle.
 They appear twinkling because of the movement of the atmospheric layers with varying
refractive index which is clearly seen in the sky.
6. Define critical angle and total internal reflection.
 The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the refracted ray graces the
boundary is called critical angle (ic)
 If the angle of incidence in the denser medium is greater than the critical angle, there is no
refraction possible in the rarer medium. The entire light is reflected back in to the denser
medium itself. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
7. Write the two conditions for total internal reflection.
 light must travel from denser to rarer medium.
 angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than critical angle ( i > ic).
25
8. What is power of a lens?
�
 The power of a lens P is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. � = Unit : dioptre (D)
�
9. How are rainbows formed?
 Dispersion of sunlight through droplets of water during rainy days.
 When sunlight falls on the water drop suspended in air, it splits into its constituent seven
colours.
 Thus water drop suspended in air behaves as a glass prism.
10. State Rayleigh’s scattering law.
 The intensity (I) of Rayleigh’s scattering is inversely proportional to fourth power of
�
wavelength (λ) I ∝ �
�
11. Explain the reason for the glittering of diamond.
 Total Internal reflection.
 Refractive index of diamond is 2.417.
 Critical angle of diamond is about 24.4o.
 Diamond has large number of cut plane faces.
12. Why does sky appear blue?
 Shortest wavelength gets much scattered during day time.
 As our eyes are more sensitive to blue colour than violet colour, sky appears blue during
day time.
13. What are paraxial rays and marginal rays?
 The rays travelling very close to the principal axis and make small angles with it are called
paraxial rays.
 The rays travelling far away from the principal axis and make large angles with it are
called as marginal rays
14. What is the reason for reddish appearance of sky during sunset and sunrise?
 During sunrise and sun set, the light from sun travels a greater distance. So blue light
which has shorter wavelength scattered away and red light of longer wavelength manages to
reach our eyes.
15. What is dispersion?
 Splitting of white light into its constituent colours is called dispersion.
 The coloured band obtained due to dispersion is called spectrum.
16. Define dispersive power.
 Dispersive power (ω) is the ability of the material of the prism to cause prism.
 It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion for the extreme colours to the deviation for
any mean colour.
 It has no units and dimension. It is a positive number.
3-MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. Derive the relation between f and R for a spherical mirror.
 C – centre of curvature of mirror, � – angle of incidence and F – principal focus.
��
 From figure, tan � = = �
��
��
 ∆��P, tan 2� = ��
= 2�
�� ��

��
=2 ��
� �
 =
�� ��
�
 Substitute, PF = f, PC = R � = �

26
2. Obtain the equation for apparent depth.
 We observe that the bottom of a tank filled with water with water appears raised as shown
 Light OB from the object ’O’ passes through water get refracted in air
 Refractive index of water = n1
 Refractive index of air = n2
 Angle of incidence in water = i

 Here n1 > n2 Hence, i < r

 Angle of refraction in air = r

 Original depth of tank = DO = d
 Apparent depth of tank = DI = � ′
 By Snell’s law in product form, �1 sin � = �2 sin �

 As the angles are small, sin � = tan � ; sin � = tan �

 Hence, �1 tan � = �2 tan � − − − − − −(1)

�' �� ��

�
= �' = � For air ; � � =� , � � = 1,
�� ��

 Then apparent depth

� �
 �' = (or) �－�' = � � −
� �

3. Obtain the equation for radius of illumination (or) Snell’s window.

 Light is seem from a point ‘A’ at a depth ‘d’
 Applying Snell’s law in product form at point ‘B,

 �� ��� �� = �� ��� ��� : ��� ��� =1

 �� ��� �� = �� - - - - - - - - - - - -(1)

 From ∆ABC
�� �
 ��� �� = = - - - - - (2)
�� �� + ��

 Compare equations (1) and (2)

� ��
 = ��
�� + ��

 radius of illumination

��
�
 � =�
�� �
� −��

 If the rarer medium outside is air, then n2 = 1 and let n1 = n , then

�
 �=�
��−�
27
IMPORTANT
INSTRUCTION FOR
PUBLIC
EXAM
Use this Material for
Final Revision
MAX 75 MARKS
For centum..,
This is not enough !
5-MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. Derive the mirror equation and the equation for lateral magnification
 Let an object AB is placed on the principle axis of a concave mirror beyond the centre of
curvature ‘C ’
 The real and inverted image A'B' is formed between C and F
 From figure, ΔABP & Δ�' �' P are similar triangles
�' �' ��'
= - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
�� ��
 Similarly ΔDPF & Δ�′ �′ F are similar triangles.
�' �' �' �
��
=
��
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
�' �' �' �
�� = �� = - - - - (3)
�� ��

 Compare (1) & (3) We can write,

��' ��' −��
��
= ��
- - - - - - - - - - - (4) ( �'� = ��'－�� )

 PA = −� ; ��' = −� ; PF = −� Substitute in (4)

� � �
 we can arrive = +
� � �
 Lateral magnification
� �
m=- �
= �−�
2. Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine speed of light.
 The light from the source ‘S’ was first allowed to fall on a partially silvered glass plate
G kept at an angle of 45° to the vertical.
 The light then allowed passing through a rotating toothed-wheel with N -teeth and N -cuts.

 The light passing through one cut in the wheel get reflected by a mirror M kept at a long
distance ‘d’ (about 8 km) from the toothed wheel.

 If the toothed wheel was not rotating, the reflected light from the mirror would again pass
through the same cut and reach the observer through G.

 Angular speed of wheel is

� � �
�= = ∵ θ =
� �� �
�
 Time taken for the angular displacement � is t. t =��
�� ����
 The speed of light in air, v = =
� �
 The speed of light in air was determined as, v = 2.99792 x 108 m s-1
28
3. Obtain Lens maker formula.
 Thin lens of refractive index n2 is placed in a medium of refractive index n1
 Let R1 and R2 be radii of curvature of two spherical surfaces ① and ② respectively
 For refracting surface ①, the light goes from n1 to n2
 We know that, equation for single spherical surface
�� �� (�� − �� )
- =
� � �
 For refracting surface ①, the light goes from n1 to n2.
�� � (� − � )
, - � = � � - - - - - - (1)
� � ��
 For refracting surface ②, the light goes from n2 to n1
�� �� (�� − �� )
- = - - - - - - (2)
� �, ��

 Adding equation (1) and (2), we get,

�� � � �
- � = (�� − �� ) − - - - - - - (3)
� � �� ��
 If the object is at infinity, image is formed at the focus of the lens. Then substitute u = ∞ ,
v = f n2 = n and n1 = 1(air) using eq; 3 we get
� � �
�
= � −� ��
−
��
 The above equation is called lens maker’s formula. By comparing equation (2) and (3)
.
� � �
- =
� � �
4. Obtain the equation for dispersive power of a medium.
 Dispersion :
 Splitting of white light into its constituent colours is called dispersion. The coloured band
obtained due to dispersion is called spectrum.
 Let A be the angle of prism and D be the angle minimum deviation

 The refractive index of the material of the prism is

� +�
���
� = �
� - - - - - - - - - -(1) ���
�
�
≈
�
�
���
�

� +�
�+�
� = �
� = �
�

�= � − � � - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

 Thus, angle of deviation for violet and red light,

�� = ( �� – �)� - - - - - - -(3)
�� = ( �� – �)� - - - - - - -(4)

 The angular dispersion is given by,

�� − �� = ( �� – ��)� - - (5)
Definition, dispersive power
������� ���������� �� − �� �� − ��
�= = =
���� ��������� � �−�
29
5. Derive the equation for angle of deviation produced by a prism and thus obtain the equation
for refractive index of material of the prism.
 Here, ‘PQ’ be incident ray, ‘QR’ be refracted ray and ‘RS’ be emergent ray.

 From figure, ∠ MQR = d1 = i1 – r1 and ∠ MRQ = d2 = i2 – r2

 Then total angle of deviation,
d = d1 + d2
d = (i1 – r1) + (i2 – r2)
d = (i1 + i2) - (r1 + r - - -(1)
∆QNR,
A = r1 + r2 - - -(2)
 Put equation (2) in equation (1),
d = (i1 + i2) - A - - -(3)
 At angle of minimum deviation,
i1 = i2 = i and r1 = r2 = r also d =D.
 Put this value in equation (2) and (3)
� �+�
r= i=
� �

 From Snell’s law we get, � +�

��� � ���
� = = �
��� � �
���
�

UNIT 7. WAVE OPTICS

2 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. State Huygen’s principle ?

 Each point on the wavefront behaves as the source of secondary wavelets spreading out in
all directions with the speed of the wave. These are called as secondary wavelets.
 The envelope to all these wavelets gives the position and shape of the new wavefront at a later
time.

2. What are coherent sources?

 Two light sources are said to be coherent if they produce waves which have same phase
or constant phase difference, same frequency or wavelength, same waveform and same
amplitude.

3. What are the conditions for obtaining clear and broad interference fringes
 The distance between the screen and slits should be as large as possible.
 The wavelength of the light used must be large.
 The distance between the two slits must be small.

4. What is double refraction?

 When a ray of unpolarised light is incident on a calcite crystal, two refracted rays are
produced. Hence two images of an object are formed.

30
3 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. Explain the pile of plates.

 It works on the principle of polarization by reflection.

 It makes use of Brewster’s law.
 It consists of a number of glass plates placed one over the other in a tube.
 Several plates are kept one behind the other at an angle 90o – ip with the horizontal surface.
 Parallel light falls on the plate at iP, the refracted light get a chance for further reflections at
the succeeding plates.
 Both refracted and reflected lights are found to be plane polarised.
2. Discuss about Nicol prism.
 Based on the principle of double refraction.
 It is a calcite crystal which has a length three times its breadth and angles 720 and 1080 .

 It is cut into two halves along the diagonal and pasted together with a layer of canada balsam,
a transparent cement.When unpolarised light is passed through Nicol prism , it splits into
ordinary and extraordinary rays. For this calcite crystal.
 The refractive index for ordinary ray = 1.658
 The refractive index for the extraordinary ray = 1.486
 The refractive index of canada balsam = 1.523
 Extraordinary ray is transmitted and serves as a plane polarised ray.
 Its act as a polariser and analyser.
5 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. Obtain the equation for Path difference and band width in Young’s double slit Experiment.
 Let distance between S1 and S2 is d
 Distance of the screen from double slit D
 Wavelength of coherent light wave = λ
 Hence path difference between the light waves from S1 and S1 to the point ‘P’
� = �.� −−−−−−(1)
�
�=
�
�
� = .� −−−−−− (2)
�

 Condition for bright fringes:

The path difference � = ��
�
.d = nλ - - - -(3) (n = 0,1,2,3……..)
�

31
 �
 The distance of nth bright fringe: �� = ��
�
 Condition for dark fringes:
�
The path difference, � = (2�−1) �
� �
.d = (2� − 1) - - - -(4) (n = 1,2,3………)
� �
� �
 The distance of nth dark fringe: �� = (2� − 1)
� �
 Band width:
The distance between any two consecutive bright (or) dark fringes � = ��+1 − ��
��
�=
�
2. Explain about compound microscope and obtain the equation for Magnification.
 The lens near the object is called the objective, forms a real, inverted, magnified image of
the object.
 Image produced by objective lens act as an object to the eyepiece.
 Eyepiece produces an enlarged and virtual image.

 Magnification of objective lens,

�' �
�� = =
� ��

 The magnification of the eyepiece,

�
�� = 1 +
��

 The total magnification ‘m’ in near point focusing,

� �
� = �� �� = � +
�� ��
 If the final image is formed at infinity (normal focusing), the magnification if eye piece is,
�
�� =
��
 The total magnification ‘m’ in normal focusing is,
� �
� = �� �� =
�� ��
3. Discuss about simple microscope and obtain equation for magnification.
 Simple microscope - Near point focussing :
 A simple microscope is a single magnifying lens of small focal length.
 In near point focusing, object distance u is less than f. The image is formed at near point or
least distance D of distinct vision.

 The Magnification m is given by,

� −�
m= �
= −�
 Lens equation,

� � �
- =
� � �
 Magnification,
� �
m= �
=1+ �

32
 Simple microscope - Normal focussing :
 Here the image is formed at infinity,
 Angular magnification is
�
m = � - - - - (1)
��
�
tan �0 ≈ �0 =
�
�
tan �� ≈ �� = �
 Using equation (1) we get,
�
 The angular magnification is m=
�
4. Discuss about astronomical telescope.
 An astronomical telescope is used to get the magnification of distant astronomical objects
like stars, planets.
 The image formed by this will be inverted.
 It has an objective of long focal length and a much larger aperture than eye piece.
 Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at its
second focal point.
 Magnification (m) :
 The magnification ‘m’ is the ratio of the angle (β) subtended at the eye by the final image
to the angle (α) which the object subtends at the lens or the eye.
�
� =
�
 From figure,
�
�� ��
� = �
= ��
��
 The length of the telescope is approximately

� = ��+��
5. Discuss about diffraction in single slit.

 Let a parallel beam of light fall normally

on a single slit AB.
 The centre of the slit is C,
 D – distance between screen and slit

�
 Path difference between the corresponding points � = ��� �
�
 Condition for first minimum, � ��� � = �
 Condition for second minimum, � ��� � = ��
 Condition for nth minimum, � ��� � = � � Where n = 1,2,3……

��
 Condition for first maximum, � ��� � = �
��
 Condition for second maximum, � ��� � =
�
�
 Condition for nth maximum, � ��� � = (�� + �) � Where n = 0,1,2,3,…..

33
 UNIT 8. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
2 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. What is photoelectric effect?

 The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light or any other
electromagnetic radiation of suitable wavelength is called Photoelectric effect.
2. Define work function of a metal. Give its unit.
 The minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal surface is called work
function of that metal. Its unit is electron volt.(eV).
3. Define surface barrier.
 The potential barrier which prevents free electrons from leaving the metallic surface is
called Surface Barrier.
4. Define electron volt (eV).
 It is the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential
difference of 1 Volt.1eV = 1.6×10-19 J
5. Define stopping potential.
 The negative or retarding potential given to collecting electrode which is just sufficient to stop
the most energetic photo electrons emitted and make the photo current zero is called stopping
potential or cut-off potential.
6. Define threshold frequency.
 For a given metallic surface, the emission of photo electrons takes place only if the
frequency of incident light is greater than a certain minimum frequency called Threshold
frequency.
7. What is photo electric cell? Give its types.
 The device which converts light energy into electrical energy is called Photo electric cell.
 It works on the principle of photo electric effect.
 They are of three types : Photo emissive cell, Photo voltaic cell, Photo conductive cell .
8. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater de Broglie
wavelength. Justify.
� �
 De – Broglie wavelength � α �
� ����
 mass of the electron < mass of the proton �� < ��
 wavelength of the electron > wavelength of the proton �� > ��
9. Why we do not see the wave properties of a baseball?
�
 De – Broglie wavelength of matter is �= So the de Broglie wavelength is inversely
��
proportional to the mass.Since the mass of baseball is too large as compared with the
electron, the de Broglie wavelength of baseball is negligibly small.
 So we do not see the wave property of the baseball.

3 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength of electron.

 The kinetic energy of the electron is given by mv2 = eV
�
�
���
 The speed of the electron is � =
�
� �
 Hence, the de Broglie wavelength of the electron is �= =
�� ����
�
 Kinetic energy k=eV then � =
���

��.�� ��
 Substituting the known values � =
�
34
2. Write a note on characteristic X-ray spectra.
 When the target is hit by fast electrons,the obtained
X-ray spectra shows some narrow peaks at some well
defined wave-length.
 The line spectrum showing these peaks is
called characteristic X-ray spectrum. This X-ray spectrum
is due to the electronic transitions Within the atoms.
 For example, when an energetic electron penetrates
into the target atom and removes the electrons in K-shell
and create a vacancy in it.
 So the electrons from outer orbits (L,M,N,O.) jump to fill
up the vacancy in K-shell.
 The energy difference between the levels is given out in the form of X-ray photon. K-series
(Kα, Kβ, Kγ…) originates due to Electronic transition from L,M,N,O…. shells to K-shell.
L-series (Lα, Lβ, Lγ…) originates due to electronic transition from M,N,O….shells to
L-shell.
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. Explain the effect of Potential difference on photoelectric current.

 Frequency, Intensity – Constant.

 Positive Anode potential increases,

 Photo current increases.Finally Photo current reaches

saturation.

 When a negative potential is applied to A photocurrent

becomes zero V0 called stopping potential (or)
cut off potential.

 The negative potential when given to the collecting electrode, photo electrons emitted make
the photo current zero, is called stopping potential.

 The initial kinetic energy of the fastest electron (Kmax) is equal to the work done by the
stopping potential to stop it. (eVo).
� ����
 Kmax = m�2 max = eVo ; ���� =
� �

 Stopping potential and the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of
intensity of the incident light.

2. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation with necessary explanation.

 When a photon of energy ℎ� is incident on a metal surface, it is completely absorbed by a

single electron is utilized in two ways.

 Part of the photon energy is used for the ejection of the electrons from the metal surface and it
is called work function (�0 ).

35
 �
 Remaining energy as the kinetic energy �
m v 2 of the ejected electron
 From the law of conservation of energy,
�
�� = �� + m�� - - - - - - - - (1)
�
 At threshold frequency,
�� � = �� - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
 Substitute (2) in (1)
�
�� = �� � + m�� - - - - - - - -(3)
�
 The equation (3) is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
 If the electron does not lose energy by internal collisions, then it is emitted with maximum
kinetic energy
�
�� = �� � + m����� - - - - - (4)
�
�
 Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron; Kmax = �
m � �� � �
�� = �� � + ���� - - - - - - - - - -(5)

Kmax = ℎ� - ℎ� �

3. Give the construction and working of photo emissive cell.

 Principle: Photoelectric effect
 Construction:
 It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz bulb.
 The cathode C is semi-cylindrical in shape and is coated with a
Photo sensitive material.
 The anode A is a thin rod or wire.
 A potential difference is applied between the anode and the cathode
through a galvanometer G.
 Working:
 When cathode is irradiated with suitable radiation, electrons are emitted from it.
 These electrons are attracted by anode and hence a current is produced which is
measured by the galvanometer.
 The magnitude of the current depends on i) the intensity of incident radiation and
ii) the potential difference between anode and cathode.

4. Write a note on continuous X-ray spectrum.

(1) When a fast moving electron penetrates and approaches a target nucleus, the electron
either accelerates or decelerates.It results in a change of path of the electron.

(2) The radiation produced from such decelerating electron is called Bremsstrahlung (or)
braking radiation.

(3) The energy of the photon emitted = The loss of kinetic energy of the electron.
��
ℎ� = = eV
��

Substitute the known values,

�����
Minimum wavelength �0 = Å
�
This relation is known as Duane-Hunt formula.

36
5. Explain the principle and working of electron microscope.

 Principle: The wave nature of the moving electron

 Construction:
 In electron microscope focusing of electron beam is done.
By the electrostatic or magnetic lenses.

 Working:
 The electrons emitted from the source are accelerated by
high potentials.

 The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser lens.

 When the beam passes through the sample whose magnified

image is needed, the beam carries the image of the sample.

 With the help of magnetic objective lens and Magnetic Projector lens system, the magnified
image is obtained on the screen.
6. Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment which demonstrated the wave nature of
electrons.
 Construction :
 The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.) battery.
 Electrons are emitted from the hot filament by thermionic emission.
 They are then accelerated due to the potential difference
between the filament and the anode aluminium cylinder
by a high tension (H.T.) battery.
 Electron beam is collimated by using two thin aluminium
diaphragms and is allowed to strike a single crystal of Nickel.
 Working :
 The intensity of electron scattered by Ni atoms in different directions
are measured by the electron detector which is capable of rotation.
 For a given accelerating voltage (54 V), the scattered wave shows a maximum intensity
at an angle of 500
 Conclusion:
The wavelength of electron
i) By experiment (angle = 500) λ = 1.65Å
ii) The wavelength can also be calculated from
de Broglie relation For V = 54 V
��.�� �� ��.�� ��
� = = = 1.67Å
� ��

 This experiment directly verifies de-Broglie’s hypothesis of the wave nature of moving
particles.

37
 UNIT 9. ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
2 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. Define atomic mass unit (u).
�
 1amu = �� of the mass of the isotope of carbon 12C6. 1 amu = 1.660 x10-27 Kg
��
2. Define Impact parameter.
 Perpendicular distance between Centre of gold nucleus and velocity vector of alpha particle
at large distance.
3. Define excitation energy.
 The energy required to excite an electron from lower energy state to any higher energy state is
known as excitation energy.
4. Define a) Isotope b) Isobar c) Isotone with an example for each Elements.
Elements Atomic No. Mass No. Example
Isotope Same Same Different 1H , 1 H
1 2

Isobar Different Different Same 40

16 Si , 17 cl
40

Isotone Different Different Different Same no. of neutron 5 B 12, 6 C 13

5. Define Ionization energy (or) Binding energy.
 The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom in the ground state
is known as ionization energy.
6. What is mass defect.
 Mass defect = Total mass of nucleons – mass of nucleus.
7. What is meant by radioactivity?
 Spontaneous emission of highly penetrating radiations such as α, β and ϒ rays by an
element (Z > 82) is called radioactivity
8. Define one Curie.
 Number of decays per second in One gram of radium; 1 curie = 3.7 x 1010 decays / second
9. What is meant by activity or decay rate? Give its unit.
��
 Number of nuclei decayed per second R = �� ; Unit is Becquerel.
10. Define Half-life.
 Time required for number of atoms initially present to reduce one half of initial amount.
�.����
�� =
� �

11. Define mean life.

�
 Ratio of sum of life time of all nuclei to total number of nuclei present initialty. � =
�
12. What are the constituent particles of neutron and proton?
 Proton is made up of two up quarks and one down quark
 Neutron is made up of one up quark and two down quarks
13. Explain Proton – Proton cycle
1H + 1H → 1H + e+ + ν
1 1 2

1H + 1H → 2He 3 + γ
1 2

2He + 2He3 → 2He4 + 1H1 + 1H1 Over all Energy produced = 27 MeV.
3

14. What is radio carbon dating?

 Radioactive dating or carbon dating is the technique to estimate the age of ancient object by
using radio carbon isotope ( 6 C 14 )
15. What is binding energy of a nucleus? Give its expression.
 When Z protons and N neutrons are combine form a nucleus, the mass disappear equivalent to
mass defect (Δm) is converted in to energy which is used to bind the nucleons in the
nucleus. This is known as binding energy (BE) of a nucleus.
 BE = ∆mc2 = [(Zm + Nm ) – M]c2
p n
38
 3 -MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :
1. State the postulates of Bohr atom model
 The centripetal force for the electron is given by coulomb force.
��
 The angular momentum of electron L =
��
 Electron jumps from one orbit to another emitting a photon of energy, ΔE = Ef - Ei = hν.
2. Give the limitations of Bohr atom model.
 Valid only for H2
 Cannot explain fine structure
 Cannot explain intensity variation of spectral lines
 Cannot explain distribution of electrons

3. Give the results of Rutherford alpha particle scattering experiment.

 Most of the alpha particles goes without any deviation.
 Some of the alpha particles are deflected with small angle.
 A few of alpha particles are deflected above 900.
 Very few numbers of alpha particles retrace their path with 180o.
4. Explain Alpha decay, beta decay and gamma emission.

Decay Atomic No. Mass No. Examples

α - decay Decreases by 2 Decreases by 4 92U
238
→ 90Th
234
+ 2He4

+ β - decay Decreases by 1 Remain the same 11Na

22
→ 10 Ne22 + e+ + �

- β - decay Increases by 1 Remain the same 6C

14
→ 7N14 + e− + �

γ - decay Remain the same Remain the same 5B

12
→ 6 C12* + e− + �

5. Explain the variation of average binding energy with the mass number using graph and
discuss about its features.

 BE is taken along y axis, mass number A is taken along x axis.

 A < 40 Mass no A increases, average binding energy per

nucleon BE increases.
 A = 56 BE becomes maximum for Fe, which is 8.8 MeV
 A = 40 to 12 Average BE/A = 8.5 MeV
These elements are more stable and non radioactive
 A > 120, Average BE is decreases, BE for Uranium is
7.6 MeV. They are unstable and radioactive.

 A < 28, elements combine to form A < 56 This the basis

of Nuclear fusion and its principle of Hydrogen bomb.

 Heavy element split to form medium value A nuclei. This the basis of
Nuclear fission and its principle of Atom bomb.

39
 5 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. Explain the J.J. Thomson experiment to determine the specific charge of electron.

 Principle: Deflection of electron in electric and magnetic field.

 Construction:
1) Cathode rays are produced in discharge tube

2) It is made into narrow beam by anode disc.

3) E is provide by parallel plates.

4) B is provided by magnets.
5) Cathode rays fall on screen at O to produce fluorescence.
 Determination of velocity of Cathode rays:
 Let ‘e’ be the charge of cathode ray particle.
 The upward force acting on cathode rays due to electric field ‘E’ is �� = e E
 The downward force acting on cathode rays due to magnetic field is�� = e B v
 In undeflected equilibrium position, ��� = ��
- - - - (1)
�
�=
�
 Determination Specific charge:
 Potential energy = Kinetic energy
�
�� = m��
�
� � ��
=
� � �
� ��
 Using eqn. (1) we get = = 1.7 x 1011 C kg−1
� ����
 Deflection of charge only due to uniform electric field:
 When the magnetic field is turned off (B = 0), the deflection is only due to electric field.
�� �
�� = ; �=
� �
� � �� ��
�' =
� � �

� = � y’
� ���
= � ���� = 1.7 x 1011 C kg−1
�
2. Derive the expression for the radius of nth orbit of an electron and its velocity
 Atomic number = Z
 Total charge of the nucleus= + Ze
 Charge of an electron = - e
 Mass of the electron = m
 From Coulomb’s law,
� ���
�������� =－
��Ɛ� ���
 Centripetal force given by,
����
������������ = －
��
40
  At equilibrium> � ������� = ������������

��Ɛ� ����� �
�� = - - -(1)
����
��
 From Bohr’s assumption ; ��� �� = - - - - - (2)
��
Substitute (2) in (1)
��Ɛ� �� �� ��
�� = So radius, �� = ��
���� ��� �
Ɛ� ��
 Here �� = = 0.529 Å This is known as Bohr radius
� � ��

For hydrogen (Z = 1), �� = �� �� (i.e) �� ∝ �2
 The velocity of the electron decreases as the principal quantum number increases
�
(i.e) �� �
�
3. Explain the spectral series of an hydrogen atom.
n- lower energy orbit, m- higher energy orbit and R- Rydberg’s constant
n m Series Wave number Region
� �
= �
��
− ��� = �
�
1 2,3,4… Lyman � � UV
�=� �
− �
� �
2 3,4,5… Balmer � � Visible
�=� −
�� � �
3 4,5,6… Paschen � � Near IR
�=� −
�� � �
4 5,6,7… Brackett � � Middle IR
�=� −
�� ��
5 6,7,8… P Fund � � Far IR
�=� �−
� ��

4. Derive the energy expression for hydrogen atom using Bohr model.
�� ���
 The Potential energy for the nth orbit is �� = －
�Ɛ�� �� ��

�� ���
 The Kinetic energy for the n orbit is
th ��� =
�Ɛ �� �� ��

 This implies that �� = －2�� - - -(1)

th
 Total energy in the n orbit �� = �E� ＋ ��:
�� ���
Using eqn (1) �� = �E� － 2 �E� = －�E� = －
�Ɛ � � �
�� �
��.�
 For hydrogen atom ( Z =1) and substitute the known value �� =－ eV
��
 Negative sign indicate that electron is bound to the nucleus.

41
5. Obtain the expression for number of atoms present at any instant and also derive the equation
for half-life period.
 Law of Radioactivity :
 At any instant t, the number of decays per unit time, called rate of decay (dN/dt) is
proportional to the number of nuclei (N) at the same instant. This is called law of radioactive
decay.
 No be the number of nuclei at initial time (t = 0)
 Let ‘N’ be the number of undecayed nuclei at any time ‘t’
��
 If ‘dN’ be the number of nuclei decayed in time ‘dt’ then, rate of decay =
��
 From law of radioactivity,
�� ��
� � (or) = −�� - - -(1)
�� ��

 Integrating on both sides,

� �
��
= −� ��
�� �� �

�
�� = −��
��
�
 Taking exponential on both sides, = �−�� : � = �� �−�� - - -(2)
��
 Equation (2) is called the law of radioactive decay. Here the number of atoms is decreasing
exponentially over the time. This implies that the time taken for all the radioactive nuclei to
decay will be infinite.

 Half life : The time required for the number of atoms to reduce one half of the initial amount.
��
�= and � = ��
� �

�� −��� �.����
= �� � � ∴ �� =
� �
�

7. What is nuclear reactor? Explain its essential parts.

 Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear fission takes place in a self-sustained
controlled manner.
Parts Function of the part Material used Diagram
Fuel Fissionable material Uranium-235,
Plutonium
Moderator To slow down the neutron Heavy water, Graphite
Control rod Controls the reaction Cadmium, Boron
rate by absorbing neutrons
Cooling Removes the heat Water, Heavy
system generated in the reactor water ,Liquid sodium
core
Shielding Protects from harmful concrete wall of
Radiations thickness 2 to 2.5 m

8. Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop experiment for the determination of charge of an electron.
 Principle:

 By adjusting the electric field, motion of the oil drop can be controlled, can be made to move
up or down.

42
  Construction:
 A and B each with diameter around 20cm are separated by a distance of 1.5cm
 Parallel plates are enclosed in an evacuated glass chamber
 10KV potential difference is applied between the plates.
 A small hole is made at the centre of the plate A
 An atomizer is kept exactly above the hole to spray the liquid.Chamber is illuminated by light
and oil drops can be seen clearly using microscope.

 Forces on drop
�
 Downward gravitational force �� = mg = π����
�
 Electric force �� = q E
�
 Upward Buoyant force �� = π�� ��
�
 Viscous force �� = ��η�
Under gravity force Under Electric force
Determination of radius of the oil drop Determination of electric charge:
�� = �� ＋ � � �� ＋�� = ��
� �
π�� � − � � = ��η� �� =
�
π�� � − � �
�
� �
� � � � = π�� � − � �
�= ��
�(� − �) �
 Charge of the electron is calculated q = -1.6 x 10-19 C

UNIT 10. ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

2 & 3 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. Define doping.
 The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.
2. Define junction potential or barrier potential.
 The potential difference across the depletion region is called as potential barrier
 At 250C, the value of potential barrier is 0.3 V for Germanium and 0.7 V for Silicon
3. What is an intrinsic semiconductor.
 Pure form of semiconductor without impurity. Example: Si and Pure Ge.
4. What is P-N junction diode? Give its symbol.
 PN junction diode is formed when a P is fused with a
N-type semiconductor.
5. What is meant by rectification?
 The process of converting alternating current into direct current is called rectification.

43
6. What is called Zener diode?
 Zener diode is a reverse based heavily doped Silicon diode which is specially designed to be
operated in the breakdown region.
7. What is light emitting diode (LED)?
 LED is a P-N junction diode which emits visible or
invisible light with is forward biased.
 Here electrical energy is converted into light energy, this process is also called
electroluminescence.
8. What are called solar cells?
 A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, converts light energy directly into electricity
or electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
9. Define input resistance of transistor.
 The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔI B)
at aconstant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called the input resistance (ri).
� ���
�� =
� �� ���
10. Define output resistance of transistor.
 The ratio of the change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the change in collector current
(ΔI C) at a constant base current (IB) is called the output - resistance (ro)
� ���
�� =
� �� ��

11. Give the Barkhausen conditions for sustained oscillations.

 The loop phase shift must be 0° or integral multiples of 2π.
 The loop gain must be unity. |Aβ| = 1
 Here, A → Voltage gain of the amplifier, β → Feedback ratio
12. What is called modulation? Give its types.
 For long distance transmission, the low frequency base band signal (input signal) is
superimposed on to a high frequency carrier signal (radio signal) by a process called
modulation.
 1. Amplitude (AM) 2. Frequeny Modulation (FM) 3. Phase Modulation (PM)

13. Define amplitude modulation (AM)

 If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified according to the instantaneous amplitude
of the baseband signal, then it is called amplitude modulation (AM).
14. Define frequency modulation (FM)
 If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified according to the instantaneous amplitude
of the baseband signal then it is called frequency modulation (FM)
 Here amplitude and phase does not modified for carrier wave.
15. Define phase modulation (PM)
 The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal modifies the phase of the carrier signal
keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is called phase modulation
16. Define skip distance.
 The shortest distance between the transmitter and the point of reception of the sky wave
along the surface is called as the skip distance
17. Define skip zone.
 There is a zone in between where there is no reception of electromagnetic waves neither
ground nor sky, called as skip zone or skip area.
18. What is called biasing? Give its types.
 Biasing is the process of giving external energy to charge carriers to overcome the barrier
potential and make them move in a particular direction.
 P-N junction we have two types of biasing 1) Forward bias 2) Reverse bias

44
19. Compare FM and PM ?
 PM wave is similar to FM wave.
 PM generally uses a smaller bandwidth than FM.
 In other words, in PM, more information can be sent in a given bandwidth.
 Hence, phase modulation provides high transmission speed on a given bandwidth.
20. What is called transistor amplifier?
 A transistor operating in the active region has the capability to amplify weak signals.
 Amplification is the process of increasing the signal strength (increase in the amplitude).
5. MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier and explain its working.

 This circuit consists of a step down transformer, a P-N junction diode and a resistor (RL)
Here, a P-N junction diode acts as a rectifying diode.

 During positive half cycle of input AC:

 Terminal A becomes positive with respect to terminal B.
 The diode is forward biased and hence it conducts
 The current flows through load resistor RL and the AC voltage developed across RL
constitutes the output voltage Vo
 During negative half cycle of input AC:
 Terminal B becomes positive with respect to terminal A.
 The diode is reverse biased and hence it does not conduct.
 No current passes through RL and there is no voltage drop across RL
 Efficiency (η) of half wave rectifier is η = 40.6 %
2. Explain the construction and working of a full wave rectifier.

 It consists of two P-N junction diodes, a center tapped transformer, and a load
resistor (RL). The centre (C) is usually taken as the ground or zero voltage reference
point.

During positive half cycle of input AC During positive half cycle of input AC:
Terminal M is positive, C at zero potential and Terminal M is negative, G is at zero potential
N is at negative potential and N is at positive potential
Diode D1 is forward biased Diode D2 is reverse Diode D1 is forward biased Diode D2 is reverse
biased biased
D1 conducts and current flows along the path D2 conducts and current flows along the path
MD1ABC ND2ABC
Efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is η = 81.2 %.

45
 Explain how transistor acts as a switch .
 A transistor in saturation and cut-off region functions like an electronic switch by a
small control switch.
Input Voltage (Vin)
0V 5V
Collector Current (Ic) Zero Increases

P.D. across Rc ( IcRc) Zero Increases

Output Voltage High Low
V0 = VCC － ICRC
Region Cut off region Saturation region
Action of the transistor Open (Switch Close (Switch
Off) ON)
4. Explain the working of Zener diode as a voltage regulator.

 A Zener diode working in the breakdown region can serve as a voltage regulator. It maintains
a constant output voltage even when input voltage (Vi) or load current (IL) varies.

 The output voltage is maintained constant as long as the input voltage does not fall below V z.

 When the potential developed across the diode is greater

than VZ, the diode moves into the Zener breakdown region.

 It conducts and draws relatively large current through the series

resistance R S.

 The total current I passing through RS equals the sum of diode current I Z and load
current IL (i.e.) I = IZ + IL

 It is to be noted that the total current is always less than the maximum Zener diode
current. under all conditions VO = VZ .Thus, output voltage is regulated.
5. Explain the action transistor as an oscillator.
 An electronic oscillator basically converts dc energy into ac energy of high frequency
ranging from a few Hz to several MHz.

 An oscillator circuit consists of

 Amplifier Circuit
 Feedback Circuit
 Tank circuit
 Amplifier Circuit:
 Amplifier amplifies the input ac signal.
 Feedback Circuit:
 The circuit used to feedback a portion of the output to the input is called the feedback
network.
 If the portion of the output fed to the input is in phase with the input, then the
magnitude of the input signal increases.
 Tank Circuit:
 The LC tank circuit consists of an inductance and a capacitor connected in parallel.
 This produces electrical oscillations of definite frequency.
46
IMPORTANT
INSTRUCTION FOR
PUBLIC
EXAM
Use this Material for
Final Revision
MAX 75 MARKS
For centum..,
This is not enough !
  Working:
 Whenever energy is supplied to the tank circuit from a DC source, the energy is stored
in inductor and capacitor alternatively. But in practical oscillator circuits there will be
loss of energy across resistors, inductor coils and capacitors.
 Due to this, the amplitude of the oscillations decreases gradually.
 Hence, the tank circuit produces damped electrical oscillations.
 Therefore, in order to produce un damped oscillations, a positive feedback is provided
from the output circuit to the input circuit.
 The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of L and C using the equation.
�
�=
�� ��
6. Describe the function of a transistor as an amplifier with the neat circuit diagram. Sketch
the input and output wave form.
 Amplification is the process of increasing the signal strength (increase in the amplitude).
 Single stage indicates that the circuit consists of one transistor with the allied
components.
 An NPN transistor is connected in the common emitter configuration

 The capacitor C1 allows only the ac signal to pass through.

 The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides a low reactance path to the amplified ac signal.
 The coupling capacitor CC is used to couple on stage of the amplifier with the next stage
while constructing multistage amplifiers.
 VS is the sinusoidal input signal source applied across the base-emitter. The output is taken
across the collector-emitter.
 The phase relationship between the AC input and output voltages in a common emitter amplifier is
180°.
�
 Collector Current is �� = β�� ∵ � = ��
�

 Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law, the collector-emitter voltage is ��� = ���－ ����
 Working of the amplifier:
(1) During the positive half cycle:
 Input signal (Vs) increases the forward voltage across the emitter-base.
 As a result, the base current (I B) increases.
 Consequently, the collector current (IC) increases β times.
 This increases the voltage drop across RC which in turn decreases the collector-emitter
voltage (VCE).
 Therefore, the input signal in the positive direction produces an amplified signal in
negative direction at the output. Hence, the output signal is reversed by 180°.

47
 (2) During the negative half cycle:
 Input signal (Vs) decreases the forward voltage across the emitter-base.

 As a result, base current (IB) decreases and in turn increases the collector current (I C).

 The increase in collector current (IC) decreases the potential drop across RC and
increases the collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
 Thus, the input signal in the negative direction produces an amplified signal in the
positive direction at the output.
 Therefore, 180° phase reversal is observed during the negative half cycle of the input
signal.
7. State and prove De Morgan’s theorem.
 First theorem :
 The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is equal to the product of complements.
� + � = �.�

 Second theorem:
 The complement of the product of two inputs is equal to the sum of its complements.
�.� = � +�

8. Elaborate on the basic elements of communication system with the necessary block diagram.
 Communication system :
 Electronic communication is nothing but the transmission of sound, text, pictures, or
data through a medium.
1. Input transducer :
 A transducer is a device that converts variations in a physical quantity (pressure,
temperature, sound) into an equivalent electrical signal or vice versa.
2. Transmitter :
 It feeds the electrical signal from the transducer to the communication channel. The
transmitter located in local at the broad casting station.
 Transmitter consist of Amplifier, Oscillator, Modulator, Power Amplifier

48
 3. Transmitting antenna :
 It radiates the radio signal into space in all directions.
 It travels in the form of electromagnetic waves with the velocity of light (3 × 10 8 m s–1)
4. Communication channel :
 Communication channel is used to carry the electrical signal from transmitter to
receiver with less noise or distortion.
 The communication medium is basically of two types:
 wireline communication
 wireless communication

5. Receiver :
 The signals that are transmitted through communication medium are received with
help of a receiving antenna and are fed into the receiver.
 The receiver consists of electronic circuits like demodulator, amplifier, detector etc
 Demodulator:
 The demodulator extracts the baseband signal from the carrier signal.
 Amplifier:
 Then the baseband signal is detected and amplified using amplifiers. Finally, it is fed to
the output transducer.
6. Output transducer :
 It converts the electrical signal back to its original form such as sound, music, pictures or
data. (e.g.) loudspeakers, picture tubes, computer monitor, etc.,

UNIT 11. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS

TWO, THREE & FIVE MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. Why steels are preferred to make robots?

 For robots, aluminum and steel are the most common metals.
 Aluminum is a softer metal and is therefore easier to work with it.
2. Give two examples for Nano structure in nature.
i) Single strand DNA
 It is the basic building block of all living things.
 It is about 3 nm wide
ii) Morpho butterfly
 The scales of the wings of this butterfly contain nano structures.
3. Write a note on black holes.
 Black holes are end stage of stars which are highly dense massive object.
 Its mass ranges 20 times mass of the sun to 1 million times mass of the sun.
 Every galaxy has black hole at its centre.
4. What are called gravitational waves?
 The disturbances in the curvature of space-time are called gravitational waves. Its travels with speed of
light.
 Any accelerated charge emits electromagnetic waves. Similarly any accelerated mass
emits gravitational waves.
 The strongest sources of gravitational waves are black holes.
49
5. What is robotics?
 Robotics is an integrated study of mechanical, electronic engineering, computer
engineering and science.
 Robot is a mechanical device designed with electronic circuitry and programmed to
perform a specific task.
6. What are the possible harmful effects of usage of Nanoparticles? Why?
 The major concern here is that the nanoparticles have the dimensions same as that of the
biological molecules such as proteins.
 The interaction with living systems is also affected by the dimensions of the nanoparticles.
 Nanoparticles can also cross cell membranes. It is also possible for the inhaled nanoparticles
to reach the blood, to reach other sites such as the liver, heart or blood cells.
7. Explain the various components of robotics.
 Most robots are composed of 3 main parts: Controller, Mechanical parts, Sensor
 Controller :
 It is also known as the "brain" which is run by a computer program.
 It gives commands for the moving parts to perform the job.
 Mechanical parts :
 It consist motors, pistons, grippers, wheels gears that make the robot move, grab, turn, and lift.
 Sensors :
 It tells the robot about its surroundings. It helps to determine the sizes and shapes of the
objects around, distance between the objects, and directions as well.
 Some important three marks questions: (Distinguish between based questions:)
1. Distinguish between Coulomb force and Gravitational force.
S.N Coulomb force Gravitational force
1 It acts between two charges. It acts between two masses .
2 It can be attractive or repulsive . It is always attractive .
3 It is always greater in magnitude . It is always lesser in magnitude.
4 It depends on the nature of the medium . It is independent of the medium.

2. Distinguish between drift velocity and mobility.

S.N Drift Velocity Mobility
The average velocity acquired by the The magnitude of the drift velocity per unit
1 electrons inside the conductor when it is electric field.
subjected to an electric field.
2 Its unit is ��−�. Its unit is �� �−��−�.

3. Distinguish electric energy and electric power.

S.N Electric energy Electric power
Work has to be done by a cell to move The rate at which the electrical potential
1
the charge from one end to the other energy is delivered is called electric power.
end of the conductor and this work
done is called electric energy.

2 Its SI unit is joule (J) It SI unit is watt(W)

Its practical unit is kilowatt hour (kWh) Its practical unit is horse power(H.P).
3
1 kWh=3.6× 106J. 1 H.P = 746W.

50
4. What are the differences between Soft and Hard ferro magnetic material.
S.N Soft ferromagnetic materials Hard ferro magnetic materials

1 When external field is removes, its When external field is removes, its
magnetization will disappear. magnetization will persists.
2 Area of the loop is small Area of the loop is large
3 Low retentivity High retentivity
4 Low coercivity High coercivity
5 (e.g.) Soft iron, Mumetal, Stalloy (e.g.) Steel, Alnico, Lodestone

5. Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.

Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

1 Spherical or cylindrical wave front Plane wavefront undergoes
undergoes diffraction. diffraction
2 The source of light is finite distance The source of light is infinite distance from
from the obstacle. the obstac ob
Convex lenses need not be used Convex lenses are to be used
3
Difficult to observe and analyze Difficult to observe and analyze
4
6. Differentiate interference and diffraction.
S. N Interference Diffraction
1 Equally spaced bright and dark fringes. Central bright is double the size of other
fringes.
2 Equal intensity for all bright fringes. Intensity falls rapidly.
3 Large number of fringes are obtained. Less number of fringes are obtained.

7. Distinguish between near point focusing and normal focusing.

S.N Near point focusing Normal focusing
1 The image is formed at near point The image is formed at infinity
2 In this position, the eye is feel little In this position, the eye is most relaxed to
strain view the image
3 Magnification is high m = 1+ D/f Magnification is low � = D/f

8. Distinguish intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor.

S.N INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Pure form of semiconductor without Impurity added semiconductor
1
impurity. e.g: Pure Si and Pure Ge
The number of electrons in the The number of electrons in the conduction
conduction band is equal to the band is not equal to the number of holes in the
2 valence band.
number of holes in the valence band.
3 Electrical conductivity is less. Electrical conductivity is high.

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9. Differentiate - donor and acceptor impurities.
S.N DONAR IMPURITIES ACCEPTOR IMPURITIES
1 Pentavalent (Group V) impurity atoms. Trivalent (Group III )impurity atoms.
2 Donate electrons to the conduction band. Accept electrons from the neighbouring atoms.
3 Eg: Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony. Eg: Boron, Aluminium, Gallium.

10. Differentiate Zener breakdown, Avalanche breakdown.

S.N Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown
1 Heavily doped p – n junction. Lightly doped p -n junction.
2 Narrow depletion region. Wide depletion region.
It occurs due to thermally generated minority charge
3 It occurs due to strong electric field
carriers.

APPLICATIONS / USES BASED QUESTIONS:

1. Give the applications and disadvantage of capacitors
i. Flash capacitors are used in digital camera .
ii. It is used in heart defibrillator to retrieve the normal heart function during cardiac arrest .
iii. Capacitors are used in the ignition system of automobile engines to eliminate sparking.
iv. Capacitors are used to reduce power fluctuations in power supplies and to increase the
efficiency of power transmission.
2. State the applications of seeback effect.
i. Seeback effect is used in thermo electric generators .These generators are used in power
plants to convert waste heat into electricity.

ii. It is used in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric generators for increasing fuel

efficiency.
iii. It is used in thermocouples and thermopiles to measure the temperature difference between
the two objects.
3. Give any two uses of (i) IR radiation, (ii) Microwaves and (iii) UV radiation
 IR radiation
i. It is used to provide electrical energy to satellites .
ii. It is used to produce dehydrated fruits.
 Microwaves
i. It is used in microwave oven for cooking.
ii. It is used in very long distance wireless communication through satellites
 UV radiation
i. It is used in burglar alarm.
ii.It is used to destroy bacteria and sterilizing the surgical instruments.
4. Write uses of polaroids.
i. Used to take 3D pictures. Example: Holography.
ii. Used in goggles and cameras to avoid glare of light.
iii. Used as window glasses to control the intensity of incoming light.
iv. Used to improve contrast in old oil painting.
v. Used in LCD (liquid crystal display).
vi. Used in optical stress analysis.
52
5. Give the application of photo cells.
i. It is used as switches and sensors.
ii. Automatic lights that turn on when it gets dark use photocells.
iii. Street lights that switch onand off according to whether it is night or day.
iv. They are used for reproduction of sound in motion pictures.
v. They are used as timers to measure the speeds of athletes during a race.
vi. They are used to measure the intensity of the given light in photography.
6. Explain the applications of X-rays.
i. It is used to detect fractures, foreign bodies in Medical diagnosis.
ii. It is used to cure malignant tumours.
iii. It is used to check for flaws in welded joints, tennis balls.
iv. It is used for detection of contraband goods in custom
v. It is used to study the structure of the crystalline materials.
7. Give the uses of Zener diode.
Zener diode can be used
i. As voltage regulators.
ii. In calibrating voltages.
iii. In providing fixed reference voltage for biasing.
iv. In protecting any gadget against damage from excessive voltage.
8. Give the applications of Light Emitting Diode (LED).
i. Indicator lamps on the front panel of the scientific and laboratory equipments.
ii. Seven-segment displays
iii. Traffic signals, exit signs, emergency vehicle lighting etc.
iv. Industrial process control, position encoders, bar graph readers.
9. Give the applications of photo diode.
i. Alaram System
ii. Count items on a conveyer belt
iii. Photoconductors
iv. Compact Disc players, Smoke detectors
v. Medical applications such as detectors for computed to mography etc.
10. Give the applications of solar cells.
i. Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches, toys, portable power supplies.
ii. Solar cells are used in satellites and space application
iii. Solar panels are used to generate electricity.
11. Give applications of RADAR.

i. In military, it is used for locating and detecting the targets.

ii. It is used in navigation systems.

53
 iii. In Meteorological observation, Radars are used.
iv. It is employed to locate and rescue people in emergency situations.
12. Write the application of Satellite communication.
 Weather Satellites:
i. They are used to monitor the weather and climate of Earth.
ii. By measuring cloud mass, these satellite enable us to predict rain and dangerous storms
like hurricanes, cyclones etc.
 Communication satellites:
i. They are used to transmit television, radio, internet signals etc. Multiple satellites are used
for long distances.
 Navigation satellites:
i. These are employed to determine the geographic location of ships, aircrafts or any other
object.
PROPERTIES BASED QUESTIONS:
1. List the properties of electric field lines.
 They starts from positive charge and end at negative charge or at infinity.
 The electric field vector at a point in space is tangential to the electric field line at that point.
 The electric field lines are denser in a region where the electric field has larger magnitude
and less dense in region where the electric field is of smaller magnitude.
 No two electric fid lines intersect each other
 The number of electric field lines that eminent from the positive charge or end at a negative
charge is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charges.
2. Write down the properties of electromagnetic waves.
 Electromagnetic waves are produced by any accelerated charge.

 Electromagnetic waves do not require any medium for propagation. So electromagnetic

wave is a non-mechanical wave.
 Electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of light in vacuum or free space.

 Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by electric field or magnetic field.

 Electromagnetic waves can exhibit interference, diffraction and polarization.

 Electromagnetic waves carry energy, linear momentum and angular momentum.

3. List the properties of Dia, Para, Ferro magnetic materials.

Magnetic materials Dia magnetic Para magetic Ferro magnetic

properties
Magnetic (�� = −��) �� = +�� [small] �� = +�� [large]
Susceptibility (��)
Relative (�� < 1) (�� > 1) (�� >> 1)
permeability (��)
Susceptibility (��) Independent of Inversely proportional to Inversely proportional to
in temperature temperature temperature temperature
Examples Bi, Cu, H2O Al, pt, Cr Fe, Ni, Co

54
4. What are the properties of Cathode rays.
 Possess energy and momentum.
 Travel in a straight line .
 Can be deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
 They affect photographic plates.
 They produce fluorescence.
 Ionize the gas through which they pass.
 They produce heat when they fall on matter.

5. What are the properties of neutrino?

 It has zero charge.
 It has an antiparticle called anti neutrino.
 It hasvery small mass.
 It interacts weakly with matter.
6. What are the properties of Nuclear Force?
 The Strongest force in nature.
 Very short range of force.
 It is an attractive force.
 Nuclear force is same for (n-n), (p-p), (p-n).
 It doesn’t act on electrons.

7. Write down the properties of neutron.

 They are stable inside the nucleus.
Outside the nucleus it decays with a half life of 13 minutes.
 They are neutral in charge. Types Kinetic energy
Slow neutron 0 to 1000eV
Fast neutron 0.5 MeV to 10 MeV
Thermal neutron 0.025 eV (in thermal equilibrium).
LAWS BASED QUESTIONS:

1. State Kirchhoff’s first and second rules.

 Kirchhoff’s first rule (current rule or junction rule).

 It states that the algebraic sum of the currents at any junction of a circuit is zero.(i.e) ΣI = 0.
 It is based on law of conservation of electric charge.
 Kirchhoff’s second rule (voltage rule or loop rule).
 It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistance
of each part of the circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of emf included in the circuit.
(i.e) Σ IR = ΣƐ .
 It is based on law of conservation of electric energy.

55
2. State and explain Biot savart law.
 According to Biot savart law, the magnitude of magnetic field dB is

 �� ∝�
 �� ∝ ��
 �� ∝ sin �
�
 �� ∝
��
� �� ��� ɵ �� � �� ��� ɵ
 �� ∝ (OR) �� =
�� �� ��
 In vector notation
�� � �� � �
�� =
�� ��
3. State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
 Faraday’s first law:
 Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit.
 Faraday’s second law:
 The magnitude of induced emf in a closed circuit is equal to e time rate of change of
���
magnetic flux linked with the circuit. Ɛ =
��
4. State and explain Brewster’s law.
o o
 �� + 90 + rp = 180 (or) � = 90 − ��
0

 Snell’s law,
��� ��
 �= ��� ��
��� �� ��� ��
 �= ��� ��� − ��
= �� � ��
= ��� ��

 � = ��� ��
 The tangent of the polarising angle for a transparent medium is equal to its refractive index.
5. State Malus’s law.
When a beam of plane polarised light of intensity Io is incident on an analyser, the intensity of
light transmitted from the analyser varies directly as the square of the cosine of the angleθ
between the transmission axes of polariser and analyser. I = Io cos2θ
6. List out the laws of photoelectric effect.
 For a given metallic surface, the emission of photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency
of incident light is greater than certain minimum frequency called the threshold frequency.

 For a given frequency of incident light ( above threshold frequency ) , the number of
photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.

 Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of intensity of the incident

light.

 Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of

incident light.

 There is no time lag between incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons

56
CHARACTERISTICS BASED QUESTIONS:
1. Write the Characteristics of Lorentz force.
 F = Bqv sinθ
 When v = 0, Lorentz force F = 0
 When q moves in parallel or anti parallel F = 0
 FαB
 Fαq
 Fαv
 In vector notation �� = � � � �
2. Write the characteristics of photons.
 Each photon will have energy E= hv.
 The energy of a photon is determined by the frequency of the radiation.
 The photons travel with the speed of light.
 They are unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
 When a photon interacts with matter, the total energy and angular momentum are conserved.

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES BASED QUESTIONS:

1. What are Advantages and disadvantages of AC over DC?
 Advantages:
i. The generation of AC is cheaper than that of DC.
ii. The transmission losses are small compared to DC transmission.
iii. AC can easily be converted into DC with the help of rectifiers.
 Disadvantages:
i. Alternating voltages cannot be used for certain applications.
ii. At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work with AC than DC.

2. Write Merits and Demerits of Fibre Optic Communication.

 Merits
i. Fibre cabbles are very thin and weight lesser than copper cables.
ii. This system has much larger band width.
iii. Fibre optic system is immune to electrical interferences.
iv. Fibre optic cables are cheaper.
 Demerits
i. Fibre optic cables are more fragile when compared to copper wires.
ii. Its an expensive technology.
3. Write the advantages and limitations of amplitude modulation (AM).
 Advantages of AM :
i. Easy transmission and reception.
ii. Lesser bandwidth requirements.
iii. Low cost.
 Limitations of AM
i. Noise level is high .
ii. Low efficiency.
iii. Small operating range.
57
4. Write the advantages and limitations of frequency modulation (FM).
 Advantages of FM:
i. There is a large decrease in noise.
ii. The operating range is quite large.
iii. The transmission efficiency is very high.
iv. FM radio has better quality compared to AM radio.
 Limitations of FM:
i. FM requires a much wider channel.
ii. FM transmitters and receivers are more complex and costly.
iii. In FM reception, less area is covered compared to AM.
CIRCUIT - DIAGRAM BASED QUESTIONS:

1. Draw the circuit diagram for CB / CE / CC configuration

CB configuration CE configuration. CC configuration

2. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier and draw its input and output waveform.

3. Draw the circuit diagram of a Full wave rectifier and draw its input and output waveform.

58
4. Draw the circuit diagram of transistor acts as a switch.

5. Draw the circuit diagram of Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.

6. Draw the Circuit diagram of Static characteristics of NPN transistor in CE mode.

7. Draw the block diagram of Transistor of an oscillator.

8. In the circuit shown in the figure, the input voltage Vi is 20 V, VBE = 0 V and VCE = 0 V. What
are the values of IB, IC, β ?

9. In the combination of the following gates, write the Boolean equation for output Y in terms of
inputs A and B.
 The output at the 1st AND gate : ��
 The output at the 2nd AND gate : ��
 The output at the OR gate: � = � . � + � . �

10. Write down Boolean equation for the output Y of the given circuit.
 Output of AND gate : �.�
 Output of NOR gate : � + �
 The final output of OR gate : � = (� . �) + (� + �)

59
11. Give Circuit symbol, logical operation, truth table, and Boolean expression of
i) AND gate ii) OR gate iii) NOT gate iv) NAND gate v) NOR gate and vi) EX-OR gate.
Logic
Logic Symbol, Operation and Boolean expression Truth Table
gate

Inputs Output
AND � = � .� A B � = �.�
gate 0 0 0
0 1 0
 The output of AND gate is high (1) only when all the
1 0 0
inputs are high (1).
1 1 1
 The rest of the cases the output is low (0)

OR � = �＋� Inputs Output

gate A B � = � ＋�
0 0 0
 The output of OR gate is high (1) when either of the
0 1 1
inputs or both are high (1)
1 0 1
 The rest of the cases the output is low (0)
1 1 1

NOT �=� Inputs Output

gate A �=�
 The output is the complement of the input. 0 1
 The output Y is high (1), when input is low (0) and 1 0
vice versa.
NAND Inputs Output
gate �=�.�
A B �=�.�
 The circuit is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. 0 0 1
Therefore, it is summarized as NAND. 0 1 1
 The output is at low (0) only when all the inputs 1 0 1
are high (1).The rest of the cases, the output is high (1) 1 1 0

NOR
gate Inputs Output
�=� + � A B �=� + �
 The circuit is an OR gate followed by a NOT 0 0 1
gate and is summarized as NOR. 0 1 0
 The output is high (1) when all the inputs are low (0) 1 0 0
 The rest of the cases, the output is low (0) 1 1 0

EXOR
Inputs Output
gate �= � ⨁ �
A B �=� ⨁ �
 The output Y is high (1) only when either of the two 0 0 0
inputs is high (1). 0 1 1
 In the case of an Ex-OR gate with more than two 1 0 1
inputs, the output will be high (1) when odd number 1 1 0
of inputs are high (1)

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SCHOOL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, VELLORE DISTRICT, +2 PHYSICS LEARNING MATERIAL (2024-2025)
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