GENERAL

Pneumatic systems can be divided into two main areas:

Low Pressure (LP) Systems. These are typically medium to high volume, low
pressure systems that are used for engine starting, wing anti-ice, engine anti-ice,
cabin air conditioning, pressurisation and other aircraft systems.

High Pressure (HP) Systems. These tend to be lower volume, but higher pressure
to operate such systems as flaps, landing gear etc. HP .air systems several
disadvantages but are used on some smaller and older aircraft for the operation
of services, and even then their use is diminishing as hydraulic systems have a
better power/weight ratio and are generally easier to maintain.

Advantages of pneumatic systems:

* Some weight saving in that there is no return pipework required - as in

hydraulic systems.

* There is an abundant supply of the medium. Air is available (free) all the
time, so we don't need to carry a reservoir of fluid.

* Most components do not require lubrication.

* Odour free, air has no toxins in it - though it often becomes contaminated

with aircraft oils etc and smells.

Disadvantages of pneumatic systems:

* Leaks are difficult to trace.

* Not suitable for large components due to the rapid drop in pressure when
selection is made.

* Air carries moisture which condenses and posses a corrosion,

contamination and freezing threat to the internal workings of the
components and the pipework.

* High pressure air is "explosive" in nature. Should failure occur to any

container filled with high pressure air (or any gas for that matter) then it
will burst with explosive force. Hydraulic fluid in a container under
pressure will split the container if it fails but will not erupt, as fluid (up to
about 3,000 or 4,000psi) is more or less incompressible.
 * As the systems generally require high volumes of air to move the actuators,
the compressors and the pipework can be large - for low pressure systems
anyway. This leads to problems of location and weight.

Designers tend to favour hydraulics over pneumatics or electrics because or the

high power/weight ratio, but LP air systems will be with us for many years.

HIGH PRESSURE PNEUMATIC SUPPLIES

Not many aircraft these days have this type of system, although they will be
found in some aircraft.

Figure 1 shows a basic system.

Compressed air is generated from engine driven compressors, these can produce
up to 3,500psi (24.1MPa), but more commonly that figure is around l,500psi
(lO.SMPa) - with some systems working at 600psi (4.1MPa). The pressure relief
valves relieve excess pressure should the normal pressure regulators fail to
ensure that the system is not over-pressurised.

SAQ 1 Why is the pressure relief valve placed near the compressor?

The air passes through the Pressure Regulator (if this facility is not fitted directly
to the compressor) then to the Oil and Water drain (sometimes called an oil and
water trap). Oil is introduced during the lubrication of the compressor and water
is always present in air. Most of the oil and water is removed by the trap.

The air is usually passed through a filter, which may be placed further down
stream and repeated in front of any debris sensitive component. There may also
be fitted a dryer filled with silica gel that removes the remaining moisture from
the air. An anti freeze bottle may also be fitted.

SAQ 2 How do we know if the dryer is working or if the crystals have

become saturated?

There are a series of check valves (non-return valves) in the system and these
will prevent back feeding of air from one compressor to the other (also loss of
pressure from a bottle should a leak occur up-stream of the bottle).

The air now passes to a number of air storage bottles, again through a series of
check valves. The system shows a primary bottle (though not all systems have
them).
This provides for damping of the compressor output and storage for assistance in
major system operation eg, flaps or landing gear. (Similar to the accumulator in
the hydraulic system).

In the system shows all three bottles are the same and are interchangeable, but
their functions are different.

The brake bottle provides pressure to the wheel brakes, which cannot be used by
other systems due to the presence of the check valve. In an emergency, should
system pressure be lost then the brake pressure is available from this dedicated
bottle.
SAQ 3 Given the high pressures, what are the likely sizes of the pipelines
and what materials are they made from?

SAQ 4 What is the purpose of the ground charging point?

Looking at each component in turn.

Compressors

These are either single piston (two stage compression), or double piston (four
stage compression) operated.

They are usually engine driven though some may be electrically powered. The
two stage compressors produce pressures up to about 600psi whilst the four
stage compressors will give pressures up to 3500psi.

They are lubricated with oil from the engine oil system. Any failure indication is
sent to the flight deck.

The single cylinder double compression compressor first compresses the air in
the top side of the cylinder, then compresses it in the bottom side (the lower part
of the cylinder and piston arrangement being a smaller swept volume).

The four stage compressor has two pistons with each compression sequence
similar to the above - so the air is compressed four times.

Because the compression is adiabatic the air gets hot so cooling fins are fitted to
the compressors to help in heat dissipation.

Normal pressure control is by the use of a Pressure Regulator Valve (unless

pressure control is fitted within the compressor design).

The failure indication works by taking a reading of the pressure downstream of

the compressor. If this falls bellow a certain level, an earth is made and this
allows a lamp to be illuminated on the flight deck.

Pressure Relief Valve

The purpose of this valve is to relieve the pressure should failure occur in the
compressor control or Pressure Regulator Valve for whatever reason. Its
operation is simple (usually using a ball and spring). Figure 2 shows a pressure
relief valve.
The valve is held down on its seat by the spring. Pressure in the system tries to
de-seat the valve. Under normal pressure the spring is strong enough to hold the
valve on its seat. If the system pressure approaches the preset level (over-
pressure) this overcomes the spring force and the valve is de-seated, allowing
system pressure to be ported to atmosphere.

The spring force can be adjusted and in doing so the pressure at which the valve
de-seats can be altered within a certain range - any adjustment of which must
be carried out in a properly equipped maintenance bay.

Pressure Regulating Valve

This may be fitted close to the compressor or actually on the air bottle itself (if a
single bottle system). The whole idea is to off-load the compressor when normal
system pressure is reached. It works similar to an Automatic Cut-out Valve in a
hydraulic system.

When normal maximum system pressure is reached pressure acts on the

underside of the bellows which opens the outlet valve to port the air to
atmosphere, at the same time a check valve within the unit closes to prevent air
escaping from the system. The system pressure keeps the outlet valve open via
the bellows.

When system pressure falls to a preset value the outlet valve spring pushes the
outlet valve closed and compressor air then goes through the check valve and
normal charging continues.
SAQ 5 These valves are expensive compared to an ordinary Pressure Relief
Valve - and less reliable. So why not fit a Pressure Relief Valve
instead?

Oil and Water Trap

Figure 4 shows a simple Oil and Water Trap. The air conies in at the side and is
caused to impinge on the baffle plate. The heavier droplets of water and oil stick
to the plate and run down to collect at the bottom of the trap. The cleaner air is
directed out of the top of the unit into the system. The trap has to be drained
periodically as laid down in the maintenance schedule.
Not all of the airborne debris is removed by the trap so the 'clean' air is passed
through a filter (and sometimes also a dehydrator) to remove the remaining
particles of water and oil. These extra items require periodic cleaning/changing/
emptying.

Air Storage Bottles

Normally made from steel, with some wire wound on the outside, and then
sealed, before being painted (usually grey). This identifies it as an air bottle and
it will also have a tag with the date of manufacture, safe working pressure and
the date of the last hydrostatic test stamped on. Usually installed in the upright
position with the connection at the bottom. They sometimes have a stackpipe
standing up within the neck of the bottle preventing moisture from entering the
system that has collected in the bottle.

Periodically they will require draining and purging with dry compressed air.
Bottles stored off the aircraft should be done so in a vertical rack. At its lifed date
the bottle will have to be removed for hydrostatic and other tests.

Anti Freeze Bottle

Fitted down stream of the Oil & Water Trap and any dehydrators and filled with
antifreeze. This is picked up by the air as it passes through the bottle. It prevents
any moisture that might be in the air from freezing. It requires the maintenance""
task of topping up the anti-freeze at regular intervals.

Pressure Reducing Valve

Figure 5 shows a schematic drawing of a pressure reducing valve. This valve is

included in the system, as some units require lower pressures than normal
system pressure. Brakes require the highest pressure usually, with flaps and
gear retraction requiring lower values.

With reference to figure 5. It can be seen that there is a spring and bellows
mechanism. The spring balances the air pressure above it. The spring has an
adjuster screw and this is used to set the operating pressure of the valve.

When air supply commences the valve is below its operating value; the spring is
fully up and all the HP air passes through to the air out port. As the pressure
rises to just above the operating value the HP air on top of the bellows starts to
compress the spring; this in turn moves the valve inlet plunger to the left, via the
bell crank level. As this happens the inlet to the valve is choked and the pressure
felt at the outlet is reduced.
When air outlet pressure reaches maximum the valve shuts completely.

In real time, provided the maximum outlet pressure is not reached, the valve is
constantly moving in and out to keep the lower outlet pressure correct.

Check Valve

These may be designed with a ball and spring; a half ball and spring; a plate and
spring, or a flapper valve and spring. Figure 6 illustrates a flapper valve type and
a ball and spring type.
The spring is reasonably weak and as such requires little effort to overcome its
force providing the air is moving in the free-flow direction (in the same direction
as the arrow shown on the outer casing of the valve). If the airflow is reversed,
the spring will close the valve assisted by the reverse air-flow.

Pressure Indication

A bourdon tube type pressure gauge is fitted in the system for maintenance
purposes where-ever there is a need to monitor the pressure. If pressure
readings are required in the flight-deck then a pressure transducer is fitted in
the appropriate part of the system and a dc of ac supply is sent to a moving coil
or ratiometer type instrument.

Figure 1 does not show these transducer positions but they will be fitted where-
ever the designer feels there is a requirement, and they could be fitted at the
pressure gauge positions anyway.

Aircraft Services

The air supplies will be fed to aircraft services (eg, landing gear, flaps - trailing
edge and leading edge, windscreen wipers etc) via selector valves. These are
similar in principle to the manually operated valves fitted to hydraulic systems,
the main difference is that there are no return lines from the valves - returning _
air being ported to outside the valve. Pipeline connections to each valve are:
1 - pressure, 2 - to one side of the actuator (jack), 3 - to the other side of the
actuator. If the actuator is returned by the action of a spring then there are only
two pipeline connections to the selector valve - pressure and exhaust.

The HP system can be used to supply air to a variety of systems to include:

* Brake systems.
* Flap systems.
* Gear retraction systems.

Aircraft with HP pneumatic systems tend to be older and often use a cabin
blower for air conditioning.

Let's first of all take a look at actuators (sometimes called jacks). These fall into
one of two main types, single or double acting.

SAQ 6 Consider why they are called this and, therefore, briefly explain the
difference.
Single Acting Actuator

Figure 7 shows a single acting actuator. Pneumatic pressure is applied from the
selector valve to one side of the piston. This overcomes the spring pressure and
moves the actuator (in this case in the extend direction). Removing the
pneumatic pressure via the selector valve allows the spring to return the actuator
to the retracted position.

Carbon impregnated rubber seals are used to prevent leaks around the ram and
piston. Single acting pistons are limited in their application but are used in
brake systems and sometime in gear retraction systems.

SAQ 7 Apply your understanding of flying controls and pneumatics together

to decide why we don't use single acting actuators on flap drive
systems?

Double (or dual) Acting Actuator

Figure 8 shows a double acting actuator; notice it is essentially similar to the

single acting one. The difference is that pneumatic pressure is used on either
side of the piston depending up selection.
The selector valve is similar to the two way hydraulic selector valve (at least in
principle), in that if one side of the jack is pressurized and the other is ported to
atmosphere it will move. The picture shows an inner damper piston which is not
always fitted. It prevents rapid movement and hence 'piston slap'.

A Basic Landing Gear System

Figure 9 shows a complete supply system similar to figure 1 except that it has
'attached to it' a simple jack system to operate a retractable landing gear.

The selector valve is shown in figure 10. Mechanical up and down locks will be
fitted (but not shown in the drawing).

An 'up' selection is received from the landing gear select lever in the flight deck.
This sends a 28vdc signal to the selector valve (via the closed contacts of the
uplock sequence switch). This supply energises the up solenoid (as shown). This
in turn moves the pilot valve and allows compressed air through to the right
hand chamber, which moves the control piston down, and through mechanical
linkage moves the left control piston up.
The right hand chamber allows the compressed air through to the up line and
this acts on the 'up' side of the main actuator. Also at the same time the left
chamber has allowed the 'down' side of the main actuator to port to atmosphere.
The gear moves, and is locked in the up position by other means (spring loaded
plunger lock for example). As this happens, the sequence switch on the uplock
actuator will open, removing the 28vdc from the selector solenoid. The pilot valve
now returns under spring pressure and through differential forces on the piston
surfaces the control pistons return to neutral.

If the solenoids were "removed" and control cables or push/pull rods connected
instead direct to the linkage, then the valve would be mechanically selected.

Braking System

On large aircraft it is standard to use hydraulic braking systems because of their

better power/weight ratios. However, lighter general aviation aircraft still use
pneumatic braking systems, not to mention the old 'dinosaur' aircraft that are
still with us today.

Pneumatic brake systems can be divided into two categories:

* Hand operated.
* Pedal operated.

Pedal Operated Systems. Figure 11 shows the location of the 'foot motors' and
figure 12 show a cut-away of a typical foot motor.
Tipping' the toe pedals forward operates the system. This has the effect of
moving down the brake control valves. As this happens the valve sleeve moves
into the motor body and closes off the exhaust valve. Pressing the pedals further
down allows the valve sleeve to push the valve stem up and starts to un-seat the
valve head. This allows some pressure through to the brakes. Pressing still
harder opens the valve head still further and increases the pressure to the
brakes. This provides for 'progressive braking'.

The harder the push on the toes the harder the brakes go on - exactly the same
as in a vehicle.
Hand Operated Systems. The heart of this system is a Dual Relay Valve (DRV).
This is fitted in the flight deck close to the rudder pedals. To apply the brake the
pilot will pull on a control cable (a Bowden control cable; a Teleflex system; or
even an ordinary control cable), by moving the input lever, which is usually
mounted on the control wheel. This puts equal pressure down to each brake (via
the DRV) and thus gives straight line braking.

If the pilot applies rudder in one direction at the same time as pulling the brake
lever the DRV will apply air pressure to one main landing gear whilst pressure to
the other side is reduced. This produces differential braking and allows the
aircraft to be steered (on many older aircraft this is the only way to steer the
aircraft).

Both systems have the ability through pawls and valves to hold the brakes on -
parking brake. So much for the pilot's side of things, what happens down at the
business end?

Brake Drum Assembly. Figure 13 shows a typical brake drum assembly.

On application of brake pressure, air is forced into the reinforced rubber brake
bag. This inflates and forces the brake shoes outwards into contact with the bi-
metallic steel drum. The brake drum is connected to the wheel and is therefore
rotates with it. The brake shoes are fixed to the hub and axle. On brake release
the return springs pull the brake shoes away from the drum. Vanes on the top of
the drum are to increase heat dissipation from the drum.
Control and Indication

There are few controls and indications for these systems.

Control over the compressor is limited as normally the compressor is a fixed

stroke compressor and is designed to give the correct level of output.

Anything above the required pressure is exhausted overboard by the pressure

regulating valve or an in-built compressor system. This is all mechanically
controlled and the pilots have no indication of its serviceability.

There could be a pressure transducer (on older aircraft there would be a

pressure line to the flight deck with a bourdon tube type pressure gauge in the
instrument panel), which could be a variable resistor type or an E&I bar type or a
synchro type. Ratiometers could also be used of course. See the LBP books in
this series on Instrumentation for details.

Some aircraft have an indication if an over-pressure (or under pressure) situation

develops. One manufacturer uses a bellows arrangement connected to a micro-
switch and at the pre-determined level the micro switch is made and puts a
warning light on. There could be a micro-switch attached to the valve seat of the
over pressure relief valve (or an under pressure transducer). As the valve
operates the switch is made applying an earth to the warning light via a 'hold on
re-lay' (figure 14). The hold-on relay keeps the warning lamp illuminated until
the pilot unlatches the relay.

SAQ 8 What colour do you think the warning light would be on the flight
deck and where should it be placed?
SAQ 9 Why is does the switch 'earth' the lamps / warning light and not
operate the supply? (It is normal practice to close a circuit by using a
micro-switch to provide an earth to a normally live bulb).

That concludes this section on high pressure systems. As stated earlier they are
not common these days, but you may still see them and the subject is in the
JAR66 syllabus.

Perhaps now is a good time to consolidate your knowledge of HP systems before

moving on to LP systems, which are common to all commercial pressurised
aircraft.

Exercises

1. List the advantages and disadvantages of an HP pneumatic system

over a hydraulic system.

2. Assuming the compressors are running correctly, what protects the

system from over pressure? And how does it work?

3. The bellows of the pressure reducing valve are cracked, what effect
would there be on the flight deck?

4. Explain the operation of the components on the HP system.

5. Look in your AMM at chapter ATA 36, and study the systems just
described. This may not be possible if you are not working on older
aircraft, but have a look anyway.

6. How and when storage bottles purged?

7. How is the action of some single acting actuators damped?

8. If the system failed to build up pressure what might be the causes?

Try and list at least 10.
 LOW PRESSURE SYSTEMS

High volume low pressure (hot) air is supplied normally through large diameter
ducting, and this pneumatic supply can be used to deliver air to any of the
following systems (in some cases suitable cooled):

* Wing, fin, tailplane, slat and windscreen anti ice (see the book in this
series on Anti Icing).
* Cargo compartment heating.
* Engine Anti Ice (EAI).
* Air conditioning packs (air cycle systems) for cabin air conditioning.
* Air driven hydraulic pumps (auxiliary pumps).
* Hydraulic reservoir pressurisation.
* Engine starting.
* Thrust reverser(s).
* Potable water (drinking water) pressurisation.
* Smoke detector aspiration.
* Probe heating and aspiration.
* Some systems operation (the 747 uses it for LE flap deployment for
example but this is not common).

AIR SUPPLY

The air can come from a number of sources and these include:

* Using a turbo compressor as fitted to some of the older aircraft.

* An engine driven compressor or blower - such as the Godfrey
compressors as fitted to the VC10.
* Using the exhaust gases from a turbo prop engine.
* A tapping (engine bleed) from the compressor side of a jet engine.
* The APU (Auxiliary Power Unit).
* External connections from ground carts etc.

The air has been compressed adiabatically and is hot. It is ideal for anti-icing but
has to be cooled for such purposes as cabin conditioning and pressurisation.

Figure 15 shows a schematic of the pneumatic system as fitted to the early B747
and figure 16 shows the general arrangement of the system as fitted to the A320.
Study these drawings carefully and note the ways the various supplies are
connected, note also the services that use the air supplied.

The Turbo Compressor

Originally designed for the piston engined aircraft where engine driven
compressors where fitted for the supply of air.
Pure jet engines would, at certain times, generate insufficient bleed air from the
engine. During these times of high load the crew would open the shut-off valve
and use some of the bleed air to drive a turbine driven compressor. This would
draw in external air from the engine intake and after compression add it to the
manifold. The manifold being the central pneumatic system for supplying all the
services.

This sort of system is limited to older pure jet aircraft - the B707 for example.

SAQ 10 When is the lack of air likely to occur? And when would the crew run
the turbo compressor?

The Compressor/Blower System

Not too unlike, in principle at least, the HP systems described at the beginning of
the book. The compressor is driven by the engine and supplies air to all services
such as de-icing, cabin conditioning, pressurization etc.

The compressor (on the VC10 at least) is a screw type with two intermeshing
(large) screw threads driven from the auxiliary gear box of the jet engine. It is
fitted with a slide valve which automatically regulates the air output.
Two compressors feed the air to services such as pressurisation etc.

Again, fitted to some older aircraft.

Engine Exhaust System

Not common but used with some turbo-prop engines. Some of the jet efflux is
ducted away from the jet pipe to a heat exchanger. Here it exchanges its heat to
clean ram air before being ducted back into the jet pipe. The hot ram air is used
for de-icing/anti-icing/heating purposes.

SAQ 11 Why is the jet efflux system sometimes fitted to turbo-prop engines
and never to pure jet engines and why is the air put through a heat
exchanger and not used 'as is'?

The most popular system on most commercial aircraft is to use air taken from
the compressor of the jet engine.

Engine Compressor Bleed System

This consists of a tapping (or tappings) from a stage (or stages) of the compressor
of the jet engine. When more than one tapping is used it is usual to have a low
pressure tapping and a high pressure tapping with modulation provided for the
high pressure tapping.
The tappings provide an abundance of clean air - provided the air entering the
engine is clean in the first place and there are no engine malfunctions such as
front bearing oil leaks. The air is hot - about 150°C - but check the actual
aircraft manual.

With reference to figure 19. It shows a typical arrangement of the tappings on a

fan engine. This has two LP tappings (about the 8th stage) and a HP tapping
(about the 15 stage).

At low engine power settings air is taken from all the tappings with non-return
valves in the system to prevent the air entering the LP side.

As engine power is increased, enough air can be provided from the LP side and at
a pre-determined pressure the HP valve shuts-off automatically. This air coming
from the engine is called Charge Air and is at about 50 to 60psi pressure - but
again check the manual of the actual engine.

Charge air normally needs cooling and this is usually carried out using surface
heat exchangers (similar to radiators in a road vehicle) and using ram air as the
cooling medium. To assist this system Air Cycle systems are used such as the
Boot Strap system.

In some aircraft a Vapour Cycle Cooling System (refrigerant system) is used, but
this system is not common. (For more information on cooling of charge air refer
to the book in this series entitled Cabin Conditioning and Pressurisation.)
Ozone Converter

Fitted to some aircraft in the supply ducting from the jet engine - on the BAe 146
for example, (those fitted with this option), It is between the engine tapping and
the isolation/pressure reducing valve. It removes contaminants/odours from the
air supply by a reaction process between the metal plates and the hot air.

The converter consists of special metal plates fitted within a metal container
covered in a fire proof material and connected into the ducting using "V" clamps.

FLOW, PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE CONTROL

The charge air must be at the correct flow rate to meet the demands of the user
systems and must be at the correct pressure and temperature.

Because of the adiabatic compression of the air it is always hot so the biggest
problem is that the air may get too hot. In this case cooling is provided usually in
the form of surface heat exchangers using ram air. The exchangers are placed in
the airflow and often placed within the engine fan airflow on fan engines.
Pressure and flow may be controlled by the same valve as they are related, but
the way it is controlled depends on how the air has been compressed.

For air that comes from an engine driven compressor or cabin blower then, if the
flow rate is too high (at high engine rpm), the excess air is dumped over-board
(figure 21). If the air comes from a tapping on the compressor casing of the jet
engine then a restrictive type valve system is used (figure 22).

SAQ 12 Why is the excess air dumped over-board when it comes from an
engine driven compressor and why is it simply restricted when it
comes from the engine?

Spill System

Designed to spill unwanted air overboard that is being delivered from an engine
driven compressor/blower.

With reference to figures 21 and 23. The charge air flows through a venturi
within the duct where density and velocity are monitored. The static connection
(pressure) supply is fed to one side of a diaphragm whilst the venturi connection
(suction) is supplied to the other.

The diaphragm will move in response to these pressures and move contact Y to
close onto Z or X depending on direction of movement of Y. This will send a
signal, via the phase reversing contactor, to either close or open the spill valve
butterfly.

The electrical supply is to contact Y and altitude compensation is allowed for in

the provision of the absolute capsule pack.
Engine Bleed Systems

The amount of air bled from the engine will depend on the demand from the
services. The amount of air coming from the engine will depend mostly on engine
rpm. At high rpm there is usually too much air being delivered so air that is not
required is stopped from leaving the engine by a restrictive type valve system.
On the simplest system this is achieved using a Variable Orifice Valve
(figure 24).

The air enters the valve and leaves via the orifice plate. When flow rates are
high the pressure acts on the piston which is caused to move to the left
against a spring. This closes the acorn valve a little, restricting the air
leaving the unit

The above system may be used on some smaller/older type aircraft. With
larger more modern systems the flow-rate is controlled by a bleed system.

A MODERN ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM

A modern engine compressor bleed system consists of a number of sub-

systems:

* Engine air supply.

* Control and indication.
* Distribution network.

Control/indication/warning could include:

* High stage primary pressure control valve.

* Low pressure warning.
* High temperature protection - thermal shut-off.

These systems usually have back-up systems and apply to primary and
intermediate air as appropriate.

The HP Valve

This valve can be controlled in one of two ways, pneumatically or

electrically. Figure 25 shows a typical pneumatic control system.

Pneumatic Control

With reference to figure 25. The system is made up of two parts, the High
Stage Valve itself and the Valve Controller.

At idle power we would expect this valve to be open but initially it is closed
by spring action. High stage air is felt in chamber A and this keeps the
valve closed. Opposite the chamber A orifice there is another off-take going
initially to a test port and then onto the controller. The Shuttle Valve
moves over and the air pressure is allowed to the switcher solenoid (this is
energised to close the valve so is normally de-energised as shown).
Air passes through the Over Pressure Control and (for now) through the
Low Pressure Control, it now has a free run to chamber B of the High
Stage Valve diaphragm. Differential areas now force the valve to open and
allow 15th stage (HP) air into the pneumatic system.

At a predetermined pressure the HP valve will shut, allowing IP (low

pressure) air into the manifold. For this we need to focus on the Low
Pressure Shut-off control in the high stage controller.

Initially as the pressure is fairly low this is fully open, as the air felt on top
of the diaphragm is not sufficient to move it against the spring. As the
engine speed increases and the HP pressure increases the pressure on top
of this diaphragm and it starts to exert a downward force on the control
aperture. This starts to close and in doing so reduces the air getting to
chamber B of the HP valve, causing that to start to close.

Further increase in flow and pressure closes the aperture still further and
eventually the HP valve is completely closed. This actually happens when
the HP bleed pressure is about 120psi.

There are other items in figure 25 that we shall return to when we consider
indication and protection. But for now lets move on.
Electrical/Electronic Control

The system is similar to the one previously described, it has an HP valve

sprung loaded closed and opened by pneumatic pressure. There is still a
controller and a valve. With reference to figures 26 and 27 showing details
of a digital system and the inner workings of the electrical controller.
The valve (as before) is sprung loaded closed and bleed air keeps it shut.
15th stage air enters the controller where it passes through two regulators,
these bring the pressure down to 55-65psi. An electronic unit measures
the pressure down stream from the high stage valve. This will initially be
very low/zero. The unit sends an electrical signal to the torque motor to
move in the direction to cover the vent. This allows the full 65psi down to
chamber B on the valve to open it.

As the engine speed rises the pressure downstream will rise. The electronic
unit senses this and sends a signal to the torque motor to open the vent
and start to cover the inlet. This reduces the pressure to chamber B and
starts to close the valve.

The electronic unit in figure 26 is called the ASCPC, it is an Air Supply

Controller.

SAQ 13 What would happen if the air supply controller failed?

SAQ 14 What would happen if the pipe from the controller to the valve
was leaking (through a loose connection or because of
damage)?

So far we have considered just the HP valve. The purpose of that, just to
recap, is to control when we take HP air from the engine and when we
allow 'unregulated' IP air from the engine. Now that might pose some
problems. Surely we can't have unregulated air in the pneumatic system?
True - read on.

PRESSURE CONTROL

Another valve is added to the system, not too dissimilar from the HP valve,
down stream and this is used for pressure control. Referring back to figure
19, look for the Engine Bleed Valve. (You may know this valve by a
different name on your aircraft, such as Pressure Control Valve etc.)

This engine bleed valve will typically have the following functions:

* Pressure control of the pneumatic system.

* Non Return Valve, preventing a stronger engine from cross bleeding
to a weaker one.
* Shut off valve - through flight deck switch action.
* Reverse flow to allow cross bleed engine starting.
* Temperature control (backup mode).
Pressure Control Mode

The valve behaves in a similar fashion to the HP valve and functions in the
same way. Sprung loaded closed and pneumatically opened, it can be
controlled pneumatically or electrically. It is usually controlled to a slightly
higher pressure than the HP valve. It is this valve that sets the pressure in
the pneumatic manifold and ducting, which is typically about 55psi.

Non-Return Valve Mode

This closes the valve when the pressure sensed by the downstream port is
higher than the upstream port. This is done by the servo unit in the
controller and vents the sense line to atmosphere, allowing the spring to
close the valve.

Shut-off Mode

If the flight crew are unhappy with the engine or the airflow, the air to or
from it can be stopped by energising a solenoid. It allows the sense line to
vent to close the valve. In addition to the switch action of the flight crew
this solenoid will also be energised if the fire handle is pulled.

Reverse Flow Mode

If the engine is not started it is not producing any air. As the start valve is
downstream of the engine bleed valve (on start selection), due to the non
return mode the air will not be able to reach the starter. In this case the
engine bleed valve is put into reverse flow mode and forced open. On some
bleed valves this function is removed as designers fit the start valve
off-take downstream of the engine bleed valve.

Over Temperature Mode (Back-up)

Primary temperature control mode has yet to be covered, but if the primary
mode should fail the Air Supply Controller (the electronic unit) will signal
the engine bleed valve to start to close. This reduces the mass flow and
hence the temperature. There will be a reduction in flow (which could
cause a problem), but not such a big a problem as over heating the ducts.

OVER PRESSURE CONTROL

LP systems can suffer from over pressure which is normally the result of
the HP valve remaining locked open at high engine speed. Simple spring
loaded flap operated pressure relief valves are fitted in the system to
prevent over-pressure.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL

We have already touched on a back-up method but lets now look at the
primary method of temperature control. Figure 28 shows a typical method
of cooling the air.

This shows charge air being cooled in a precooler cooled by fan air (ram air
from the fan of the engine). The amount of fan air allowed through the
precooler is controlled (modulated) by a modulating valve taking its signals
from the fan air temperature sensor.

On some systems, particularly engine driven compressor systems, the air

may not always be hot enough. In this case a Choke Valve is placed in the
supply duct and when operated chokes the air in the ducting and causes
the air supply become further compressed and heated.

Charge air is un-modulated passing through the pre-cooler. To control the

temperature we allow more (or less) of the cooling ram air through. This is
achieved by altering the position of the modulating valve. This valve may
have other names such as Temperature Control Valve, Fan Air Modulating
Valve, Pre-cooler Valve, etc.

Control of this valve is done in one of three ways:

* Bi-metallic switch/valve operation.

* Pneumatic operation.
* Electrical operation.

The last method is the most common, but the first two are still in use on
older and lighter aircraft.
Bimetallic Control

Figure 29 shows a bimetallic control valve. It is placed downstream of the

pre-cooler and as such will feel the warmed fan (or ram) air after it has
passed the pre-cooler. If the temperature of the air is high the metal will
expand and open the valve; as the temperature falls the valve will close.
The valve never quite fully closes.

Pneumatic Control

This achieved by placing a probe in the airflow from the pneumatic system
(figure 30).

As the temperature of the air rises, the sleeve of the probe expands quicker
than the inside and de-seats the ball. This allows pneumatic pressure in
the sense line to the temperature control valve to bleed off. It is a sprung
loaded open, pneumatically closed valve, and as such will open more. This
has the effect of allowing more cooling air across the pre-cooler.

NOTE. This type of probe has also been used connected direct to the HP
valve, operating on the same principle but closing the valve this time. This
is because it is usually the HP air that requires cooling only as the IP (low
pressure air (even at its hottest) is still below the over temperature value of
the pneumatic system.
Electrical Control

Figure 25 is actually the Boeing 777 system, and figure 31 shows the
Airbus A319 system so that we can consider both temperature control
systems together. They are similar to each other and similar to other
aircraft, the only real differences being the terminology and component
details.

Study figure 31 and follow the air supply from each engine, the APU and
the ground supply to the various services:

* Air conditioning packs 1 and 2.

* Hydraulic reservoir pressurisation.
* Drinking water tanks pressurisation.

The main parts of this system are:

* The Air Supply Controller (ASC) (Electronic).

* The temperature sensor.
* The fan air modulating valve.

The temperature sensor sends the signal of the value to the ASC. The ASC
then sends a signal to the Fan Air Valve to either open or close depending
on whether the system is too hot or too cold. The Fan Air Valve has a
rotary variable displacement transformer (more of that later) to provide
feedback to the ASC of its position. This is a closed loop negative feedback
control system.
Now to look at some of the components.

The Temperature Sensor. Refer to figure 32. If a conductor is heated its

resistance value changes - for most materials the hotter the material the
greater the resistance (some have a negative coefficient of resistance and
the hotter they get the lower the resistance).
Heat is supplied to the temperature sensor to compensate for the cooling
effect of the airflow. As the airflow temperature changes so the
temperature of the sensor changes and so does its resistance.

It forms one leg of a Wheatstone bridge, the output of which is sent to the
ASC for processing.

The Fan Air Valve. It is sprung loaded to fail open. This ensures that the
maximum cooling effect is available. (Incidentally, as far as "Fail Safe" is
concerned, the problem of what position a valve should fail in is one of
common sense. Think about what is least desirable if a component can fail
in one of two modes and in the event of failure the valve should go the
opposite way.) The valve has a manual position indicator so that the
engineer can see the exact position if necessary.

Also it will have some form of feedback pick off. This may be a digital pick-
off, or a potentiometer, or a variable displacement transformer. As a guide,
Airbus tend to use the former whilst Boeing tend to use the latter.
Whatever is fitted the principle is the same.

The Air Supply Controller. The ASC will take signals from various systems
and the pneumatic sensors for processing. This information can be:

* Analogue, voltages are either ac or dc from a variable displacement

transformer, or a potentiometer (variable resister).
* Digital, possibly from a digital pick-off, but equally could be a digital
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) word from other systems.
* Discretes. This type of signal is an open/closed type signal. On or
off.

From this information the unit calculates how far each of the valves has to
open. It then sends the signal to the valve and monitors for a response. It
takes into consideration how much air is required by the aircraft. (No point
bleeding air off the engine if you don't need to.) For example as the pilot
switches on an air conditioning pack, a BCD word is sent from the pack
controller to the ASC, the ASC opens the engine bleed valve more to
compensate for the loss.

Modern aircraft are automated and there are many signals moving from
unit to unit. This can make fault finding difficult and we need to take
notice of all the fault codes. You will learn more of this in the LBP book
covering JAR module 11.18.

There are often two (or more) ASC's to allow for a degree of redundancy.

SAQ 15 The temperature control valve of a pre-cooler style system is

defective and is sticking and slow to operate. What 'symptoms'
might you expect to see in the technical report raised by the
flight crew?
Over Temperature Control

The temperature sensor sends a signal either to the shut-off solenoid (via a
relay) in the pneumatically controlled system or to the ASC in the digital
system. This has the effect of closing the engine bleed valve and hence
stopping the pneumatic bleed. The aircrew (or ASC) will now open isolation
valves to allow cross bleeding from the good engine(s).

That concludes this chapter on control, indication and protection. It has

been somewhat of a marathon, but the JAR 66 syllabus requires you to
have a sound knowledge of systems operation.

The details of the control systems described need not be committed to

memory but you should understand them.

THE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK AND MANIFOLD

The system of pipes and valves used to get the air from the engine to the
services is sometimes called the pneumatic manifold.

Figure 33 shows a typical pneumatic manifold system.

Study the system noting all the components and their location. The system
comprises:

* Ducting and joints.

* Isolation valve(s).
* Pressure transmitter(s).
* Off-takes to user systems.
* Non-return valves
* Ground cart connection
* APU connection

Ducting

The ducting used is usually titanium or stainless steel. Stainless steel has
a slightly higher tolerance to temperature changes and a better coefficient
of expansion; as such it is used nearer the engines. Often, by the time the
air reaches the engine bleed valve it is sufficiently 'cool' to use the lighter
titanium ducting.

The ducting is supported throughout its length with clamps and stays to
the aircraft structure. An example is shown in figure 34.

It is important that the supports are not over stressed and that the ducting
is aligned correctly. Care needs to be taken to ensure that the tie rods are
adjusted properly. Shims may be used to provide for better alignment.

When the ducting is in use it gets hot. Even the 'cooled' air leaving the pre-
cooler will be in the region of 120-150°C. The ducting needs to be able to
expand without buckling, and still be leak proof at the start of operations
(cold) and when it is hot. To achieve this, flexible joints are used and there
are several types available. Figures 35 and 36 show two examples.
In figure 35 the expansion is taken up by allowing the sections of ducting
to expand into a gap that is closed by the clamp. That in itself causes a
couple of problems. Firstly the clamp becomes lose and can slip. If this is
in a critical location, next to a cable run for example, the clamp will
require some form of anti-rotation device and this is often in the form of
two springs. Also this type of clamp requires the ducting to be slightly
stressed (in tension only - not bending ever}. This means that imaginative
solutions have to be found to closing the last clamp in the pipe-run.

Figure 37 shows a different approach to the same problem. Here the

ducting is allowed to slide in and out of the flange. This type of seal allows
for a certain amount of flexing caused by aircraft loads in flight. It does not
allow for ease of fitting.

Bosses are welded on the ducting at 120° separation on the circumference.

A seal is slid over the joint to prevent leakage. Three cables are connected
and tensioned to keep the ducting together. Not a common type of fitting,
and a variation on this uses the seal 'sleeve' idea which replaces the cables
with a clamp that goes around both ducts and the seal.
These types of joints tend to leak around the seals in the flange. When
putting any pneumatic duct together a small addition of silicone grease
assists in the assembly and doesn't add danger to the system - but check
your AMM as to any lubricants used.

SAQ 16 What maintenance activities might be required on pneumatic

ducting and what precautions should be carried out?

Duct Maintenance

Treatment of minor damage to ducting includes (but check your

AMM/SRM):

Smooth dents are normally permitted providing they do not

substantially restrict the airflow.
* Shallow scratches and gouges are generally acceptable providing the
bottom of the scratch is smooth and it is not deeper than 10% of the
wall thickness.
* No defects are permitted within V* inch (6.5mm) of any fusion weld.

Titanium is susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement and as such needs to

be kept away from acidic chemicals, such as trichloroethalene.

Fire resistant hydraulic fluid (Skydrol) breaks down at high temperatures

and will cause embrittlement. The normal operating temperature of the
ducting is high enough to cause this and as such, great care needs to be
taken to ensure Skydrol does not come into contact with the pneumatic
ducting.
Leak Detection

Leak detection falls into two categories - checks carried out after
installation and checks carried during service due to duct and joint
failures.

After any installation is carried out the system is pressurised and checked
for leaks. This is normally carried out using a ground cart, but even so,
any leaking air will be hot. The following is a general procedure (always
check your AMM):

* Visually inspect the ducting and the joints for signs of

discolouration. Escaping hot air, particularly over long periods, may
leave fine black deposits.
* Pressurise the manifold and listen for leaks. Even quite small leaks
can be audible.
* Attach tape or thin cotton to a stick and pass it over the general area
of the suspected leak. Any movement or fluttering will establish
exactly where the leak is.
* Remove the pressure and remake the joint, then try again.

Leaks that develop in flight can damage local structure, cables and any
equipment that is near. If you consider, the normal operating temperature
range of a pneumatic system is close to the temperature for annealing
aluminium alloy and above the temperature for precipitation treatment,
damage can soon occur to the structure if subjected to the leaking air for a
period of time. Leaks need to be detected quickly and isolated/repaired.

Some aircraft have a Tirewire' style of leak detection system that detects
any overheat situations.

The firewire is run the length of the ducting and is usually split into
sections so that the system can work out exactly where the hot air leak is.
Firewire is covered in detail in the LBP book on Fire Detection Systems but
is general they may be of the Resistive Type; the Capacitive Type; or the
Systron Donner type. In all cases a local overheat is detected and a signal
sent to the flight deck.

On older aircraft this would illuminate a warning on the flight deck and
the crew would take the appropriate action. On more modern aircraft the
signal is fed to a card file or processing unit (computer). This registers the
fault and sends signals in BCD form to the Air Supply Controller. The ASC
will automatically close off the section of the duct that is leaking by using
the isolation valve(s) and/or the engine bleed valves.

The crew would do this manually on older aircraft.

Unit detectors or thermal switches can also be used for leak detection.
As the switch heats up contacts come together and this will put the
indication light on the flight deck. As with the fire wire system the switch
can equally signal a computer to operate an automatic process. (Again
described more fully in the book Fire Detection Systems).

Isolation Valves

Figure 38 shows an isolation valve. It is a motorised valve that can be

selected to one of two positions. Normally in the open position, but can be
closed for system failures, duct leaks etc. In the basic system of figure 33
there is one valve fitted, but normally there would be two (or more).

The valve is moved using an electrical actuator supplied with 115vac.

Figure 39 shows the circuit for control of the various valves in the system -
four engines and an APU. Each motor incorporates two micro switches
(limit switches) that stop the motor when it reaches the end of its travel.
The valve can either be selected by the aircrew, or more commonly these
days is automatically operated. In this case the valve will either be closed
or on automatic.

Figure 40 shows the flight deck control panel associated with figure 39.
Study both figures so that you get a good overall picture of how the system
works.

In digitally controlled systems an OFF selection will turn the unit off, but
an ON selection will put the unit under the command of a computer. Some
manufacturers have renamed them to 'request' switches rather than the
traditional on/off switches.
Pressure Indication

When we considered indication in the previous chapter, pressure

indication was deliberately left out. On newer aircraft pressure is
measured at the engine off-take, but this is for monitoring reasons and is
not for system pressure reasons.

Pneumatic system pressure is taken downstream in the region of ten feet

(3m) or so from the engine. This allows any pressure fluctuations to have
flattened out before the reading is taken. Figure 41 shows a typical
pressure sensor electrical diagram.

This works on the synchro transmitter principal. A 28vac is supplied to the

excitation coils of the transmitter and the indicator. As the pressure
changes the excitation coil moves relative to a toriodal winding. This
induces a signal in the winding, and this signal is then passed along two
wires to the flight deck indicator, where the reverse happens and the
toriodal winding moves the flight deck instrument pointer.
SAQ 16 Notice both excitation coils get the same excitation voltage,
can you explain why?

Mass Flow Indication

Figure 42 shows an early system for measuring mass flow. The transducer
consists of a small turbine arrangement placed in the duct that is free to
rotate.

Turbine rpm is proportional to flow rate so by providing the turbine with

excitation and a similar excitation coil in the synchro, it becomes a fairly
simple job to obtain a frequency signal dependent on the air mass flow
rate. This frequency signal is passed into a signal conditioner where it is
converted to a voltage for moving coil instrument displays.

Figure 43 shows a more modern method of measuring mass flow. The

sensor is a platinum resistance device that when its temperature changes
its resistance changes. As the air flows passed, the temperature of the
resistor drops and this is measured, usually, directly by the ASC.
The ASC has held, in databanks, the values of resistance expected for
various airflows. The signal is processed and sent as a BCD word to the
symbol generators for the flight deck instruments.

OTHER AIR SOURCES

So far this book has covered air coming from the engines only, but other
sources are used and figure 33 shows 2 of them.

The Auxiliary Power Unit

The Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) is usually located at the back of the aircraft
in the tail cone section. It has two functions, these are to provide 400Hz
30 200/115vac to the electrical systems and pneumatic pressure to the
manifold.

A check valve is installed so that when the APU is not running air from the
pneumatic manifold cannot back feed through the APU.

Also there is a bleed control valve and some form of dump valve. These two
work in opposition to each other. When one is open the other is closed. The
bleed control valve is similar to the engine bleed valve but in this case it is
a simple shut-off valve (it doesn't regulate the pressure like the engine
bleed valve did).
Air pressure from the APU is controlled by altering the Inlet Guide Vanes
to the load compressor. More on this in the Jet Engine books in this series
entitled APU.

An APU cannot stop producing air when it is running, even when the
system doesn't require it. The dump valve or surge bleed valve opens when
the bleed valve is closed to allow this 'excess air' to bleed (spill) overboard.
Figure 44 shows a typical APU installation; note the position of the
pneumatic components.

Ground Rig

For normal maintenance activity it is not desirable to run the engines or

APU every time pneumatic pressure is needed. Ground connections are
provided for this. Figure 45 shows a typical installation located beneath a
panel. On the panel there is normally operating instructions and
maximum pressures. Make sure you are aware of this data. Also there is a
non-return-valve (check valve) to prevent the normal system pressure from
going out to atmosphere through the ground connections.

The rig is connected to the system after checking the AMM and making
sure the aircraft is configured for the test. The engine is started on the rig
and pressures and flow rates adjusted to the figures given on the
panel/AMM.
Great care needs to be taken when connecting pneumatic hoses to these
points, as they can break under the sudden loading. This can leave large
volumes of high temperature air exiting the broken nozzle. Prior to
applying pneumatic pressure you must carry out safety checks on these
hoses as well as flight deck safety checks.

SERVICES

Various services are provided from the pneumatic supply including cabin
conditioning, anti-icing etc. These are covered in other books in this series
so here we will look at engine start and various components around the
engine and pylon.

Figure 45 shows a typical layout of the engine and pylon components

together with details of the air starter (based on the early B747s).
Air Start Motor

The start valve will open if the solenoid is energised and air pressure is
available. The solenoid is energised if Engine Ignition Switch is at GND
START.

The Pressure Switch illuminates the START VALVE OPEN LIGHT in the
flight deck if there is pressure down stream of the start valve.

Pylon Valve

Situated within the pylon and is electrically operated but can be manually
operated for maintenance purposes.

It regulates the pressure to 45psi but will reduce this if temperature

exceeds 200°C. At 230°C the valve closes.

It acts as a check valve preventing air from the ducting going to the engine
from another engine.
Warning lights come on - when valve closes.
when duct temperature exceeds 255°C.

The close solenoid is energised to prevent the valve opening if:

(a) Engine bleed air is at OFF.

or

(b) Fire handle is pulled.

The reverse flow solenoid is energised to cancel the check valve function
and so allow air from the duct to engine start if engine ignition switch is at
GND START.

Note. The engine bleed switch must be at ON if the valve is to open.

Figure 47 shows the pneumatic system for engine and pylon. Take time to
study the drawing and make sure you can understand how the system
works.
That concludes this section on low pressure pneumatic supplies. Now have
a go at the following exercises. The answers, as usual, are in the text.

1. Look again at the basic engine bleed schematic diagram (figure 24).
Explain where we get air from and at what times certain valves close.

2. What is the purpose of the pre-cooler?

3. How is the air cooled going through the pre-cooler?

4. What is the purpose of the IP check valve?

5. What type of valve is the High Stage (HP) valve? How is it operated?

6. How is temperature controlled normally and how is controlled it if

that method should fail?

7. If there is an over-temperature, what is the most likely cause?

8. Look in ATA chapter 36 of your maintenance manual. Focus on page

block 1-100 and look how your aircraft controls pneumatics.

9. List the various types of duct clamp and explain how they are sealed.

10. What is the correct procedure for leak checking a pneumatic

system?

11. What systems are employed to measure temperature?

 VACUUM SYSTEMS

A vacuum system produces a negative pressure relative to ambient

pressure which allows the pressure difference to drive components such as
de-icer boots, inflatable seals, gyros etc.

De-icer boots and inflatable seals use vacuum to ensure complete deflation
when selected to that configuration.

Although called a vacuum system it is not an absolute vacuum that is

produced, but a pressure below that of ambient. This negative pressure
can be obtained in two ways:

* By using a venturi tube system.

* By the use of an engine drive pump.

The Venturi Tube

This is placed in the airflow close to the fuselage, and fitted to some small
aircraft.
It has the advantage of low cost and is simple to install and operate. A
single engined light aircraft can be equipped with a two-inch venturi,
which will give 2in Hg (mercury) vacuum capacity - to operate a turn
needle for example. With an Sin venturi there would be sufficient power
available for the attitude and heading indicators, (all gyro operated
instruments).

The supply line to the vacuum system is connected to the throat of the
venturi. The drop in pressure as the airflow passes through will cause a
suction at the throat and a suction in the vacuum line.

Throughout the normal operating airspeed range the velocity of the air
through the venturi creates sufficient suction, but when taxiing, or at the
start of the take-off run, or at the end of the landing-run the negative
pressure is insufficient for the system. There is a wide range of airspeed
that the venturi throat will experience, so the vacuum pressure to the
system will vary.

For gyro operated instruments the gyro rotor does not reach its normal
operating speed until after take-off so pre-flight checks of the instrument
cannot be made for operational serviceability. Due to this limitation, the
system is only used for light aircraft instrument training and limited flying
under instrument weather conditions. Aircraft which fly through a wider
speed range, altitude and weather conditions require a more effective
source of supply which is independent of airspeed and less affected by
atmospheric conditions.

Engine Driven Vacuum Pump

The vane type of engine driven pump shown in figure 49 is the most
common source of vacuum for systems that are fitted to general aviation
light aircraft. Can be fitted to the accessory drive shaft of the engine or
belt driven on piston engines. On a piston engine aircraft it is connected to
the engine lubrication system, the oil providing a seal, cooling and
lubrication.

Another type of engine driven pump is the dry vacuum pump. This pump
has no lubrication, and the installation requires no lines to the engine oil
supply and therefore no air-oil separator or check-valve. Its principle of
operation is the same as the oil lubricated pump.

The disadvantage of pump and venturi systems is that with altitude air
density decreases and vacuum pressures are more difficult to achieve.
With pump systems routine maintenance is required for filters, pumps,
valves, pipework etc.
Typical Pump Driven Vacuum System

A typical vacuum system with a pump capacity of approximately 10 inches

Hg at an engine speed of 1000 rpm is shown in figure 50.

The pump size and capacity may vary from aircraft to aircraft and depend
on the number of gyros/equipment to be operated.
The air is drawn into the system via a filter and, via pipelines, will be
directed to equipment/instruments. It will impinge onto the turbine wheels
(that are part of the gyro on gyro systems) and cause them to rotate, or
give vacuum to services that require it.

Various components are fitted to the system for system protection etc.

Air-Oil Separator

The oil and air from the vacuum pump are exhausted from the system
through the separator in order to separate the oil from the air and return it
to the engine lubrication system. The air is then vented to atmosphere.

Suction Relief Valve

As the pump capacity is more than is needed for the normal operation of
the instruments/equipment, an adjustable relief valve is included in the
system. It is set at the required pressure, so that any excess negative
pressure is prevented by the spring-loaded valve, allowing air in from the
atmosphere and preventing the pump from being overloaded. A typical
valve is shown in figure 51.

Pressure Relief Valve

If situation occurred where the system was subjected to a positive pressure

from the pump, both the check-valve and the suction relief valve would
close. This could result in the system pressurising, rupturing pipelines,
damaging instruments, and causing systems to work that shouldn't
(retracted de-icer overshoes would inflate for example).-Therefore a
pressure relief valve is fitted to vent any positive pressure to atmosphere.
Check-Valve

The purpose of the check-valve is to prevent possible damage to the

instruments and operation of services in the event a reverse flow of air.

Selector Valve

In a twin engined aircraft which has vacuum pumps driven by both

engines, there is provision to select either pump due to the possibility of
either an engine or pump failure. The selector valve also incorporates a
check-valve to seal off the failed system.

Restrictor Valve

Fitted in front of some instruments such as the turn and slip indicator
which operates on less vacuum than that required for the rest of the
system. It reduces the vacuum of the main line supply.

This valve is either a needle valve adjusted to reduce the vacuum from the
main line by approximately a half, or a spring loaded regulating valve
which maintains a constant vacuum for the turn indicator, unless the
main line vacuum falls below a minimum value.

Air Filter

This filter removes debris from the air flowing to all instruments, which
also have individual filters. If the filter became blocked, the result would
be a reduced airflow and a lower reading on the system's suction gauge.

Most filters have a bypass valve fitted that opens in the event of a blocked
filter element.

Suction Gauge

The suction gauge is a. pressure gauge indicating the difference in inches of

mercury between the pressure inside the system and atmospheric or
cockpit pressure.
If the vacuum for the attitude and heading indicator is 5in Hg, and the
minimum is 4.6in Hg, then a reading on the gauge below the minimum will
indicate that the airflow is not spinning the gyro fast enough and the
gauge indication is therefore suspect.

In many aircraft there is provision for the pilot to check the vacuum
system at more than one point.

Suction

The suction pressures are minus or negative pressures. As an example, if

sea level pressure equals 14.7psi then lin Hg or Ipsi vacuum is equal to -
1 psi negative pressure, or 13.7 psi positive absolute pressure. If there is 3
inches Hg which is -3 psi, then as a positive pressure there would be
+ 11.7 psi.

Typical System Operation

Figure 53 shows a typical vacuum system for a twin engined aircraft. This
vacuum system consists of the following components:

* Two engine driven pumps.

* Two vacuum relief valves.
* Two check-valves.
* A vacuum manifold.
* A vacuum restrictor for each turn and bank indicator.
* An engine four way selection valve.
* One vacuum gauge.
* A turn and bank selector valve.

The left and right engine driven vacuum pumps and their associated lines
and components are isolated from each other and act as two independent
vacuum systems. The vacuum lines are routed from each vacuum pump
through a vacuum relief valve and through a check-valve to the vacuum
four-way selector valve.

From the engine four-way selector valve, which permits operation of the
left or right engine vacuum system, the lines are routed to a vacuum
manifold. From the manifold, pipelines connect the vacuum operated
instruments into the system.

From the instruments, lines routed to the vacuum gauge pass through a
turn and bank selector valve. This valve has three positions; main, left
turn and bank, and right turn and bank. In the main position the vacuum
gauge indicates the vacuum in the lines of the artificial horizon and
directional gyros. In other positions the lower value of vacuum for the turn
and bank indictors can be read.
Air is allowed into the system via each instrument - suitably filtered of
course.

A separate system not too unlike the one described above can be used to
operate the vacuum side for de-icer boots. The vacuum pumps may be
electrically driven and there may be a vacuum reservoir with the supply
lines connected from the reservoir to a cyclic valve on the de-icer system.

Testing The System

Like all testing, the best way is to consult the manual and carry out a
functional test. This would require an engine run for engine driven pumps
and a vacuum/pressure supply for the system.

Leak tests are carried out much like a Pitot/static system. Instruments
may be blanked off (but check the AMM) and vacuum applied slowly until
the required test gauge reading is obtained, this should be maintained over
a period of time.
If the system cannot keep the vacuum for the specified period, the leak (in)
must be traced and rectified.

Remember, for leak testing do not use any leak testing solution such as
Snoop. Any leaks in the system would suck the solution in and this may
cause serious problems with instruments/components.
 Answers to Self Assessment Questions

SAQ 1. Placed near the compressor so it is less likely to freeze - so if all

else fails it should still be working.

SAQ 2. Blue crystals indicate dry silica gel; pink crystals indicate that they
are saturated and require replacement (they can be re-activated by heating
gently in an oven). If the filter becomes saturated frequently, it might be
indicative that the oil/air separator is full or the compressor is loosing too
much oil. It requires maintenance action.

SAQ 3. Typically these pipes are in the region of 1 to x/2 inch in diameter
(25.4mm to 12.7mm). In most cases the pipes are fabricated from steel,
usually stainless.

SAQ 4. To allow the bottles to be pre-charged if required and to allow the

ground rig to be used for flap / gear retractions during maintenance.

SAG 5. To keep a pressure relief valve open the compressor must

continuously compress the air so it is on-load all the time - this takes
power which comes from the engines. When a pressure regulator valve
ports the air to atmosphere the compressor is working off-load - pumping
air, yes, but at little or no pressure. In general, its power consumption can
be as low as 10% off-load compared to its on-load value - from, say 10
horse power down to 1).

SAQ 6. The single and double acting implies the way the actuator is
returned to neutral. In the double acting actuator it is returned to neutral
by using the reverse selection.

SAQ 7. A single acting actuator could be prone to 'blow back' from the
flight effects (on a simple hinged flap system), meaning that it would have
to be kept pressurised to keep the flaps deployed - though on some aircraft
this might be used.

SAQ 8. It would be either amber or red depending on the level of

importance the system has. It would located within the pilot's line of vision
or possibly on a master fault panel.
SAQ 9. Two reasons really, firstly switching an earth is less likely to cause
a spark so the contacts of the micro-switch are less prone to erosion and
radio interference is reduced. Secondly all lamps on the flight deck have
got a common supply which means that they can all be dimmed together
from one dimmer switch.

SAQ 10. Lowest bleed air occurs when the engine is running at idle. The
crew would select the turbo compressors on during taxi. They would leave
them running until the gear is retracted, and would start them again on
the approach to landing.
SAQ 11. A jet engine relies for its thrust on the high speed air leaving the
rear of the engine. A turbo-prop engine uses most of its energy (about 90%)
to drive the propeller so only a residual thrust of 10% is obtained from the
jet efflux. Affecting this efflux in any way (scooping some of this away for
anti-icing for example) has very little effect on the overall efficiency of the
engine. Besides the problems of the high velocities and temperatures in the
efflux of a non prop jet engine any disturbance of this airflow would have a
more marked effect on its performance.

Gasses leaving any jet engine are toxic and corrosive so they are best
ducted out of the aircraft as soon as possible. The ram air leaving the heat
exchanger (unless there is a leak) is clean (and hot).

SAQ 12. If a restrictive type valve system was placed down-stream in an

engine driven compressor system then as the restriction started it would
load the compressor and cause it to consume more power from the engine.
So if demand air is less than supply then the excess is simply allowed to
spill to atmosphere.

Tappings from the jet engine are different. If demand air is less than
supply then any excess air can be used by the engine so a restrictive
system is used - air not wanted stays in the engine.

SAQ 13. Initially it could be considered that the system would fail, but this
is not the case. The torque motor will stop moving, but the air is still
coming off the engine. The regulators have already brought the pressure
down to 55-65psi and this will back off the bleed signal and close the HP
valve at a slightly higher pressure than the torque motor would do. This
type of redundancy is common in electronic systems.

SAQ 14. Consider the valve itself, it is sprung loaded closed, pneumatically
opened - that pneumatic pressure is coming down the sense line (that is
leaking). There will not be as much pressure in chamber B so the valve will
stay further closed than before. The effect of this is to reduce the system
pressure in the pneumatic control due to the fact that the apertures are
set. In the digital control, the Air Supply Unit will see the reduced pressure
and apply more sense pressure to open the valve. It will sense the failure
and report it.

SAQ 15. After start the temperature would rise above the normal operating
temperature, possibly getting close to the over temperature limit. But it
would eventually stabilise. As the engine is throttled forward (on take-off),
and the HP valve closes the temperature would drop well below the normal
operating temperature. During cruise it would appear fine but might re-
occur after landing on the taxi in, as the HP valve opened again.