UNIT III – Syllabus

Operator Overloading and Type Conversion & Inheritance: The Keyword Operator,
Overloading Unary Operator, Operator Return Type, Overloading Assignment
Operator (=), Rules for Overloading Operators, Inheritance, Reusability, Types of
Inheritance, Virtual Base Classes- Object as a Class Member, Abstract Classes,
Advantages of Inheritance, Disadvantages of Inheritance.

What is meant by operator overloading? Explain with an example.

A symbol that is used to perform an operation is called an operator. It is used to perform
operations on constants and variables. By using operator overloading, these operations are
performed on objects. It is a type of polymorphism. The keyword operator is used to define a
new operation for an operator.

Syntax:
return-type operator operator-symbol (list of arguments)
{
// Set of statments
}
Steps:

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 1. Define a class which is to be used with overloading operators.
2. Declare the operator prototype function is in public section.
3. Define the definition of the operator.

Example
# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
class number
{
public:
int x,y;
number()
{
x=0;
y=0;
}
number(int a, int b)
{
x=a;
y=b;
}
number operator + (number d)
{
number t;
t.x=x+d.x;
t.y=y+d.y;
return t;
}
void show()
{
cout<<"\nX="<<x<<"\t Y="<<y;
}
};

int main()
{
number n1(10,20), n2(20,30), n3;
n3=n1+n2;
n3.show();
return 0;
}

Output X=10 Y=20 X=20 Y=30 X=30 Y=40

Explain about overloading unary operators with an example.

 An operator which takes only one argument is called as unary operator.
Ex: ++, --, -, +, !, ~, etc.
 A class member function will take zero arguments for overloading unary operator.
 A friend member function will take only one argument for overloading unary
operator.
Constraints on increment /decrement operators
When ++ and − − operators are overloaded, there exists no difference between the postfix and
prefix overloaded operator functions. To make the distinction between prefix and postfix
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notations of operator, a new syntax is used to indicate postfix operator overloading funct ion.
The syntaxes are as follows:

Operator ++( int ); //postfix notation

Operator ++( ); //prefix notation

Ex: Program for overloading unary operator using normal member function.
# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
class num
{
private:
int a, b;
public:
num(int x, int y)
{
a=x;
b=y;
}
void show()
{
cout<<"\nA="<<a<<"\tB="<<b;
}
void operator ++( ) //prefix notation
{
++a;
++b;
}
void operator --(int) //postfix notation
{
a--;
b--;
}
};

int main()
{
num x(4,10);
x. show();
++x;
cout<<"\n After increment";
x.show();
x--;
cout<<"\n After decrement";
x.show();

}
Output
After increment
A = 5 B = 11
After decrement
A = 4 B = 10

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Ex: Program for overloading unary operator using friend function.
# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
class complex
{
private:
int real, imag;
public:
complex()
{
real=imag=0;
}
complex(int r, int i)
{
real=r;
imag=i;
}
void show()
{
cout<<"\n real="<<real<<"\timaginary="<<imag;
}
friend complex operator -(complex &c)
{
=-c.r;
c.i=-c.i;
return c;
}
};
void main()
{
complex c(1,-2);
how();
cout<<"\nAfter sign change";
-c;
c.show();
}

Output
real= 1 imaginary=-2
After sign change
real= -1 imaginary=2

Explain about overloading binary operators with an example.

 An operator which takes two arguments is called as binary operator.
Ex: +, *, /, etc.
 A class member function will take one argument for overloading binary operator.
 A friend function will takes two arguments for overloading binary operator.
Example: Program for overloading binary operator using class member function.
# include <conio.h>
# include <iostream.h>
class num
{
private:
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 int a , b;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"\nEnter two numbers:";
cin>>a>>b;
}
void show()
{
cout<<"\nA= "<<a<<"\tB= "<<b;
}
num operator +(num n)
{
num t;
t.a=a+n.a;
t.b=b+n.b;
return t;
}
num operator -(num n)
{
num t;
t.a=a-n.a;
t.b=b-n.b;
return t;
}
};
int main()
{
num x,y,z;
x. read();
y.read();
z=x+y;
r.show();
return 0;
}
Output
Enter two numbers: 1 2
Enter two numbers: 3 4
A=4 B=6

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Ex: Program for overloading binary operator using friend function.
# include <conio.h>
# include <iostream.h>
class num
{
private:
int a, b;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"\nEnter two numbers:";
cin>>a>>b;
}
void show()
{
cout<<"\nA="<<a<<"\tB="<<b;
}
friend num operator + (num o1, num o2)
{
num t;
t.a=o1.a+o2.a;
t.b=o1.b+o2.b;
return t;
}
};
int main()
{
num x,y,z;
x.input();
y.input();
z=x+y;
z.show();
return 0;
}
Output
Enter two numbers: 5 8
Enter two numbers: 1 4
A=6 B=12

Explain about overloading assignment operator with an example.

Data members of one object are initialized with some values, and same values are assigned to
another object with assignment operator. Assignment operators can be overloaded in two
ways. They are:
1. Implicit overloading
2. Explicit overloading

Implicit overloading:
# include <iostream.h>
class num
{
private:
int x;
public:
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 num(int a)
{
x=a;
}
void show()
{
cout<<x<<" ";
}
};
int main()
{
num n1(2), n2(3);
cout<<"\nBefore assignment:";
cout<<"\n A=";
a1.show();
cout<<"\n B=";
a2.show();
a2=a1; //Implicit assigment
cout<<"\nAfter assignment:";
cout<<"\n A=";
a1.show();
cout<<"\n B=";
a2.show();
}
Output
Before assignment:
A = 2 B=3
After assignment:
A = 2 B=2

Explicit overloading:
# include <iostream.h>
class num
{
private:
int x;
public:
num(int a)
{
x=a;
}
void show()
{
cout<<X<<" ";
}
void operator =(num b)
{
x=b.x;
}
};
int main()
{
num a1(2), a2(3);
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 num n1(2), n2(3);
cout<<"\nBefore assignment:";
cout<<"\n A=";
a1.show();
cout<<"\n B=";
a2.show();
a1.operator=(a2); //Explicit assigment
cout<<"\nAfter assignment:";
cout<<"\n A=";
a1.show();
cout<<"\n B=";
a2.show();
return 0;
}

Output
Before assignment:
A = 2 B=3
After assignment:
A = 3 B=3

Explain about rules for overloading operators.

1. Operator overloading can’t change the basic idea.
2. Operator overloading never changes its natural meaning. An overloaded operator “+”
can be used for subtraction of two objects, but this type of code decreased the utility
of the program.
3. Only existing operators can be overloaded.
4. The following operators can’t be overloaded with class member functions
Operator Description
. Member operator
.* Pointer to member operator
:: Scope resolution operator
sizeof() Size of operator
# and ## Preprocessor symbols

5. The following operators can’t be overloaded using friend functions.

Operator Description
() Function call operator
= Assignment operator
[] Subscripting operator
−> Class member access operator

6. In case of unary operators normal member function requires no parameters and friend
function requires one argument.
7. In case of binary operators normal member function requires one argument and friend
function requires two arguments.
8. Operator overloading is applicable only within in the scope.
9. There is no limit for the number of overloading for any operation.
10. Overloaded operators have the same syntax as the original operator.

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What is inheritance? What are the advantages and disadvantages of inheritance?
(OR)
Explain about reusability.
Inheritance is the most important and useful feature of OOP. Reusability can achieved
with the help of inheritance. The mechanism of deriving new class from an old class is called
as inheritance. The old class is known as parent class or base class. The new one is called as
child class or derived class. In addition to that properties new features can also be added.

Advantages:
 Code can be reused.
 The derived class can also extend the properties of base class to generate more
dominant objects.
 The same base class is used for more derived classes.
 When a class is derived from more than one class, the derived classes have similar
properties to those of base classes.

Disadvantages:
 Complicated.
 Invoking member functions creates overhead to the compiler.
 In class hierarchy, various data elements remains unused, and the memory allocated to
them is not utilized.

What are access specifiers? How class are inherited?

C++ provides three different access specifiers. They are:
1. Public
2. private and
3. protected.

 The public data members can be accessed directly outside of the class with the object.
 The private members are accessed by the public member functions of the class.
 The protected members are same as private but only the difference is protected members
are inherited while private members are not inherited.

A new class can be derived from the old one is as follows:

class name_of_the_derived_class : access_specifier name_of_the_base_class
{
……
Members of the derived class
......
};

Example:
class A : public B
{
.............
.............
};

class A : private B
{
.............
.............

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};
class A : protected B
{
.............
.............
};

Note: If no access specifier is specified then by default it will takes as private.

Public derivation:
In public derivation, all the public members of base class become public members of the
derived class and protected members of the base class becomes protected members to the
derived class. Private members of the base class will not be inherited.

Example:
# include <iostream.h>
class Base
{
public: int x;
};
class Derived : public Base
{
public: int y;
};
int main()
{
Derived d;
d.x=10;
d.y=20;
cout<<"\n Member x="<<b.x;
cout<<"\n Member y="<<b.y;
return 0;

Output:
Member x=10
Member y=20

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Private derivation
In private derivation, all the public and protected members of the base class become
private members of the derived class and private members of the base class will not be
inherited.
Example:
# include <iostream.h>
class Base
{
public: int x;
};

class Derived : private Base

{
int y;
public:
Derived( )
{
x=10;
y=20;
}
void show()
{
cout<<"\n Member x="<<x;
cout<<"\n member y="<<y;
}
};
int main()
{
Derived d;
d.show():
return 0;
}

Output:
Member x=10
Member y=20

Protected derivation
In protected derivation, all the public and protected members of the base class become
protected members of the derived class and private members of the base class will not be
inherited.

Example:
# include <iostream.h>
class Base
{
public: int x;
};

class Derived : protected Base

{
int y;
public:
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 Derived( )
{
x=10;
y=20;
}
void show( )
{
cout<<"\n Member x="<<x;
cout<<"\n member y="<<y;
}
};

int main()
{
Derived d;
d.show();
}

Output:
Member x=10
Member y=20

Explain about protected data with private members with an example.

The protected type is similar to private, but it allows the derived class to access the members
of the protected.

Example
# include <iostream.h>
class Base
{
protected: int x;
};

class Derived : private Base

{
int y;
public:
Derived( )
{
x=10;
y=20;
}
void show()
{
cout<<"\n Member x="<<x;
cout<<"\n Member y="<<y;
}
};
int main()
{
Derived d;
d.show();
}
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Output:
Member x=10
Member y=20

Define inheritance. Explain about various types of inheritance with examples.

Deriving a new class from an existing one is called as inheritance.
Types:
1. Single Inheritance
2. Multiple Inheritance
3. Hierarchical Inheritance
4. Multilevel Inheritance
5. Hybrid Inheritance
6. Multipath Inheritance

Single Inheritance:
In this type of inheritance one derived class inherits from only one base class. It is the
simplest form of Inheritance..

Here A is the base class and B is the derived class.

Example:
#include<iostream.h> cin>>bp;
#include<conio.h> cout<<"Enter House Rent
class Emp Allowance: ";
{ cin>>hra;
public: cout<<"Enter Dearness
int eno; Allowance :";
char ename[20],desig[20]; cin>>da;
void input() cout<<"Enter Provident Fund:";
{ cin>>pf;
cout<<"Enter employee no:"; }
cin>>eno; void calculate()
cout<<"Enter employee name:"; {
cin>>ename; np=bp+hra+da-pf;
cout<<"Enter designation:"; }
cin>>desig; void display()
} {
}; cout<<"\nEmp no: "<<eno
cout<<"\nEmp name: "<<ename;
class Salary: public Emp cout<<"\nDesignation: "<<design;
{ cout<<"\nBasic pay:"<<bp;
float bp, hra, da, pf, np; cout<<"\nHRA:"<<hra;
public: cout<<"\nDA:"<<da;
void input1() cout<<"\nPF:"<<pf;
{ cout<<"\nNet pay:"<<np;
cout<<"Enter Basic pay:"; }
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};
Output:
int main() Enter employee number: 1001
{ Enter employee name: Vijayanand
clrscr(); Enter designation: Manager
Salary s; Enter basic pay:25000
s.input(); Enter House Rent Allowance:2500
s.input1(); Enter Dearness Allowance :5000
s.calculate(); Enter Provident Fund:1200
s.show();
getch(); Emp no: 1001
return 0; Emp name: Vijayanand
} Designation: Manager
Basic pay:25000
HRA:2500
DA:5000
PF:1200
Net pay: 31300
Multiple Inheritance:
In this type of inheritance a class may derive from two or more base classes.
(or)
When a class is derived from more than one base class, is called as multiple inheritance.

Fig. Multiple Inheritance

Where class A and B are Base classes and C is derived class.
Example:
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class Student
{
protected:
int rno,m1,m2;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<"Enter the Roll no :";
cin>>rno;
cout<<"Enter the two subject marks :";
cin>>m1>>m2;
}
};

class Sports
{
protected:
int sm; // sm = Sports mark
public:
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 void getsm()
{
cout<<"\nEnter the sports mark :";
cin>>sm;
}
};
class Report : public student, public sports
{
int tot, avg;
public:
void show()
{
tot=(m1+m2+sm);
avg=tot/3;
cout<<"\nRoll No : "<<rno<<"\nTotal : "<<tot;
cout<<"\n\tAverage : "<<avg;
}
};

int main()
{
clrscr();
Report r;
r.input();
r.getsm();
r.show();
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter the roll no: 10
Enter the two marks : 70 90
Enter the sports mark: 60
Roll no : 10
Total : 110
Average: 73

Hierarchical Inheritance
In this type of inheritance, multiple classes are derived from a single base class.

Fig. Hierachical Inheritance

Where class A is the base class and B, C and D are derived classes.
Example:
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
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class Vehicle
{
public:
Vehicle()
{
cout<<"\nIt is motor vehicle";
}
};
class TwoWheelers : public Vehicle
{
public:
TwoWheelers()
{
cout<<"\nIt has two wheels";
}
void speed()
{
cout<<"\nSpeed: 80 kmph";
}
};
class ThreeWheelers : public Vehicle
{
public:
ThreeWheelers()
{
cout<<"\nIt has three wheels";
}
void speed()
{
cout<<"\nSpeed: 60 kmph";
}
};
class FourWheelers : public Vehicle
{
public:
FourWheelers()
{
cout<<"\nIt has four wheels";
}
void speed()
{
cout<<"\nSpeed: 120 kmph";
}
};

int main( )
{
clrscr();
TwoWheelers two;
two.speed();
cout<<"\n-- -";
ThreeWheelers three;
three.speed();
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 cout<<"\n-- -";
FourWheelers four;
four.speed();
getch();
return 0;
}

Output
It is motor vehicle
It has two wheels
Speed: 80 kmph";
-
It is motor vehicle
It has three wheels
Speed: 60 kmph";
-
It is motor vehicle
It has four wheels
Speed: 120 kmph";

Multilevel Inheritance
In this type of inheritance, the derived class inherits from a class, which in turn inherits from
some other class.

Where class A is the base class, C is

derived class and B acted as base class as
well as derived class.

Example:
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
class Car
{
public:
Car()
{
cout<<"\nVehicle type: Car";
}
};
class Maruti : public Car
{
public:
Maruti()
{
cout<<"\nComnay: Maruti"; }
}
void speed()
{

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 cout<<"\nSpeed: 90 kmph";
}
};
class Maruti800 : public Maruti
{
public Maruti800()
{
cout<<"\nModel: Maruti 800");
}
void speed()
{
cout<<"\nSpeed: 120 kmph";
}
};
int main( )
{
clrscr();
Maruti800 m;
m.speed();
getch();
}

Output:
Vehicle type: Car
Company: Maruti
Model: Maruti 800
Speed: 120K mph

Hybrid (Virtual) Inheritance

Hybrid Inheritance is combination of one or more types of inheritance.

Where class A to class B forms single

inheritance, and class B,C to class D form
Multiple inheritance.

Example: {
#include<iostream.h> protedted:
#include<conio.h> float height,weight;
class Player };
{ class Location
protected: {
char name[20]; protected:
char gender; char city[15];
int age; long int pin;
}; };
class Game : public Physique, public
class Physique : public Player Location

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{ cout<<"\nPincode: "<<pin;
char game[15]; cout<<"\nGame: "<<game;
public: }
void input() };
{ int main( )
cout<<"\nEnter Player {
Information"; clrscr();
cout<<"Name: "; Game g;
cin>>name; g.input();
cout<<"Genger: "; g.show();
cin>>gender; return 0;
cout<<"Age: "; }
cin>>age;
cout<<"Height and Weight: "; Output
cin>>heigh>>weight; Enter Player Information
cout<<"City: "; Name: Azar
cin>>city; Genger: M
cout<<"Pincode: "; Age: 38
cin>>pin; Height and Weight: 5.8 70
cout<<"Game played: "; City: Hyderabad
cin>>game; Pincode: 522183
Game played: Cricket
}
void input() Player Information
{ Name: Azar
cout<<"\nPlayer Information"; Genger: M
cout<<"\nName: "<<name; Age: 38
cout<<"\nGenger: "<<gender; Height and Weight: 5.8 70
cout<<"\nAge: "<<age; City: Hyderabad
cout<<"\nHeight<<height; Pincode: 522183
cout<<"\nWeight: "<<weight; Game played: Cricket
cout<<"\nCity: "<<city;

Multi-path Inheritance
In this, one class is derived from two base classes and in turn these two classes are derived
from a single base class in known as Multi-path Inheritance.

Example
class A
{
//class A definition
};
class B: public A
{
//class B definition
};
class C: public A
{
//class C definition
};
class D :public B, public C
{
//class D definition
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};

Explain about virtual base classes with an example.

(OR)
How can you overcome the ambiguity occurring due to multipath inheritance? Explain
with an example.
To overcome the ambiguity due to multipath inheritance the keyword virtual is used. When
classes
are derived as virtual, the compiler takes essential caution to avoid the duplication of
members.

Uses:
When two or more classes are derived from a common base class, we can prevent multiple
copies of
the base class in the derived classes are done by using virtual keyword. This can be achieved
by
preceding the keyword “virtual” to the base class.

Example
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>

class A
{
protected:
int a1;
};
class B: public virtual A
{
protected:
int a2;

};
class C: public virtual A
{
protected:
int a3;

};
class D :public B, public C
{
int a4;
public:
void input()
{
cout<<”Enter a1,a2,a3 and a4 values:”;
cin>> a1>>a2>>a3>>a4;
}
void show()
{
cout<<”a1=”<<a1<<”\na2=”<<a2;
cout<<”\na3=”<<a3<<”\na4=”<<a4;
}
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};
int main()
{
D d;
d.input();
d.show();
return 0;
}

Output
Enter a1, a2, a3 and a4 values: 10 20 30 40
a1=10
a2=20
a3=30
a4=40

How constructors and destructors are executed in inherited class? Explain with an
example.
The constructors are used to initialize the member variables and the destructors are
used to destroy the object. The compiler automatically invokes the constructor and
destructors.

Rules:
 The derived class does not require a constructor if the base class contains default
constructor.
 If the base class is having a parameterized constructor, then it is necessary to declare a
constructor in derived class also. The derived class constructor passes arguments to
the base class constructor.

Example:
#include<iostream.h>
class A
{
public:
A()
{
cout<<"\n Class A constructor called";
}
~A()
{
cout<<"\nClass A destructor called";
}
};

class B : public A
{
public:
B()
{
cout<<"\n Class B constructor called";

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 }
~B()
{
cout<<"\nClass B destructor called";
}
};

class C : public B
{
public:
C()
{
cout<<"\n Class C constructor called";
}
~C()
{
cout<<"\nClass C destructor called";
}
};

int main()
{
C c;
return 0;
}

Output
Class A constructor called
Class B constructor called
Class C constructor called
Class C destructor called
Class B destructor called
Class A destructor called

How can you pass an object as a class member? Explain.

(OR)
Explain about delegation with an example.
(OR)
Explain about container classes with an example.
Declaring the object as a class data member in another class is known as delegat ion. When a
class has an object of another class as its member, such a class is known as a container class.
This kind of relationship is known as has-a-relationship or containership.

Example
# include <iostream.h>
class A
{
public:
int x;
A()
{
x=20;
cout<<"\n In A constructor";
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 }
};

class B
{
public:
int y;
A a;
B()
{
y=30;
cout<<"\n In B constructor";
}
void show()
{
cout<<"\n X="<<a.x<<"\t Y="<<y;
}
};
int main()
{
B b;
b.show();
return 0;
}

Output
In A constructor
In B constructor
X=20 Y=30

Define abstract class. What is the use of abstract classes? Explain.

An abstract class is a class not used for creating objects. It is designed only to act as a base
class. These classes are similar to a skeleton on which new classes are designed. These
classes contain pure virtual functions.
Example
#include <iostream.h>
class Shape
{
protected:
int width;
int height;
public:
virtual int getArea() = 0;
void setWidth(int w)
{
width = w;
}
void setHeight(int h)
{
height = h;
}
};

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class Rectangle: public Shape
{
public:
int getArea()
{
return (width * height);
}
};
class Triangle: public Shape
{
public:
int getArea()
{
return (width * height)/2;
}
};

void main()
{
Rectangle r;
Triangle t;
r.setWidth(5);
r.setHeight(7);
cout << "\nRectangle area: " << r.getArea() << endl;
t.setWidth(5);
t.setHeight(7);
cout << "\nTriangle area: " << t.getArea() << endl;
return 0;
}

Output:
Rectangle area : 35
Triangle area : 17

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