Basic Electronics Engineering

Om Prakash Adhikari
Electrical Engineer
 Course Content
• Basic Circuit Concept

• Diodes

• Transistor

• Op-amp and Oscillators

• Communication System

• Digital Electronics

• Applications of Electronic System

Chapter 1:Basic Circuit Concept
• Electronic or electrical circuits are made up of various circuit
components like resistor,capacitor,diode etc.
• Circuit components can be classified into two types:
1.Active Components 2.Passive components
• Active Components: The electronics devices which have
amplifying property .They are capable of modifying the given
input ac signal with the help of another dc source of power
supply. Eg: Transistors,Op-amps.
• Passive Components:The electronics divices which absorbs or
dissipates energy in different form without having a
amplyifying property.Eg:Resistor,Cpacitor,Inductor
 Resistor and Resistance
• The property of the material by which it opposes the flow
of current through it is call resistance.It is denoted by “R”
and measured in terms of ohm(Ω).
• The object offering Resistance is known as Resistor
• Symbols:
 Resistor and Resistance
• If “v” value of voltage is applied across the
Resistor having a resistance of “R” such that
‘i’ amout of current is flowing across it, then
relation between R,v and i is given as: V =iR
• Differentt types of resistor availabe in the
markets are:variable resistor,variable resistor.
• Resistor are mainly used to control the
current in the circuits or to produce voltage
drop in different parts of the circuit.
 Color Code calculation of resistor

• Commercially available resistors are

provided with color bands which
represents the ohmic value of that
resistors.
• Based on the number of colors used in the
band they are classified as :4-band, 5-band,
6-band with number of colors used 4,5,6
respectively.
The standard resistor color code
BBROY of Great Britain has a Very
Good Wife
 Methodology
• 4 Band Resistor: if A,B,C&D are the respective weighages of the
colors present in the 1st ,2nd,3d&4th position of the band.The
resistive value of that resistor willl be:

(R=AB*10^C)+-D

• 5 Band Resistor: if A,B,C,D &E are the respective weighages of the

colors present in the 1st ,2nd,3rd,4th&5th position of the band. The
resistive value of the resistor will be:

R=(ABC*10^D) +- E

• 6 Band Resistor: if A,B,C,D,E&F are the respective weighages of the

colors present in the 1st,2nd,3rd.4th,5th&6th position of the band. The
resistive value of the resistor will be:

R=(ABC*10^D)+-E, with temp coefficient value of F

 Examples
1. Red,Violet,red,Gold
A=2,B=7,C=2,D=5%, R=(27*10^2)+-5%=2700Ω+-5%
2. Red,violet,red,
R=2700Ω
3. Green,Brown,Black,Red,Silver
R=(510_10^2)+-10% =51000Ω+-10%
4. (Blue,Grey,silver,Silver)
R=(68*10^-2)+-10%
5. Yellow,orange,blue,orange gold
R=436*10^3+-5%,R=436000Ω+-5%
 Inductor and Inductance
• The Property of the material which opposes
the rise and fall of the current through it is
called inductance. It is measured in
heneries(H)
• The object which have a property of the
inductance and used in a circuit to oppose
the rise and fall of the current is called
inductor.
• Symbol:
 Inductor and Inductance

• If v is the voltage across the inductor with

resulting current i throught It then:
• v = L*(di/dt)
• L=inductance,(di/dt)=Rate of Change of current
• Inductor is a simply a coil carrying a current
and hence it stores magnetic energy.
 Capacitor and Capacitance
• An electronic device which is used to store energy in the form of
charge is called capacitor.

• While storing charges it opposes the sudden rise and fall of the
voltage across it.

• Capacitor consist of two parallel plates with dielectric medium

between them.When a voltage v is applied between two plates it
stores a q amount of charge in the dielectric medium which is
directly proportional to v andgiven by:

• Q=cv,where c= constant=capacitance of the dielectric medium.

• Capacitance is simply a measure of how much charge can be

stored by a given dieectric medium.It is measured in terms of
Farad(F)
 Series and parallel circuits
• If two or more circuit components are
connected in such a way that same amount
of current flow through each of them then
they are said to be connected in series.
• If two or more circuit components are
connected in such a way that the same
voltage appears across each of them,then
they are said to be connected in series.
 Series connection of resistors
• Voltage is divide across resistor, also known as voltage
divider circuit.
• Total voltage(V) = V1 + V2 +V3

Or, IReq = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Or , Req=R1+R2+R3
Parallel connections of resistors
• Total current is divided across the
resistors, known as current divider circuit.
• Total current(i)= i1+i2+i3
Or,(v/req)=(v/R1)+(V/R2)+(V/
R3)
Or, (1/req)=(1/R1)+(1/R2)+(1/
R3)
 Series Connection of capacitor
• Same amount of charge will be stored across each.
• V = V1+V2

Or,(Q/Ceq)=(Q/C1)+ (Q/C2)
Or,( 1/Ceq)=( 1/C1)+(1/C2)
 Parallel Connection of Capacitors

• Total Charge(Q)= Q1+Q2

• Or, VCeq = VC1 + Vc2
or, Ceq = C1 +C2
 Krichhoff’s Law
• This law is required to solve the current or voltage in a complex
Circuit.

1. krichoff’s current or junction or 1st law (KCL):

• Algebraic sum of all the branch currents at a node is zero at all

instant of a time

• Simply incoming current is equal to outgoing current at a point.

Krichoff’s voltage or loop or
second law (KVL)
• Algebraic sum of the all the branch voltages around any
closed loop in the network is zero at all instant of time.
 Linearity??, Signal
• Signal: it means to convey of information. It may be electrical,
physical , optical etc.
• The different kinds of electrical signals are sinusoidal, exponential,
ramp etc.
• Mathematically they can be expressed as a function of one or more
independent variables
• Voltage as a function of time v(t) or current as a function of time i(t)
• These signals are obtained from various sources
• The sources which delivers energy in the form of voltage or current
are known as voltage and current sources respectively.
 Ideal voltage source
• The voltage source which maintains the constant terminal voltage
regardless of the value of the current through its terminal is known
as ideal voltage source.

• V-i characteristics of terminal is constant curve of voltage.

• Current drawn through the terminal depends upon the value of

resistor connected across it

• No limit of current that can be drawn i.e.. any value of current

determined by load.
 Practical Voltage source
• The voltage source which is unable to maintain a constant voltage
across its terminal voltage due to its internal resistance are known
as practical voltage source.
• There is a limit of current which can be drawn from the battery and
this limit is known as the current rating of the battery.
• It is represented by ideal voltage source in series with internal
resistance.

• Terminal voltage(vt)=v-ir , r is the internal resistance

• Vi characteristics suggest that’s as current increases the value of
terminal voltage decreases due to drop of voltage in internal
resistance.
 Ideal current source
• It delivers the constant current to the load, regardless of amount
voltage appearing across it.
• V-i characteristics is a constant current curve.

• Voltage across its terminal depends the load.

• No limit of voltage that appears across it i.e. It is determined by the
value of load
 Practical current source
• The current source which is unable to maintain a constant current
across its terminal due to appearance of the shunt resistance
across it terminal is known as practical current source.

• There is a limit in voltage across its terminal.

• It is represented by ideal current source with a shunt resistance in

parallel.

• Terminal current(i1)= i-(v/r), r is a shunt resistance

• V-I characteristics suggest that with the increase in voltage across

the current source actual current across its terminal will decrease
due to increase in leakage current in shunt resistor.
Dependent and independent
sources
• The voltage and current sources in an electronic circuit can be
classified as independent and dependent sources.

• The sources which doesnot dependent on any other quantity

(voltage or current) in the circuits are known as independent
sources

• The source whose output value depends upon the voltage or current
at some part of the circuit are known as the dependent sources.

• Types of dependent source: CCVS , VCVS , CCCS, VCCS.

Currentcontrolled voltage
source(ccvs)
• Representation:

• Input voltage vi is made zero such that output voltage depends on input
current.
• Output voltage (vo)= (rm)*(iin)
• Rm is known as transimpeadance.
Voltage controlled voltage
source(vcvs)
• Representation:

• Input current is made zero and output voltage is dependent on input

voltage.

• Output voltage (vo)= µvi, µ=(vo/vi)=gain or voltage gain of the circuit.

Current controlled current
source(cccs)
• Representation:

• Input voltage is made zero and output current us dependent in input

current.

• Output current (Io)=(Ii)*α, α=(Io/Ii)= current gain or gain.

Voltage controlled current
source(vccs)
• Representation:

• Input current is made zero and output current is dependent on

input voltage.
• Output current(io)=gm*vi
• Gm=(ii/vi)=transconductance
 Concept of gain, transconductance
and transimpeadance
• A system which follows the principal of superposition is known as
linear system.
• Consider a linear system with ii, vi, io,vo are input current, input voltage,
output current, output voltage respectively as shown in figure.

• Voltage gain (Av)=(vo/vi)

• Current gain(Ai)=(io/ii)
• Power gain(Ap)=(po/pin)=(vo*io)/(vi*ii)
• Transconductance : it is the ratio of change in output current to the
change in input voltage.Its unit is mho (1/Ω),denoted by gm and
given by:

gm=( Δio/Δvi)

• Transimpeadance : it is the ratio of change in output voltage to the

change in input current.Its unit is ohm(Ω), denotd by rm and given by:

rm=(Δvo/Δii)
Introduction to filters
• Filter is a circuit which passes some frequency components in the
circuit and rejects or attenuates all other frequency components.

• Based on the band or range of the frequency passed by the filter

circuit they can be classified into four different types:

• Low pass filter passes the low frequency signals starting from 0hz
to the cut off frequency and beyond this cut off frequency, it rejects
all other frequency components.

• Frequency response of the ideal low pass filter is shown in figure:

Frequency Response of a filter
• Graphical Relation Between magnitude of the transfer function of
the circuit and Frequency is known as Frequency response.

• Transfer function is the ratio of Output to the input in a s-domain or

frequency domain(we till now studying in time domain and s-
domain is another mathematical analytical tool)

• Transfer function can be denoted by H(s) or H(jw) and its

maginitude as |H(s)| or |H(jw)| or A and called as a gain.
 Filters
• High pass filter: it passes all the frequency components starting from
cut off frequency and rejects all the frequency which are less than the
cutoff frequency.
• The frequency response of the high high pass filter is shown in figure:

• Band pass filter: It passes the frequencies which is under certain band
and rejects all frequencies outside the band.
• Band reject filter : it rejects all frequency components which are under
certain band and passes all the frequency components which are
outside this band.
• Frequency response of ideal band pass filter is shown in figure:

• Frequency response of ideal band reject filter is shown in figure:

 Low pass filter
• Low pass filters can be classified into two types based the
components used.

• If passive components like inductor, capacitor, resistor are used

then passive filter and if active components like transistor are used
then they are called active filters.

• In a passive low pass filter the output always less than input while in
a active low pass filter we can have a gain in input signal due to
ampliyfing property.

• Examples of low pass filter are RC,TL,RLC low pass filter etc.
 RC low pass filter
• The design of the Rc low pass filter can be shown in figure:

• Input is provided from R end and output is taken across capacitor.

• Explanation:
Cutoff or -3db frequency
• Practical frequency response of almost all the low pass filter is shown along
with the RC filter circuit above.
• The frequency at which the output is 0.707 of the input (or maximum output)
is known as cutoff or(-3db) frequency as shown in figure.
• At lower frequency it provides zero attenuation and output remains same as
input(minimum attenuation) as in figure and at high frequency attenuation
increases and output decrease towards zero (maximum attenuation).
• Cutoff frequency lies between maximum and minimum attenuation at which
output is 0.707(1/√2) times of input or maximum output.
• Value of cutoff frequency can be derived: fc=(1/2∏RC)
 LC low pass Filter Circuit
• Two examples are shown below:

• Xc=(1/Jwc), Xl= JwL

• At low frequency, Xc→high & XL→Low
Capacitor acts as a open circuit and indcutor short circuit so its
passes the inputs at low frequency
• At high frequency, Xc→Low & XL→ high
Capacitor short circuit and inductor open circuit hence it blocks
input in this case.
• In this way circuit acts as a low pass filter circuit.
 RC high pass filter
• Made by connecting R and C in following fashion:

• Input is given from C side and output is taken cross R side.

• Capactive impeadance (xc)= (1/jwc)
• At low value of frequency xc→very high , and hence circuit blocks the
input having low frequency components
• At high frequency, xc→very low , and hence input having high frequency
components passes from the capacitor and output appears across the
resistor(R)
 Frequency Response
• The ideal and practical frequency response of almost all of the Ideal and practical
high pass filter is shown in figure.

• At low frequency , It rejects all the frequency components and attenuation full input
and output and gives zero output but with the increase in frequency attenuation
decreases and output increases and becomes equal to input.
• Between the minimum output(zero, low frequency) to maximum output(Input value,
high frequency) there will be a particular frequency known as cutoff or (-3db)
frequency at which output will be 0.707(1/√2) times of input.
• Value of cutoff frequency can be derived: fc=(1/2∏RC), determined by value of R & C.
 LC high pass filter
• This type of filter uses inductor and capacitor as a circuit components.

• Different types of LC high pass filters are shown in figure:

• Capacitive reactance (Xc)=1/(jwc) & inductive reactance XL=jwc

• At high frequency, w→high or infinity, Xc→low or zero and capacitor acts as

a opent ciruit ahile Xl→High or infinity and inductor acts as open circuit

hence output passes through capacitor and appears as an output.

• At low frequency, inductor will be short circuited and capacitor will be open

circuit such that input is cant appears as an output.

• This way this types of circuit acts as high pass filter circuit.
 Band pass filter
• It rejects the all the frequency components which are outside the
certain band of frequency.
• Ideal frequency response is shown in figure:

• This type of filter can be design simply by cascading a high pass

filter having cutoff frequency fc1 with low pass filter having a cutoff
frequency fc2 with (fc1<fc2) such that pass band of both overlaps to
give a new pass band of the combine circuit as shown in figure.
• There will be two cutoff frequencies fc1 & fc2 of the circuit.
• The frequency range of fc1-fc2 is known as the bandwidth of the filter.
 Circuit design and frequency
• Circuit design
response

• Frequency response
Band stop or notch or reject filter
• It passes all the frequency components except a certain band of the
frequency
• Its response is opposite to that of a band pass filter.
• Frequency response of ideal and practical band stop filter are shown in the
figure below:

• The frequency response suggest that the its frequency response is the
combination of two frequency response: on left hand side it is the frequency
response of low pass filter with cutoff frequency fc1 while that of right hand
side is frequency response of the high pass filter with cutoff frequency fc2.
 Band stop filter…….
• Hence this filter can be designed by adding the frequency response
of the two filter circuit.

• Uses of Filters:

1. in signal processing

2. Tv radio ,VCD , DVD

3. communication system to restore original signal

4. in music industry to make quality music by supresing noises

5. in image processing to extract quality image from bad image

 Chapter 2: Diode
• Semiconductor diode characteristics

• Modeling of semiconductor diode

• Diode circuits: clipper and clamper circuit

• Different types of diode

• DC regulated power supply

• Zener regulated power supply

 Semiconductor material properties
• These are the materials whose conductivity lies between the conductor and
insulator.
• Resistivity is greater than conductor and less than insulator in the range of
(10^-4 -0.5)Ωm.
• They have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance i.E. Resistance
decreases with increase in temperature.
• With addition of impurities, there will be significant change in charge carrier
concentration.
• Concentration of charge carrier is highly temperature sensitive i.E. Slight
increase in temperature highly increases carrier concentration to make
conductor and slight decrease in temperature highly decreases
concentration to make insulator
• They have four valance electron in their atoms. Eg: silicon, germanium,
carbon
 Electrons in an atom
• The conduction property or flow of electric current in a material is
mainly due to motion of electron.
• Electron with in an atom is always in motion and hence occupying a
certain amount of kinetic energy.
• The amount of kinetic energy occupying by a different electron is
different and no a fix value.
• They can occupy different level of energy value in an atom based on
energy supplied to the atom.
• And we state the electron by the level of energy occupied by the
electron not bye the fix energy value.
• The different ranges of energy which can be occupied by an electron
with in an atom are known as energy bands.
 Energy Bands
• Energy bands represent the energy occupied by the electros not their fix
positions.
• The energy occupied by the electrons present in the outer shell or
valance shell of an atom is known as valance band.
• The energy range which must be occupied by an electron in order to
conduct a current is known as conduction band.
• When a electric potential is applied across a material then the
electrostatic force is exerted to the valance electrons and if force is
sufficient enough to cause the electron move current will flow.
• During this motion work done by the electrostatic force on the electron
appears as a kinetic energy of the electron and it umps from valance
band to conduction band.
 Energy bands…
• The energy gap between valance band and conduction band is known as
forbidden gap.

• Forbidden gap determines the conducting property of the materials as it

determines the energy required for electrons to conduct.

• For a conductor forbidden gap is nearly zero i.e. valance band and
conduction band overlaps, for semiconductor in practical use forbidden
gap is around 1 to 2 ev and for insulator its very high(above ev).

• Figure shows the energy band representation of various materials:

 Hole Current
• While jumping electron from valance band to conduction band leaves with a
vacant space in its position known as a hole which doesn’t carry any charge
but tendency too carry another electron.
• It acts like a positive charge by attracting electron but actually it is not a
charge
• Process of fusion of hole and electron is know as recombination.

• In the figure when electron in valance band from l moves to conduction from
it creates a hole in valance band which is filled by electrons in m , which is
filled by electrone in s and this process goes on.
 Hole current…..

• This flow of hole in a valance band is known as a hole current.

• Total current is the sum of the current due to hole in valance band
and current due to electron in a conduction band.

• Bonding in a semiconductor: Four valance electrons of

semiconductor atom pairs with four valance electrons of another
semiconductor forming a covalent bond.
 Types of semiconductor
• Intrinsic semiconductors: The pure or natural semiconductor materials
are known as intrinsic semiconductors. Eg: Si, Ge , C etc.
• Extrinsic Semiconductors: semiconductors made by adding impurities
are known as extrinsic semiconductors. Process of adding impurities
is known as doping. They can be classified into two types:
• 1. P- type semiconductor: Intrinsic semiconductor is doped with the
trivalent impurities like boron, gallium, indium such that three electrons
of the semiconductor material paired with three electrons of impurity
material forming a three covalent bond while one electron is left out
with which can attract another electron to form a covalent bond. This
tendency of attracting electron to form a covalent bond act as vacant
electron or hole.
 P-type semiconductor
• There are large number of holes in this type of semiconductor for flow of
current.

• Sometimes due to breakage of covalent bond electrons jump in conduction

band creating holes in valance band adding more hole in valance band.

• In this type of semiconductor hole in valance band is majority charge carrier

and electron in conduction band is minority carrier.

• Impurity is acceptor of electron and intrinsic material is donor of electron.

 N-type semiconductor
• Intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a pentavalent impurites like arsenic,
antimony such that all four valance electrons of intrinsic semiconductor paired
with four valance electrons of pentavalent impurities to form a four covalent
bond while one electron of impurities becomes a surplus intrinsic
semiconductor have completed eight valance electron in its valance band.

• There are large number of electrons available for the flow of current.

• Sometimes due to breakage of covalent bond electrons jump in conduction

band creating holes in valance band adding more electrons in conduction
band.

• In this type of semiconductor holes in valance band is minority charge carrier

while free electrons which can jump into conduction band acts as a majority
charge carrier.
 N-type semiconductor

• The availability of two types of currents: electron and hole provides

the flexibility in the conductance of the semiconductors.

• Current in the conductors are only due to electrons

 Introduction to Diode
• Two terminal device which allows the flow of current only in one direction
• Symbol:

• one terminal is anode and another terminal is cathode.

• The direction of flow of current is only from anode to cathode.
• If the voltage applied between anode and cathode is positive then current will
flow from anode to cathode and if voltage applied is negative then there is no
flow of current.
 Diode: PN junction
• When P type semiconductor is suitably connected with n type semiconductor a
PN junction will be formed and the device is known as PN junction diode.

• When p and n type semiconductors are brought in contact, then electrons will
diffuse from n-region to p region and recombines with holes. In this process n
region loses electrons and p-region gains electrons and hence n-region is left with
immobile positive ions and p region with immobile negative ions near the junction.
• As more numbers of electrons move towards p-region more number of positive
and negative ions will be created in n-region and p-region respectively.
 Depletion Region
• With this formation of more ions in the junction there will be some potential
difference across the junction and electrons find more and more difficult to
cross the junction and eventually recombination process will stop.

• This number of positive and negative ions creates a junction as a carrier

depleted region known as a depletion region.

• The depletion region act as a barrier and charge are bounded in one region

• Here depletion name is due the fact that the positive and negative ions in
the region are depleted of negative and positive carriers respectively.
 Barrier potential
• The potential difference across the depletion region is known as barrier
potential or built in potential and denoted by (Vo).its value for silicon is 0.7v
and for germanium around 0.3v.
• Barrier potential sets up an electrical field (pointing from the positively
charged ions to negatively charged ions)which barriers the flow of majority
charge carrier(not minority).
• This built in potential supports the flow of minority carriers so the electrons in
the p type region and holes from n type region crosses the layer and
becomes majority carriers in n-type and p=type region respectively.
• Interesting fact is that under normal condition the current due to flow of
minority charge carriers and current due to majority charge carriers will cancel
out giving a zero net current.
 Biasing
• The process of applying the dc voltage to semiconductor diode (or any
semiconductor device) is known as biasing.

• Depending open the terminal of battery connected to the diode there are
two types of biasing

1.Forward biasing of PN junction diode:

• When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type

semiconductor(or anode) and negative terminal is connected to the n-type
semiconductor (or cathode) then diode is said to be forward biased.
 Forward biased PN junction diode
• Under forward biased condition electrons in n-side and holes in p-sides are
repelled towards depletion region by corresponding negative and positive
terminal of the battery or we can say that applied electric field is in the
opposite direction to the built in electric field. And holes and electrons
recombines in the depletion region and hence width of depletion region
decreases.
 Forward Biased PN junction Diode
• On further increasing applied voltage more number of electrons crosses the
barrier or depletion region and width of the region decreases more.
• Finally when the applied electric potential(or field) equals to barrier potential (or
field) the depletion region is completely swept out and the resistance offered to
flow of electrons( or current) by the device is almost negligible.
• For example for silicon crystal if applied external voltage is more than 0.7 volts,
the resistance offered by the depletion region will be almost negligible and
electrons can cross the depletion region.
• Once electrons cross the depletion region they will be attracted by the positive
terminal of the battery meanwhile hole will flow towards n-side and hence
attracted by the negative terminal of the battery. This complete process gives
the flow of current through the junction diode.
• .With increase in applied voltage we can increase the number of charge carriers
crossing the depletion region and hence increase in current..
 VI characteristics of forward biased
PN junction diode
• The graphical relationship between the applied voltage and current
through the diode under forward biased condition is known as
forward biased iv characteristics of diode or forward characteristics.
 Forward characteristics
• When applied voltage (v)=0, current through the diode is almost
zero.

• On further increase in voltage and at (v)=0.5, electrons start to

cross the depletion region giving certain small current known as cut
in voltage.

• On further increase in voltage current goes increasing and at (v)=0.7,

depletion region vanishes , resistance offered becomes zero and
there will be highly increase in current flow through device known as
knee voltage(as curve looks like knee) and denoted by Vk.
 Reverse biasing of PN junction
•
diode
When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side(cathode)
and negative terminal of the battery is connected to p-side(anode) of the PN
junction diode then diode is said to be reversed biased.

• Under reverse biased condition electrons in n-side and holes in p-sides are
attracted towards battery terminals by corresponding positive and negative
terminal of the battery or we can say that applied electric field is in the same
direction to the built in electric field. And holes and electrons move away from
the depletion region and hence width of depletion region increases.
• Diode acts as open circuit and doesn’t conduct current.
 Reverse biasing……..
• *reverse the polarity of VDD
 Reverse saturation current
• However the applied electric field repels the minority charge carrier in
both side of the junction such that there will be small amount of flow of
current through the diode and current is known as leakage current or
reverse current and this current attains its saturation level very fast as
there will be small amount of minority carries known as reverse
saturation current and denoted by Is.
• This reverse saturation current depends upon the temperature as
temperature increases thermally generated electron hole pairs in the
crystal will increases i.e. Number of minority charge carriers and hence
reverse saturation current increases.
• For silicon diode reverse saturation current almost gets double for
every 10°C rise in the temperature.
 VI characteristics or reverse
characteristics of diode
• The graphical relationship between applied voltage and the current
through diode under the reverse diode condition is known reverse
characteristics of the diode.
 Reverse characteristics
• Initially when small reverse voltage is applied the small reverse
current in the order of µA will flow due to minority charge carriers.

• With increase in reverse voltage reverse current will reach its

saturation level very soon and constant reverse saturation current
will flow through diode.

• If the reverse voltage is further increases then a point will arises at

which there will be sharp rise in current which remains constant for
higher value of reverse voltage also and this voltage is known as
reverse breakdown voltage and denoted by Vz. This effect is known
as breakdown effect.

• This special property having a constant current for rise in value of

 VI characteristics or characteristics
of diode
• There will be mainly there region in the diode characteristics:
forward region, reverse region and breakdown region.
 Avalanche breakdown effect
• Under reverse biased condition small reverse current flow from n-
side(or cathode) to p-side(or anode) due to minority charge carriers.
• With increase in voltage reverse current remains constant and after
breakdown voltage there will be sharp rise in current.
• This region of operation is known as breakdown region of operation
and effect is known as avalanche effect.
• With increase in reverse biased voltage width of depletion region
increases and hence more numbers of immobile ions will be present
in the region and electric field in this region will become more stronger.
 Avalanche breakdown effect
• With stronger electric field electrons in the vicinity of depletion region will
get accelerated with more kinetic energy.

• While accelerating they will collide with silicon atom and when applied
voltage becomes breakdown voltage they can knock out the bound or
valance electron from the silicon atom

• Now with this phenomena we have two free electrons from one free
electron and again four from two and so on.

• Due to this there will be large numbers of free electrons in the depletion
region and we will see sudden jump in current and effect is known as
avalanche effect and voltage is known as breakdown voltage.

• This effect is caused by the impact ionization i.e.. High energy particle
knocking out valance electrons.
 Zener Breakdown
• For a normal diode under breakdown region there will be high current or
high power dissipation by the diode in absence of resistor in series with
diode .For normal diode this region of operation should be avoided.

• There are some diodes which are mean to be used in this region of
operation and this diode is known as the zener diode. In this diode
breakdown mechanism is different and this method of breakdown is
known as zener diode.

• In this type of breakdown both p-side and n-side are heavily doped such
that there will be more number of free charge carriers in both region will
be very high.

• Due to heavy doping the width of depletion region will be very small
because as number of free charge carriers increases then they
recombine very nearer to the junction itself.Also they have more number
 Zener breakdown
• Due to more number of immobile ions built in electric field will be more
stronger and whenever external reverse voltage is applied then it will be
get added to the built in electric field such that knocking out of silicon
atom will be take place at lesser voltage than that in normal diode
under reverse biased condition.
• The voltage at which zener breakdown occurs is known as zener
breakdown voltage which is less that avalanche breakdown voltage.
• If we increase the applies voltage then the voltage across the zener
diode will remains constant and only current will increases and this
property is used in the voltage regulation application
 Temperature effect on VI
characteristics of diode
• With increase in temperature forward knee voltage decreases
meanwhile reverse saturation current will increases and vice versa

• For 1°C rise in temperature knee voltage decreases by 2mV and for
every 10°C rise in temperature saturation currents doubles.
Current through the diode
Current through diode
 Modeling of the diode
• Definition: the process of representing the semiconductor diode (or any
devices) by the basic circuit components like resistor, capacitor, inductor
along with the current and voltages sources without changing the original
functional behavior of the diode ( or any other devices).
• Objective: to obtain linear characteristics from the non linear characteristics
of the device such that we can apply the basic circuit theories to find the
parameters which makes the calculation more simple.
• Model: representation of the device with its equivalent element is model of
the diode.
• DC signals which are generally used in electronics circuit are in the order of
voltage and known as large signals while AC signals are in the order of mV
are known as small signals
 DC or large signal model od diode
• DC signal is used in the device for this model.

1. Ideal diode and model: ideal diode will act as short circuit and
open circuit under forward biased and reverse biased condition
respectively. voltage drop across the diode is assumed to be zero.

• forward biased:
 Ideal diode…..
• Reverse biased:

• Vi characteristics:
 2.Constant voltage drop model
• In this model diode is assumed to be have a constant voltage drop
of 0.7v while its resistance is assumed to be zero.

• VI characteristics:
 3.Piecewise linear model
• In this model actual exponential characteristics curve of diode is
approximated by the two pieces of straight line segments and
resulting model obtained is called piecewise linear model.

• Diode is replaced by an ideal diode with its constant voltage drop

0.7v and internal resistance rd.This model is also known as battery
plus resistance model.

• Model:
 Piecewise linear model
• IV characteristics:

• In the model ideal diode confirms only unidirectional flow of current,

prensnce of battery confirms applied voltage must be greater than
barrier potential (0.7V) for the flow of current through the diode and rd
s actual internal resistance of the diode.
 AC or small signal model of the
diode
• Signals with amplitude around 10mv or less are known as small
signals.
• Circuit for the analysis of small signal through the diode can be shown
below:

• A small signal source vd having a triangular waveform is

superimposed on the dc voltage source VD.
• Use of VD in small signal analysis is to make diode forward bias.
 Small signal model
• Then total voltage applied to the diode:
• vD=vd+VD
• Then total current is sum of the current due to dc voltage source(ID)
and ac voltage source(id)
• iD=ID+id
• Assuming a silicon diode if we apply a forward DC voltage of 0.7 v
diode will be forward biased and small current of 1mA will follow
through diode due to DC source.
• These values are typical values for silicon diode even in the absence of
small signal source
 Small signal model
• The graph for small signal superimposed on a typical voltage value
and current value is shown in figure.
 Small signal model
• In figure DC corresponding point is known as Q point and voltage
signal vd(t) and current signal id(t) swings arround the Q point as in
figure.

• From diode current equation:

 Small signal model

This value of resistance gives the dynamic or ac resistance value of the diode:
DC or static resistance value of the diode will be (RD)= (VD/ID)
 Diode load line
• Consider a circuit containing load resistance RL in series with the diode.

• Then applying KVL in above circuit:

• VDD= iRL + v

• i= - (v/RL)+(VDD/RL), which is in the form of y=mx+c, where slope of line i-v line
is negative with magnitude(⅟RL).

• When i=0 then v=VDD & when v=0, i=(VDD/RL)

 Diode Load Line
• Then graphical relationship between voltage v and current i through the
diode will be straight line having a negative slope of (⅟RL) with its two
extreme ends(0,VDD/RL) and (VDD,0).

• For a particular diode v and applied voltage VDD will be constant and
hence current(i) varies with the value of load resistance RL and straight
line is known as load line or diode load line.
 Diode Load Line
• The point of intersection of the load line and forward characteristics of
diode is known as operating point or Q-point or quiescent point.
• Diode starts working beyond this point as below this diode wont be in
on state(v<0.7v)

Special Purpose Diodes

• Normal diode cant be used in all kind of application so normal diode is
modified to get special purpose known as special purpose diodes.
example: LED ,Photo diode, Zener diode, Tunnel Diode, Varactor diode
etc.
 Light Emitting Diode(LED)
• A special purpose semiconductor diode which under forward biased
condition emits a light is known as LED.
• Symbol:

• Working :when a normal diode is forward biased then there will be flow of
current through the diode during which large number of electrons and holes
get recombines within the diode.During recombination process electrons
jumps back from conduction band to valance band by radiating energy in
the form of heat and frequency of light so produced will be in invisible
region.
• In case of LED , radiated energy in the form of heat and frequency of light
so produced will be in visible region.
 LED

• The energy radiated is slightly less than band gap energy(Eg) between
conduction and valance band and frequency of light energy radiated
(Eg/h) will be determined by this band gap energy.
• The band gap energy required to get frequency of radiated light in
visible reason is 1.8 ev and value of Eg for silicon and germanium is
less than 1.8ev so we cant obtain light from normal diodes .
 LED
• LEDs are made from gallium, arsenide and phosphorous etc.

• Forward characteristics of the diode will be similar nature to normal

diode with knee voltage determined by the color of LED.

• Intensity of radiated light depends upon the value of current

through the diode.
 Applications and advantages of
LEDs
Applications:
• Smart phone displays as well as in the camera flash lights.
• In LED tvs.
• Lighting in the houses and offices.

• Used in street lighting and traffic signal.

Advantages
• They are more energy efficient then the conventional bulbs.
• Lifespan is longer then the others.
• They are smaller in size.
• Brightness of LEDs can be easily controlled.
 Photo Diode
• Semiconductor device which converts the incident light into the electric
current.
• Symbol:

• Construction is similar to normal diode but the light receiving area is kept
transparent.
• They are used in the reverse biased condition.
• Whenever a lights having a sufficient energy falls on depletion region of the
diode they can knock out the electrons from atom such that number of
electron and hole pairs will formed.
 Photo Diode
• Out of total free charge carrier generated, some of the them( electrons
& holes) get recombine while remaining can contribute in the flow of
current.
• Due to built in electric field the electrons in the depletion region is
attracted by the positive terminal(n-side) and holes will attracted
towards the negative terminal (or p-side) which means they can cross
the depletion region by the means of build in electric field.
• Whenever external reverse voltage is applied then this force off
attraction can attract the electron and holes towards the positive and
negative terminal of the battery such that current will flow in the circuit
and which can be detected by connecting ammeter in series with diode.
 Photo diode

• Total current is the sum of the reverse saturation current and the current
due to light (photo current).

• Magnitude of photo current increases with the intensity of light. If no

light is falling the only current available is reverse current and in
photodiode terminology it is known as dark current.
 Photo diode
• Relation between total reverse current vs intensity of light:

• Relation between total reverse current and external reverse voltage:

 Applications of photo diode
• They are used in many medical and
scientific instruments.
• They are used in optical communication
system.
• They are used in remotely control system
of ACs and TVs
 Varactor diode
• The special purpose diode which design to exhibit the variable
capacitance under the reverse biased condition.

• Varactor means variable reactor while sometimes it is also known as

varicap or variable capacitor.

• Symbol:

• Whenever diode is in revere biased condition width of the depletion

region increases and the positive and negative ions on the either side of
the depletion region forms a parallel plate capacitor.

.
 Varactor diode
• The capacitance of this diode can be given as:

• C=εA/Wd

• Where, ε= permittivity of semiconductor material, A cross section area of

the diode ,Wd= width of the depletion region.

• It clearly suggests that the capacitance is the function of the width of the

depletion region for a given diode which in turn is a function of the applied

reverse voltage.

• C=F(Vr)

• Hence the capacitance of the diode is function of the applied reverse

voltage.
 Vractor diode
• In normal diode the variation in capacitance isn’t so appreciable so
varactor diode having following characteristics are used in practical
application.
 Tunnel Diode
• A special purpose heavily doped p-n junction diode in which the current
decreases with increase in applied forward voltage.
• Symbol:

• This diode works on the quantum mechanics principle of “Tunneling” which

means in electronics is simply a direct flow of electrons across the narrow
depletion region from conduction band of n-side to valance band of p-side
of pn junction diode.
• When pn junction diode is heavily doped then the depletion region will be very
narrower with very strong built in electric field across the junction.
• With very small applied forward voltage electrons can cross the depletion
region due to tunneling phenomena.
 Tunneling Phenomena
• In a pn junction diode the energy levels of conduction band and valance
band in a n type semiconductor is slightly less than the conduction and
valance band in a p-type semiconductor due to the different in energy levels
of impurities atoms forming the semiconductor.

• Due to this property conduction band of n-type semiconductor overlaps with

the valance band of p-type semiconductor.
• In such case of diode principle of quantum mechanics says that electrons
directly penetrates from the narrow depletion region.
• Here is electrons directly cross the depletion region by tunneling phenomena
giving a flow of current.
 Working of a tunnel diode
1. Under unbiased condition with slight increase in temperature electrons
from n-side and holes from p-side tunnels through depletion region giving
equal and opposite current such that no net current is zero.
2. When small forward voltage is applied the electrons in side sides are
sufficient to tunnel from n-side to p-side giving a small amount of current
but the forward voltage is less than barrier electric current. So this current
is only due to tunneling phenomena.
3. With slight increase in applied voltage conduction band of n-side and
valance band of p-type gets more overlapped (or exact equal)so large
number of electrons crosses the region giving a large current.
4. With more increase in applied the conduction band of n-side and valance
band of p-side misalign and hence tunnel current will decreases.
 Working of tunnel diode
5. If the applied voltage is large increase then the energy gap between the
conduction band of n-side and valance band of p-side highly increases
and tunnel current becomes zero however the applied voltage is
greater than the barrier voltage such that forward current will follow
through the diode.

6. Tunnel diode is doped 100 times normal diodes.

 Advantages and Applications of
tunnel diodes
• The portion of the curve in which current decreases with increase in current is known
as negative resistance region of the curve which is
typical characteristics of the diode.

• Advantages
1. Long life
2. High speed operation
3. Low noise
4. Low power consumption

• Applications
• They are used in FM receivers, fast switching application, relaxation oscillators and as
a memory storage devices.