Grade 11

Classification of elements and periodicity in properties

Modern periodic law

The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of
their atomic numbers.
* the number of electrons and protons are equal in a neutral atom.
* the modern periodic table is known as Long Form of the periodic table.
It has seven horizontal rows known as periods and 18 columns known as
groups.
• IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements with atomic number above 100
• Electronic Configuration: the distribution of electrons in to orbitals of an
atom is called its electronic configuration.
• The period indicates the value of ‘n’ for the valence shell.
• Elements in the same group has similar chemical properties because they
have similar shell electronic configuration. i.e. same number of electrons
in the outer most shell.
The elements are classified as s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block depending
on the type of atomic orbitals that are being filled with electrons. Exception to
this categorisation-
a) helium belongs to s-block but placed in p-block along with group 18
elements because it has completely filled valence shell and shows the properties
of other noble gases.
b) hydrogen has only one s-electron hence can be placed in group 1. But it can
gain 1 electron to achieve noble gas configuration so can behave like group 17
elements.
As a result, hydrogen is placed separately at the top of the periodic table.
s-B lock elements: (Group 1 -alkali metals & Group 2 – alkaline earth metals)

• general outer electronic configuration: ns1-2

• they are reactive metals with low ionisation enthalpy
• due to high reactivity they are never found pure in nature
p-B lock elements: (Group 13 – 18)

• general outer electronic configuration: ns2 np1-6

• noble gases exhibit very low reactivity because of the completely filled
valence shell. It is very difficult to alter this stable arrangement by the
addition or removal of electrons
• group 17 (halogens) and group 16 (chalcogens) elements have high
negative electron gain enthalpy and hence add electrons to attain stable
noble gas configuration
(s-block and p-block elements are together known as representative elements)
d-Block elements: (transition elements)
• general outer electronic configuration is (n-1)d1-10 ns0-2
• they are known as d-block elements because they are characterised by the
filling of inner d orbitals by electrons
• d-block elements form a bridge between the chemically active metals of
s-block elements and the less active elements of group 13 and hence
known as transition elements
• zinc, cadmium and mercury have nd10 ns2 configuration and hence do not
show the properties of transition metals
• general properties of d-block elements
they are all metals
they mostly form coloured ions
they exhibit variable valency
they are paramagnetic substances
show catalytic property
f-b lock elements (inner-transition elements – lanthanoids and actinoids)

• general outer electronic configuration: (n-2)f1-14 (n-1)0-1 ns2

• the chemistry of actinoids are more complicated than corresponding
lanthanoids due to large number of oxidation states possible for actinoid
elements
• the elements after uranium are called as trans uranium elements
Metals, non-metals and metalloids (pg 82)
Trends in physical properties:
1. Atomic radius:
Covalent radius: it is the distance between two atoms when they are
bound together by a single bond in a covalent molecule.
 Metallic radius: it is taken as half the inter nuclear distance separating
metal core in the metallic crystal.
Atomic radius: it refers to both metallic and covalent radius depending on
whether the element is metal or a non-metal.
• The atomic size decreases across a period because
Within the period the outer electrons are in the same valence shell
and the effective nuclear charge increases resulting in the increased
attraction of electrons towards nucleus.
• The atomic size increases down the group because
The principal quantum number increases, and the valence electrons
are farther from the nucleus
The inner electrons shield the outer electrons from getting attracted
towards nucleus.
Ionic radius:
It is the distance between anion and cations in ionic crystals
• A cation is smaller than its parent atom because it has fewer electrons
while nuclear charge remains the same.
• The size of anion will be larger than the parent atom because the addition
of one or more electrons would result in an increased repulsion among the
electrons and the decrease in effective nuclear charge.
Ionisation enthalpy:
The energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom
in its ground state. Its unit is kJ/mol.
The energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an
atom is called first ionisation enthalpy and the energy required to remove the
second most loosely bound electron from an atom is called second ionisation
enthalpy.
Ionisation enthalpy is always positive because energy is always required
to remove electrons from an atom.
The second ionisation enthalpy is always higher than first ionisation
enthalpy because it is more difficult to remove an electron from a positively
charged ion than from a neutral atom.
Ionisation enthalpy is maximum for noble gases.
Ionisation enthalpy increases across a period because
 The successive electrons are added to the orbitals of the same principal
quantum level and the shielding effect of inner electrons does not increase.
Thus, across a period, increasing nuclear charge outweighs the shielding. As a
result the outer most electrons are held more tightly towards nucleus and the
ionisation enthalpy increases.
Ionisation enthalpy decreases down the group because
The principal quantum number increases, and the valence electrons are
farther from the nucleus. The inner electrons shield the outer electrons from
getting attracted towards nucleus. Hence increase in shielding outweighs the
increasing nuclear charge and as a result ionisation energy decreases.
• The first ionisation enthalpy of boron is slightly less than that of
beryllium-
In beryllium the electron removed is an s electron while in boron
it’s a p-electron. The penetration of 2s electron to the nucleus is
more than that of 2p electron and hence the 2p electron of boron is
more shielded from the nucleus by the inner core of electrons than
2s electron of beryllium.
• The ionisation enthalpy of oxygen is smaller than that of nitrogen -
In nitrogen the 2p orbitals are half filled and hence more stable
than oxygen in which two electrons of four 2p orbitals occupy
same orbital. This results in an increased electron- electron
repulsion in oxygen and hence it is easy to remove one electron
from oxygen than from nitrogen.
Electron gain enthalpy:
It is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to an
isolated gaseous atom.
For many elements energy is released when electron is added and so the
electron gain enthalpy is negative.
• Noble gases have large positive electron gain enthalpies -
they have very stable electronic configuration. Hence the electron
has to enter the next higher principal quantum level leading to a very
unstable electronic configuration.
• Electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative across a period –
The effective nuclear charge increases from left to right across a
period and consequently it will be easier to add an electron to a
smaller atom as the added electron is closer towards positive
nucleus.
 • The electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down the group-
The size of the atom increases, and the added electron would be
farther from the nucleus.
• Electron gain enthalpy of O & F is less negative than that of succeeding
element-
When an electron is added to O or F, the added electron goes to the
smaller n=2 quantum level and hence suffers significant electron-
electron repulsion from other electrons. But in S and Cl electrons
enter in to n=3 quantum level. So the added electron occupies a
larger region of space and the electron-electron repulsion is much
less.
Electronegativity:
It is the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract shared
electrons to itself. It is not a measurable quantity.
Fluorine is the most electronegative element and according to Pauling
scale the electronegativity value of fluorine is 4.
The electronegativity of an element depends on the element to which it is
bound and hence it is not a constant value.
It increases across a period and decreases down the group.
Oxidation state:
The charge acquired by the element on the basis electronegative
consideration from other elements in the molecule. (pg 89)
Anomalous properties of second period elements:
Among s and p block elements the properties of first member differs from
that of the rest of the elements because
• Small size
• Large charge/ radius ratio
• High electronegativity of the elements
• Absence of d orbitals
• Ability to form pπ – pπ multiple bonds
Periodic trends and electronegativity: (pg 91)