B.

Tech Biomedical Engineering (2024) Laboratory Manual

Course Code Physics for Health Sciences L T P C
PHYS1039 Semester - I 2 1 1 4
List of experiments: 8 Total Lab Hours: 15
Prerequisite(s): Standard XII Physics Version: 1

Sl. Name of Author(s) Department and Designation

1 Dr. Souradeep Roy* Assistant Professor (School of Health
Sciences and Technology)
*Corresponding Faculty
List of Experiments:
1. To determine the frequency of a.c. mains by using a sonometer.
2. To study the Hall Effect and hence determine the Hall coefficient (𝑅 ) and carrier
density(𝑛) of a given semiconductor material.
3. (a). To study the induced emf as a function of velocity of the magnet passing through
the coil.
(b). To study the charge delivered due to electromagnetic induction.
4. To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a current carrying
circular coil and hence estimate the radius of the coil.
5. To determine the;
(1) numerical aperture (𝑁𝐴) .
(2) power losses due to macro-bending and adaptor of given optical fibre.
6. To Measure the diameter of a thin wire (human hair) by Laser Diffraction.
7. Study of both the current - voltage characteristic and the power curve to find the
maximum power point (𝑀𝑃𝑃) and efficiency of a solar cell.

8. Determination of Planck’s constant using light emitting diodes(𝐿𝐸𝐷𝑠).

http://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=195&sim=840&cnt=1

INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY

• The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to

illustrate phenomena in different areas of Physics and to expose you to measuring
instruments. Conduct the experiments with interest and an attitude of learning.

• You need to come well prepared to the laboratory with write up and observing lab
videos to perform the experiment.

• Work quietly and carefully (the whole purpose of experimentation is to make

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 B. Tech Biomedical Engineering (2024) Laboratory Manual
reliable measurements) and equally share the work with your group mates.

• Be honest in recording and representing your data. Never make up readings or

doctor them to get a better fit for a graph. If a particular reading appears wrong
repeat the measurement carefully. In any event all the data recorded in the tables
have to be faithfully displayed on the graph.

• All presentations of data, tables and graphs calculations should be neatly and
carefully done.

• Bring necessary graph papers for each of the experiment. Learn to optimize on
usage of graph papers.

• Graphs should be neatly drawn with pencil. Always label graphs and the axes and
display units.

• If you finish early, spend the remaining time to complete the calculations and
drawing graphs. Come equipped with calculator, scales, pencils etc.

• Usage of electronic gadgets is strictly prohibited in the laboratory.

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EXPERIMENT – 1
SONOMETER

AIM: To determine the frequency of a.c. mains by using a sonometer.

APPARATUS: Sonometer with non-magnetic (metallic) wire, step-down transformer of 6-
9 volts, set of weights with hanger, electromagnet, and screw gauge.

FORMULA
The frequency (f) of A.C mains is given by

n = 2f = Hz

or f= = Hz

where n is the natural frequency of the sonometer wire in Hz.

l is the resonating length of wire between the two bridges in cm.
T is the tension applied to the wire, T=Mg dynes (where M is the mass suspended to
wire in gm and g is the acceleration due to gravity in cmÚ〖sec〗^2)
m is the mass per unit length of the wire in gmÚcm, given by m=πr^2 d gm/cm
where r is the radius of the wire in cm (to be measured by using a screw gauge)
and d is the density of the material of the wire in gm/〖cm〗^3.

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THEORY
Sonometer is a useful apparatus for investigating the vibration of a string or wire under
tension. The equipment allows the change in length of the string in accordance with the
variation in the tension. Sonometer is an apparatus by which we can determine the
frequency of A.C. mains in a very easy method. In this, we have a very fine arrangement
for precise determination of frequency.
Sonometer is a device, which consists of a thin metallic (steel) wire stretched over two
knife-edges that are usually mounted on a soundboard, which is used to measure the
vibration frequency when tension is changing. Alternating current is allowed to pass
through the primary of a step-down transformer (220-230 volts). The output voltage from
the secondary of a step-down transformer (6-9 volts), is applied to an electromagnet. The
two ends of a secondary coil of the step-down transformer is connected to the two ends
of the windings of the electro- magnet, which consists of a coil of insulated copper wire
wound over a soft iron core provided with an insulated handle. As the A.C. from the
secondary coil of the step- down transformer passes through the electro-magnet, it gets
magnetized twice in each cycle, first with one of its faces as a north pole and then with
the same face as the south pole. The electromagnet is placed vertically above the steel
wire with a small gap. The position of the knife-edges is so adjusted that the steel wire
vibrates in resonance with the A.C. supply (in India A.C. Supply is 50 Hz ). For each cycle
of the A.C. mains supply, the wire is attracted and pulled twice, once when the end of the
electromagnet just above the wire is a north pole and again after half a cycle when the
end is a south pole. In other words, the natural frequency (n) of the wire is double the
frequency (f) of the A.C. mains.
n=2f=1/2L √(T/m) Hz
or f=n/2=1/4L √(T/m) Hz

PROCEDURE
1. Assemble the setup as shown in the figure given above.
2. Firstly, fix the wire at one fixed end and other end passes over pulley and carries
a weight hanger.
3. Mount an L clamp with the sonometer base at a distance of 2-3 mm above the wire
and fix it with the help of the screws provided.
4. The core of electromagnet should be at the centre of coil.
5. Connect the mains cord between mains and sonometer.
6. Take two patch cords and connect 6 volts AC supply from secondary of a
transformer to the coil.

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7. Suspend a mass of M=500gm to the mass hanger connected at one end of the
steel wire.
8. Switch ON the A.C supply.
9. Now, adjust the two knife-edges by moving them across so that the resonant
vibrations are produced on the string.
10. Now, slowly adjust the knife-edges for maximum vibrations.
11. Note the resonating length (l) between the two knife edges by a meter scale.
12. Now increase the mass in steps of 500gm and adjust the knife edges for maximum
vibrations, note the resonating length (l) between the two knife edges.
13. Repeat the same procedure by increasing the mass of 500gm and note down the
length (l) for maximum vibrations.
14. Note all the values in the observation table as given below.
15. Determine the radius of sonometer wire by using a screw gauge and hence find
the linear density of the wire.
OBSERVATION TABLE

S.No Mass Tension Resonating length between two √𝑇 1 𝑇

(𝑀)𝑔𝑚 (𝑇) knife edges (𝑙) 𝑐𝑚 𝑙 𝑛=
= 𝑀𝑔 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 Mass Mass Mean 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 2𝐿 𝑚
increasing decreasing length /𝑐𝑚 𝐻𝑧
1
2
3
4

DETERMINATION OF RADIUS OF WIRE BY USING SCREW GAUGE

The radius of the sonometer wire is determined by using a screw gauge.
Zero Error = (if present)
Correction = (if present)
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
Least count = (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚)
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒(𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒)𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

OBSERVATION TABLE

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S. No 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 Head scale 𝐻. 𝑆. 𝐶 × 𝑙. 𝑐 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 =

coincidence 𝑃. 𝑆. 𝑅 + 𝐻. 𝑆. 𝐶 × 𝑙. 𝑐
(𝑃. 𝑆. 𝑅)
(𝐻. 𝑆. 𝐶) (𝑏 𝑚𝑚) (𝑎 + 𝑏 ) 𝑚𝑚
(𝑎 𝑚𝑚)

observed corrected

The average diameter of the wire, 𝑑 =. . . 𝑐𝑚

The radius of the wire, 𝑟 = 𝑑 2 = . . . 𝑐𝑚

DETERMINATION OF LINEAR DENSITY OF THE WIRE

The linear density of the wire, 𝑚 = 𝜋𝑟 𝑑 𝑔𝑚⁄𝑐𝑚
(here the density of the steel wire, 𝑑 = 7.8 𝑔𝑚⁄𝑐𝑚 ) (OR)
Length of the wire, 𝑙 =. . 𝑐𝑚
Mass of the wire, 𝑚 =. . 𝑔𝑚
Mass per unit length of the wire, 𝑚 =. . 𝑔𝑚⁄𝑐𝑚
CALCULATIONS
i. From Tabular form
The mean frequency, 𝑛 =. . . 𝐻𝑧

Frequency of A.C mains 𝑓 = 𝐻𝑧 = . . . 𝐻𝑧

ii. From Graphical Representation

A graph is to be drawn between √T on x-axis and resonating length (l) on Y-axis. It should
be a straight line passing through origin.
√
From graph, = ⋯ 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚

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𝑛 =. . . 𝐻𝑧

𝑓= 𝐻𝑧 = . . . 𝐻𝑧 Resona ng
Length (l)

√Tension (√T)

This should be approximately equal to the average

value of 𝑓 from table average value.

PERCENTAGE ERROR
Calculate the percentage error by taking standard frequency of A.C mains as 50 Hz.

𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟(𝑖𝑛 %) = × 100 = ⋯ %

VIVA-VOCE
Q. 1. What type of vibrations are produced in the sonometer wire and the surrounding
air?
Q. 2. How are stationary waves produced in the wire?
Q. 3. What do you understand by resonance?
Q. 4. Is there any difference between frequency and pitch?
Q. 5. What are the positions of nodes and antinodes on sonometer wire?
Q.6. What is the frequency of D.C?
Q.7. What do you mean by Resonating Length of the wire in the experiment?
Q.8. On which principle does the ac sonometer work?

PRECAUTIONS
1. The electromagnet should not touch the wire, it should be just above the wire.
2. Take care to see that the wire is fixed on the sonometer.
3. Determine the radius of the wire when no mass is attached to the mass hanger.

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4. The length between the two bridges is to be taken accurately when the formed
loop is stable.

EXPERIMENT – 2

HALL EFFECT
AIM: To study the Hall Effect and hence determine the Hall coefficient (𝑹𝑯 ) and
carrier density(𝒏) of a given semiconductor material.

APPARATUS: Hall Probe (Ge Crystal) 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 0.4 − 0.5 𝑚𝑚); ); Hall Probe (InAs
crystal), Hall Effect set-up, Digital mill voltmeter (0 − 200 𝑚𝑉), a constant current power
supply and an electromagnet (Field intensity (11,000 ± 5 % 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠)
FORMULA
The Hall Coefficient and carrier density are given by
Hall Coefficient, 𝑅 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 − 𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑚𝑝 − 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 = … × 10 𝑐𝑚 /coulomb
Carrier density, 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑚

where, 𝑧 is the thickness of the crystal along 𝑧 –axis, measured in cm

𝐻 is the magnetic field applied along 𝑧 –axis, measured in Gauss
𝐼 is current flowing along X-axis measured in mA
𝑉 is the Hall voltage developed across the faces normal to 𝑌-axis.
𝑞 is electronic charge and its value is 1.6 × 10 𝐶

THEORY
The Hall Effect is an important diagnostic tool for the characterization of materials –
particularly semiconductors. It provides a direct determination of both the sign of the
charge carriers, e.g. electron or holes and their density in a given sample.
If a current carrying conductor/ semiconductor is placed in a perpendicular magnetic field,
a transverse voltage will generate in the conductor/ semiconductor which is perpendicular
to both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect.

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Figure 1: Illustration of measurement of Hall Voltage

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the widthwise contacts of the Hall Probe (with Ge crystal) to the voltage
terminal and lengthwise contacts to current terminals of the Hall effect set-up.
(dimensions may vary with setup).
2. Now switch ‘ON’ the Hall Effect set up and adjust the current to a few (mA).
3. Check the ‘Zero Field Potential’ by changing knob to the voltage side. This voltage
is error voltage and should be subtracted from the Hall voltage reading. (i.e., when
Hall probe is outside the magnetic field).
4. Now place the Hall probe in the magnetic field. This Hall probe must be fitted in
the wooden stand before placing in magnetic field so that Hall probe becomes
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
5. Switch on the electromagnet power supply by connecting the pole piece to the
power supply.
6. Now place the Hall probe (InAs) attached with Gauss-meter between the pole
pieces to measure the magnetic field.
7. Measure the Hall voltage as a function of current keeping the magnetic field
constant (Table – 1).
8. Measure the Hall voltage as a function of magnetic field keeping a suitable value
of current as constant (This is done by placing two probes between the pole pieces
and decrease the spacing between the pole piece and measure the magnetic field
and Hall voltage). (Table – 2).
9. Plot the graph between 𝑉 and I (when 𝐻 = constant); 𝑉 and 𝐻 (when I =
constant).
10. Calculate the slope (𝑉 ⁄𝐼 )and (𝑉 ⁄𝐻 ) from the two graphs and calculate Hall
coefficient in two ways and determine the mean value.

OBSERVATION TABLES
Thickness of the semiconductor crystal, 𝑧 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚 = 0.05 𝑐𝑚

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Table – 1

S. Current Hall Voltage 𝑉 (𝑚𝑉)

No 𝐼 (𝑚𝐴) 𝐻 = 500 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝐻 = 1000 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠
1
2
3
4
5

Table – 2
S. Magnetic Hall Voltage 𝑉 (𝑚𝑉)
No Field 𝐻 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝐼 = 5 𝑚𝐴 𝐼 = 10 𝑚𝐴
1
2
3
4
5

GRAPHS
Two graphs are drawn to analyze the variations of Hall voltage versus current and Hall
voltage versus magnetic field.
A graph is drawn by taking the variation of Hall voltage (𝑉 ) along 𝑌-axis and current
𝐼 (𝑚𝐴) along 𝑋-axis (for Table -1) as shown in Figure 2. Similarly another graph is drawn
by taking the variation of Hall voltage (𝑉 ) along 𝑌-axis and current 𝐻 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 along.𝑋-
axis (for Table -2) as shown in Figure 3.
Graph-1 Graph-2
Hall Voltage V (mV)

𝐻 = 1000 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠

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Current, 𝐼 (𝑚𝐴)
 B. Tech Biomedical Engineering (2024) Laboratory Manual

𝐼 = 10 𝑚𝐴

Hall Voltage V (mV)

𝐻

Magnetic Field, 𝐻 (𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠)

Figure 2. Plot of V (mV) versus I Figure 3. Plot of V (mV)

versus H

CALCULATIONS
Determine the slopes from two graphs to find out 𝑅 and 𝑅 respectively to calculate
Hall coefficient (𝑅 ).

Graph 1
Slope from graph 1, = . . 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 ⁄𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝑧 𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 − 𝑐𝑚
𝑅 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝 − 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 = … × 10 𝑐𝑚 /coulomb
𝐻 𝐼

Graph 2
Slope from graph 1 , = . . 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 ⁄𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠
Hall coefficient,
𝑧 𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 − 𝑐𝑚
𝑅 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝 − 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 = … × 10 𝑐𝑚 /coulomb
𝐼 𝐻
( )
The Hall coefficient is found to be 𝑅 = = . . 𝑐𝑚 /coulomb
Hence, the carrier density value is
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 , 𝒏 = = (………. )( . × )
= . .∕
/
𝑐𝑚

RESULT
The value of Hall Coefficient for the given semiconductor, (𝑅 ) = … 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑚𝑏
The carrier density, 𝑛 = . .∕ 𝑐𝑚

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PRECAUTIONS
1. The Hall probe is placed between the pole pieces (in magnetic field) such that
maximum Hall voltage is generated.
2. Current through the Hall probe should be strictly within the limit as mentioned by the
manufacturer.
3. Hall voltage developed must be measured very accurately.
4. Magnetic field is varied gradually in steps to avoid damage to the electromagnetic
coils.

VIVA-VOCE
1. What is the Hall Effect?
2. What are n-type and p-type semiconductors?
3. On what factor, the sign of the Hall potential difference develops?
4. Why is the potential difference developed when a transverse magnetic field is
applied to a current carrying conductor?
5. How will you determine the direction of the force exerted on the charge carriers?
6. What is the Hall coefficient? What are its units?
7. What is the effect of temperature on Hall coefficient of a lightly doped
semiconductor?
8. Why the resistance of the sample increases with the increase of magnetic field?

APPLICATIONS
Automotive Industry: Level/tilt measurement sensor, throttle angle sensor automotive
sensors, crankshaft position or speed sensor, anti-skid sensor, door interlock and ignition
sensor, transmission mounted speed sensor, rpm sensors, distributor mounted ignition
sensor etc.
Electronic industry: Sequencing sensors, magnetic card reader, proximity sensors,
office machine sensors, adjustable current sensors, linear feedback sensor, multiple
position sensor, microprocessor controlled sensors, brushless dc motor sensors etc.
Aerospace Industry: Temperature or pressure sensor, remote conveyor sensing.

EXPERIMENT – 3
STUDY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION- FARADAY’S LAWS
AIM
1. To study the induced emf as a function of velocity of the magnet passing through
the coil.

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2. To study the charge delivered due to electromagnetic induction.
APPARATUS
The experimental setup consists of a permanent magnet mounted on an arc of a
semicircle (D shaped) of radius 40 𝑐𝑚, measurement board consisting of voltmeter,
milliammeter, resistance, condenser and diode. The arc is part of a rigid frame of
aluminum and is suspended at the center so that the whole frame can oscillate freely in
its plane. (Fig. 1.)
THEORY
Weight (A,A) (Fig. 2) have been provided on the diagonal arm, so that by altering positions
the time period of oscillation can be varied
from about 1.5 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 . Two coils of
about 10000 turns of copper wire looped
around the arc in such a way that the
magnet can pass freely through the coil.
The two coils are independent and can be
connected either in series or parallel. The
amplitude of the swing can be read from
the graduated circle by the pointer, when
the magnet moves through and out of the
coil changing the magnetic flux through
the and inducing the emf.
The panel of the measurement board
consist of one voltmeter with four different
ranges 0−
2.5 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠, 5 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠, 10 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠, 20 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 and
one ammeter with two ranges
1 𝑚𝐴, 2.5 𝑚𝐴. The measurement board
also has four different condensers, five
resistances , two diodes and one SPST
(single pole single throw) switch for performing Fig. 1. Experimental setup of Faraday’s law
experiments.
Features
Mechanical part consisting of a permanent magnet mounted on an arc of semicircle of
radius 40cm. The arc is part of a rigid frame of aluminum and is suspended at the centre
so that the whole frame can oscillate freely in its plane. Weights have been provided on
the diagonal arm, so that by altering their position, the time period of oscillation can be
varied from about 1.5 to 3 sec.
The two coils are independent and can be connected either in series or parallel. The
amplitude of the swing can be read from the graduated circle by the pointer, when the
magnet moves through and out of the coil changing the magnetic flux through the and
inducing the emf. The panel of the measurement board consist of one voltmeter with four
different ranges 0-2.5V, 5V, 10V, 20V and one ammeter with two ranges 1mA, 2.5mA.

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BASIC PRINCIPLE
The basic principle of generation of alternating emf is based on phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction, discovered by Michael Faraday. In this phenomenon. emf, is
induced in a closed circuit due to change in magnetic flux linkage with the circuit. This
induced emf, V (Volts), is equal to time rate of change of the magnetic flux linked with
the circuit. Mathematically,
∅
V =− = −𝑁 ……………………….. (1)

Where 𝜆 = 𝑁∅ = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 and ø represents flux through each turn and N is the
number of turns. The negative sign shows that the induced voltage acts in such a way
that it opposes the flux producing it known as Lenz’s law.

STUDY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND VERIFICATION OF FARADAY’S

LAW.

The experiment is performed in two parts.

Part 1.To study the induced emf as a function of velocity of the magnet passing
through the coil.
Magnet NS can pass through the coil C coil 1 OR 2) with varying velocities (Fig.2.) The
aluminum frame can swing about a pivot O and its period is adjustable by sliding the loads
A, A. If D (D-shape arc) is released from
angle θ0 from the equilibrium, the
velocity, Vmax, with which the magnet
passes through the coil is given by
𝑉 = 𝑃 sin 𝜃 ……………(2)
Where P is radius of D-shape arc (=
40 𝑐𝑚).
The magnetic flux (fig.3.) through the
coil (∅) changes as the magnet NS
passes through it, also two pulses with
opposite signs are generated in the coil for each swing. The peak
(𝐸 ) corresponds to the maximum .

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Fig. 3. Time Variation of Magnetic Flux ∅ and emf 𝑬

PROCEDURE
Fig. 4. Circuit Diagram for measuring 𝑉
1. Make the circuit as shown in Fig.4. Keep the switch
S in OFF position. 𝐶 = 100 𝜇𝐹 and 𝑅 = 500 Ω (here
R1 represents the internal resistance of the coil and the forward resistance of the diode
D.) At each swing, the diode permits the capacitor to gain a charge once. The charging
time RC being ≈ 50 𝑚𝑠. and the pulse width 𝜏 (Fig.3) being a little smaller, the capacitor
reaches the 𝐸 value in a few swings.
2. When the milliammeter shows no more kicks,
it means that the capacitor C has reached the
potential 𝐸 . Measure this potential by
changing switch to ON position and take
readings on Voltmeter.
3. Vary 𝑉 by choosing different 𝜃 values and
measure E0 each time.
4. Plot a graph of 𝐸 versus 𝑉 and observe it
is linear.
5. Repeat after shifting the loads A, A (Fig.2.) so
that T changes. The 𝐸 versus 𝑉 data in
this set-up fall on the same graph line as in step 4.
OBSERVATION TABLE 1

S.No. Release Capacitor 𝑉

angle 𝜃 Potential 4𝜋 1
=𝑃 sin 𝜃
(𝑑𝑒𝑔) 𝐸 𝑇 2
(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠) (𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠𝑐𝑒)

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1

4
𝑃 =. . 𝑐𝑚, 𝑇 =. . 𝑠𝑒𝑐, 𝑅 =. . 𝑜ℎ𝑚, 𝐶 =. . 𝜇𝐹)
Fig.5. Ideal graph showing the
variation of Induced emf with 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙

Part 2. To study the charge delivered due to

electromagnetic induction
The induced emf V (eq.1) is applied in a
circuit of resistance 𝑅 the charge delivered is
given by

q= ∫ dt = − ∫ dt = − (Φ − Φ )………(4)

When the diode in the circuit of Fig.6 through the capacitor 𝐶 integrates one pulse of Fig.3
and does not receive the opposite pulse. The charge collected is (1⁄𝑅 ) times the ∫ V 𝑑𝑡.
PROCEDURE
1 Make the connections as shown in Fig 6,keeping 𝑅𝐶 to be large as compared with
pulse-width 𝜏 (Fig 3), by connecting resistance 𝑅 (given on the panel) in the circuit
approximately given by the magnet length divided by 𝑉 . With a given release angle
𝜃 ,measure 𝑉 across the capacitor for N swings taking 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … by turns. (Each
time hold the D by hand after n (𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … ) swings are completed and measure
𝑉).
2. Plot 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 against number of swings (n). Observe the plot to be a straight line as
shown in
Fig 7.
3. Repeat with a different 𝑅 values and observe the new 𝑞 versus 𝑛 curves.

OBSERVATION TABLE 2
Capacitance (𝑪) in circuit = …….
Fig. 6. Circuit Diagram for measuring
Charge

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Release angle 𝜽𝟎 (deg) = ………
S.No 𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚) 𝑅 (𝑜ℎ𝑚)
Charge Charge
Swing V (…) Swing V (…)
Q=CV Q=CV
𝒏 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠) 𝒏 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)
(𝜇𝐶) (𝜇𝐶)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Fig.7. Graph showing the

variation of Induced
charge with no. of Oscillations

RESULT
(To be interpreted by the student basing on the observed data)
VIVA VOCE

1. What is electromagnetic induction?

2. State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
3. Why Michael Faraday is called the father of electricity though he was not the one who
discovered electricity?
4. What is damping?
5. What are eddy currents?
6. State Lenz law.

APPLICATIONS

The ground fault interrupter (gfi) is an interesting safety device that protects users of
electrical appliances against electric shock andits operation makes use of faraday’s law.

1. Another interesting application of faraday’s law is the production of sound in an electric

guitar.

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2. Generators and motors.

EXPERIMENT – 4
VARIATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD WITH DISTANCE ALONG THE AXIS OF A
CIRCULAR COIL

AIM: To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a
current carrying circular coil and hence estimate the radius of the coil.
APPARATUS: Tangent galvanometer of the Stewart and Gee type, Battery eliminator,
Rheostat, Commutator, Plug key and connecting wires.
FORMULA
The magnetic field on the axis of a circular coil is given by:
2𝜋𝑛𝐼𝑎
𝐵=
10(𝑎 + 𝑥 )
Where 𝑛 = number of turns in the coil
𝒂 = radius of the coil in cm
I = current in the coil in amperes
𝒙 = distance of the point from the centre of the coil in cm

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THEORY
If we pass a current of I ampere in the coil keeping it vertical in magnetic N-S direction
and place the needle at a distance x from the centre on any side of the arm, the magnetic
field 𝐵 acting on the needle due to the
current in the coil is given by
2𝜋𝑛𝐼𝑎
𝐵 =
10(𝑎 + 𝑥 )
This acts East-West in horizontal plane.
The horizontal component of earth
magnetic field 𝐵 acts on the needle in N-
S direction horizontally. Thus two mutually
perpendicular coplanar magnetic fields
act on the needle deflecting it. According to tangent law:
𝐵 = 𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃

or, = 𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
( )

Hence, the variation of 𝜃 with 𝑥 is studied which gives the variation of magnetic field
along the axis of the circular coil.

PROCEDURE
1. The apparatus called Stewart and Gee tangent galvanometer is used to study the
variation of magnetic field along the axis of current carrying circular coil and is shown
in the figure.
2. Rotate the whole apparatus in the horizontal plane such that the coil lies in the
magnetic meridian roughly. In this case the coil, needle and its image all lie in the
same vertical plane. Rotate the compass box till the pointer ends read 0° − 0° on the
circular scale.
3. To set the coil exactly in the magnetic meridian, send the electric current in one
direction with the help of commutator and note down the deflection of the needle.
Now reverse the direction of the current and again note down the deflection. If the
deflections are equal then the coil is in magnetic meridian.
4. With the help of rheostat, adjust the current such that the deflection in the compass
box should be 65° 𝑡𝑜 70° when it is placed at the center of the coil.
5. Displace the compass box on the bench through 2 𝑐𝑚. each time along the axis of
the coil and for each position note down the mean deflection.
6. Repeat the measurements exactly in the same manner on the other side of the coil.

OBSERVATION TABLE

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Current , 𝑰 =. . 𝑨𝒎𝒑

S. Dist Deflection on Eastern Arm Deflection on Western Arm Mea 𝐵

N anc n tan = 𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
Current Current M 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 Curren Current M 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
o. e θ
in one in other e t in in other e
𝑥 𝑐𝑚
direction direction one direction a
a
directio n
(Direct) (Revers n (Revers
n
e) e)
(Direct
𝜃
𝜃 )
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
1. 0
2. 2
3 4

Graph
Plot a graph taking distance along X-axis and tan θ along Y-axis. Mark the pointsof
inflection P and Q and hence the radius of the coil.
Result
(i) The graph shows the variation of Magnetic field along the axis of a Current carrying
circular coil.
(ii) The radius of the coil (𝑅 ) =. . 𝑐𝑚

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Standard result
The radius of the coil as estimated by measuring its circumference (𝑅 ) = 10 𝑐𝑚
Percentage error
(𝑹𝒎 − 𝑹𝒔 )
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = . . %
𝑹𝒔
where 𝑅 and 𝑅 are the measured and the standard values of the radius.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The coil should be adjusted carefully in the magnetic meridian.
2. All the magnetic materials and current carrying conductors should be at a
considerable distance from the apparatus.
3. The current passed in the coil should be of such a value so as to produce a deflection
of nearly 65°.
4. Before reading the two ends of the pointer parallax between the pointer and its image
in the plane mirror should be removed so as to record the correct value of the
deflection.
5. The curve should be drawn smoothly.

VIVA-VOCE
Q. 1 : What do you mean by a uniform magnetic field?
Q. 2 : What is magnetic effect of a current?
Q. 3 : What is the Tangent law?
Q. 4 : What is magnetic meridian?
Q. 5 : How the coil is set in the magnetic meridian? How can you test this setting?
Q. 6 : What is the direction of the magnetic field produced by the coil?
Q. 7 : Why is it necessary to set the coil ion the magnetic meridian?
Q. 8 : Why both the ends of the pointer in the compass box be read?
Q. 9 : Why the readings must be repeated after reversing the current?
Q. 10 : How does the field vary along the axis of the coil?
Q. 11 : What is the magnitude of the field at the centre of the coil?
Q. 12 : Is the field uniform at the centre?
Q. 13 : Will the presence of any current carrying conductor close by, will affect the
results?
Q. 14 : How do you find out the radius of the coil from 𝑥 x Vs tan 𝜃 from graph?

APPLICATIONS
Motors, transformers, microphones, compasses, telephone bell ringers, television
focusing controls, advertising displays, magnetically levitated high-speed vehicles,
memory stores, magnetic separators etc.

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EXPERIMENT -5
OPTICAL FIBRE

AIM: To determine the;

(1) numerical aperture (𝑵𝑨)
(2) power losses due to macro-bending and adaptor of given optical fibre.

APPARATUS: 𝐿𝐸𝐷, 𝑁𝐴 Jig, 𝐷. 𝑀. 𝑀, scaled screen, adaptor, one and three meter length
of optical fiber, mandrel.
PRINCIPLE & FORMULA: The Numerical Aperture (𝑁𝐴) of an optical fiber (step-
index) is given by;
B
𝑁. 𝐴. = 𝑛 − 𝑛

Op cal Fibre O
= sin 𝑖 A
W
or 𝑖 = sin (𝑁𝐴) (1)

𝑛 = refractive index of core, L D

𝑛 = refractive index of cladding
𝑖 = acceptance angle Figure 1

As shown in figure 1, light from the end of the optical fiber ‘A’ falls on the screen BD. Let
the diameter of light falling on the screen 𝐵𝐷 = 𝑊, Let the distance between end of the
fiber and the screen 𝑂𝐴 = 𝐿. knowing W and L, the numerical aperture. can be
calculated and substituting this 𝑁𝐴 value in Eq. (1), the acceptance angle 𝜃 can be
calculated.
Losses of power in a fibre optic cable are mainly due to the absorption or scattering of
light with an Optical fibre. Macro-bending and joints between the cables (adaptor). This
loss of power ‘P’ from input (𝑃 ) to output (𝑃 ) at a distance 𝐿 can be written as;
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑒
where,  is the attenuation coefficient in decibels (𝑑𝐵) per unit length, measured in
𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚.
PROCEDURE:

1. Insert one end of either one or three meter length optical fiber cable to the . Switch

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on the 𝐿𝐸𝐷, then red light will appear at the end of the fiber. Turn Power knob, the
intensity will increase. Arrange the scaled screen at a distance 𝐿 and then view the
red spot on the screen. Measure the diameter of the spot (𝑤). Note the measured
values 𝐿 and 𝑊.
Repeat the experiment with different distances and note the readings.

2. Insert one end of the three meter length plastic optical fibre cable to the FOLED
and connect another end to the power meter module. Connect 𝐷. 𝑀. 𝑀. test leads
to 𝑃 , red lead to red socket and black lead to black socket respectively. Set
𝐷. 𝑀. 𝑀. to 200 𝑚𝑉 range. Switch on the 𝐿𝐸𝐷, adjust the Set Po knob to set output
power of the FOLED to the value −22 𝑑𝐵𝑚 (milli decibels) i.e., 𝐷. 𝑀. 𝑀. reading
will be −220 𝑚𝑉, note this as 𝑃 , wind the fibre on the mandrel and note the reading
as 𝑃 𝑤 , similarly for two and three turns. Note the readings as 𝑃 𝑤 and 𝑃 𝑤
respectively.
Tabular Form 1

𝑊 𝑖
𝑁𝐴 =
S. 𝐿 ( 𝑚𝑚) 𝑊 ( 𝑚𝑚) ⌊4𝐿 + 𝑊 ⌋
No

3. Connect one meter cable as given above and set 𝐷. 𝑀. 𝑀. for a constant value
(~120 𝑚𝑉) and note the reading as 𝑃 . Similarly take 𝑃 by replacing one meter
cable with three meter cable without disturbing set 𝑃 /𝐼 knob. Now join the 1 𝑚 1m
and 3 𝑚 cables with the adapter as shown in the figure and note 𝐷. 𝑀. 𝑀. reading
as 𝑃 .
Tabular Form 2

𝑥 𝑂⁄𝑃 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) Loss due to turns (𝑑𝐵𝑚)

𝑃0 -
𝑃𝑤 - (𝑃 0 − 𝑃 𝑤 )
𝑃𝑤 - (𝑃 0 − 𝑃 𝑤 )

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𝑃𝑤 - (𝑃 0 − 𝑃 𝑤 )

OBSERVATIONS
𝑃 =
𝑃 =
𝑃 =
CALCULATIONS
Take 𝑃 , 𝑃 and 𝑃 as shown in Fig., without disturbing the SET 𝑃 / 𝐼 knob.

Loss in one meter cable (𝑋) = (𝑃 − 𝑃 )/2

Loss due to adopter = 𝑃 − 𝑃 − 3𝑋 =

PO P1 PO P2
1m cable
3m cable

P P
O 3

1m cable
3m cable
Adapter
Figure 8.2
RESULT
1. 𝑁𝐴 of given Optical fiber is ———————
2. Power loss due to one turn—————— 𝑑𝐵𝑚, two turns ————— 𝑑𝐵𝑚 and three
turns ——— 𝑑𝐵𝑚
3. Power loss due to one meter cable—————— 𝑑𝐵𝑚 and due to adaptor ——— 𝑑𝐵𝑚
PRECAUTIONS
1. Gently insert the optical fiber cable is to 𝐿𝐸𝐷 by turning clockwise direction of its clinch
nut. (until you feel the fiber touches the micro lens)
2. Do not push applying over force which may damage micro lens
3. Gently tight the clinch nut that holds the inserted fiber firmly.
4. Before taking reading check out fiber is free of all twists and strains.
5. Two cables must meet at the center of the adopter while taking P 3 reading.

VIVA VOCE
1. What do you mean by numerical aperture?
2. On what factors the numerical aperture depends?

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3. What do you mean by acceptance angle?
4. On what factors the acceptance angle of the fiber depends?
5. A fiber with high numerical aperture (𝑁𝐴) is preferable or not? Why?
6. What is irradiance?
7. What do you mean by bandwidth?

APPLICATIONS:
Telecommunications
Local Area Networks (𝐿𝐴𝑁) and Wide Area Networks (𝑊𝐴𝑁)
Factory Automation, premises. Wiring, Fiber-Optic biomedical sensors, Endoscopic
Imaging, Aerospace and Military Applications, Fiber Optic Sensors.

REFERENCES:
1 Practical Physics – Gupta Kumar
2 A text book of Practical Physics – R. K. Goel, Govind Ram
3 B. Sc. Practical Physics – C. L. Arora
4 Electronics fundamentals and applications – Ryder, J. D.
5 Properties of silicon and germanium – Conwell, E. M.
6 Engineering Physics- M. N. Avadhanulu, A. A. Dani and P. M. Pokley
7 A Laboratory Manual of Physics – D. P. Khandelwal
8 B.Sc. Practical Physics – Harnam Singh

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EXPERIMENT-6
LASER DIFFRACTION

AIM
To Measure the diameter of a thin wire (human hair) by Laser Diffraction

APPARATUS
He- Ne Laser Experimental setup, Thin wire, screen.

THEORY: Often it is necessary to determine the diameter of a fine wire, thin thread or
other object that cannot be measured by convectional means. These can be measured
by using methods of diffraction and interference known as Young’s Double Slit
Experiment. While Young’s experiment deals with the pattern of light impinging on two
narrows slits separated by a small distance. The method can be applied to an object with
a small diameter as well, where the diameter is within an order of magnitude of the
wavelength of laser light used.

FORMULA: Thin wire (human hair) diffraction is equivalent to double slits diffraction,
hence, diffraction formula can be written as
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒,  = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ,

𝑚 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟,  = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

If the screen is placed far away (wire to screen distance, D is >> d) from wire then we
can approximately write the above equation as
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚𝐷
𝑑 = = = = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛  𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑌 , 𝑌 ,
𝐷
𝐷 𝑌 ,
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 = where, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

So, plotting a graph between Ym,avg vs m one can find a slope from the graph. Using
measured value of 𝐷 and known value of  can calculate the diameter of a thin wire.

PROCEDURE:
1 Take a 15 𝑐𝑚 by a 15 𝑐𝑚 cardboard piece and make a 10 𝑐𝑚 by 10 𝑐𝑚 hole in it
as in figure below. This is your mounting bracket.

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2. Select one strand of wire (or human hair) approximately 15 − 25 𝑐𝑚 long. This wire
(or hair) needs to be mounted on the mounting bracket from step 1.
3 Mount the wire (or hair) on the bracket using tape. Place the wire (or hair) so that
it bisects the mounting bracket as in figure-a. Ensure the wire (or hair) is taut and
straight.

4. Set the laser beam (Say 𝐻𝑒 − 𝑁𝑒 laser beam) on the lab table. Positioning the
laser beam so as to strike the wire (or hair) mounted as in figure-b (above). In
practice, in our lab we have a set-up as below.

5. Make sure
the laser setup and mounting bracket face a screen or wall.
6. Note the following key parameters on the data sheet provided. Wavelength of the
laser is 𝜆 = 632.5 𝑛𝑚. Record the distance (𝐷, keep as large as possible) between
the mounting bracket and screen (or wall) using a measuring tape.
7. Examine the pattern striking the screen. It should appear similar to the image
below. (You may need to darken the work area or room to see the faint higher order
bands.)

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8. Carefully measure the BRIGHT SPOTS (remember: thin wire diffraction is

equivalent to double slit diffraction, hence, bright spots to be considered) by
measuring from the center of the bright central spot.
9. Mark starting and ending of any bright spot and subsequently, find the middle of
the spot as in figure below. Similarly mark all the spots in the left hand side and
right hand side (NOTE: it would be fine if you only mark centre of each spot
because finally we will take average value and plot the graph between the orders
and average spot distance).
10. Record as many orders as possible (say, up to 10 orders).

11. Tabulate the data as below.

Order 𝑌 𝑌 𝑌 𝐷 From Diamater, % Error
s (𝑚) (𝑐𝑚) (𝑐𝑚) (𝑐𝑚) (𝑐𝑚) graph 𝑑 𝑑 −𝑑
𝐷 =
(𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡) (𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑝𝑒 = 𝑑
𝑌 , =
(𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒) 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 × 100
𝑚
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

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10

12. Plot the graph between 𝑌 vs m (m along X −

axis and 𝑌 along Y − axis. . Typical graph
is as shown.
13. Find slope.
14. From graph calculate slope, diameter and %
error using the formula mentioned in the above
table.

CALCULATIONS
Show all the calculations explicitly. For, example, slope, diameter, error etc.

RESULTS: Write the final result with % error

VIVA VOCE:
1. What other items could you measure using this technique?
2. What will happen if the diameter of wire is very thick?
3. Can this experiment be performed with other laser?
4. What is He-Ne laser? How it works?
5. Why we can’t measure thin wire diameter using screw gauge?
6. What is diameter of dust particle (floating in air)?

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EXPERIMENT-7
SOLAR CELL CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: Study of both the current - voltage characteristic and the power curve to find
the maximum power point (𝑴𝑷𝑷) and efficiency of a solar cell.

APPARATUS: Solar panel consist of six solar Cells, Table lamp, Digital/Analog D.C
ammeter and voltmeter.
THEORY
A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy.
Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture
energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the light source is
unspecified. Fundamentally, the device needs to fulfill only two functions: photo
generation of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in a light-absorbing material, and
separation of the charge carriers to a conductive contact that will transmit the electricity.
This conversion is called the photovoltaic effect, and the field of research related to solar
cells is known as photovoltaic.

SIMPLE EXPLANATION
1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials,

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such as silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to
flow through the material to produce electricity. The complementary positive charges
that are also created (like bubbles) are called holes and flow in the direction opposite
of the electrons in a silicon solar panel.
3. An array of solar panels converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current
(𝐷𝐶) electricity.

PHOTO GENERATION OF CHARGE CARRIER

When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:
1. The photon can pass straight through the silicon this (generally) happens for lower
energyphotons,
2. The photon can reflect off the surface,
3. The photon can be absorbed by the silicon which either generates heat or generates
electron-hole pairs, if the photon energy is higher than the silicon band gap value.

CHARGE CARRIER SEPARATION

There are two main modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell:
1. Drift of carriers, driven by an electrostatic field established across the device
2. Diffusion of carriers from zones of high carrier concentration to zones of low carrier
concentration (following a gradient of electrochemical potential).
In the widely used 𝑝 − 𝑛 junction designed solar cells, the dominant mode of charge
carrier separation is by drift. However, in non- 𝑝 − 𝑛 junction designed solar cells (typical
of the third generation of solar cell research such as dye and polymer thin-film solar cells),
a general electrostatic field has been confirmed to be absent, and the dominant mode of
separation is via charge carrier diffusion.
PROCEDURE
1. Take the Solar Energy Trainer 𝑁𝑉 6005 along with Solar Panel.
2. Place the solar panel in the stand and adjust the panel at an angle of about 45° with the
ground. Direct the sunlight straight at the solar panel (angle of 90° ).
Note: If sunlight is not properly available then any source of light like lamp can be used.
3. With the 𝐷𝐵 15 connector connect the Solar Energy Trainer 𝑁𝑉 6005 with solar panel.
Then wait for aminute to avoid errors due to temperature fluctuations.
4. Set the potentiometer to maximum resistance i.e. at fully clockwise position and
measure and record its resistance into the Observation Table.
5. Connect the solar cell as shown in the following circuit diagram as shown in figure 3.
a. Connect positive terminal of solar cell to 𝑃1 terminal of the potentiometer.
b. Connect other end of potentiometer i.e. 𝑃2 to positive terminal of ammeter.
c. Connect negative terminal of ammeter to negative terminal of solar cell.
d. Now connect the positive terminal of voltmeter to 𝑃1 and negative terminal of
voltmeter to 𝑃2.
6. Record the values of corresponding voltage and current into the observation Table.

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7. Now gradually move the potentiometer in anti- clockwise direction so that the
resistance of the potentiometer decreases. Now measure the resistances at
successively smaller values and record the corresponding values of voltages and
current in the observation table given below.
Note: Always to measure the resistance of potentiometer at any position, first remove the
patch cords from P1and P2 and measure resistance by multi meter. Reconnect these
connections again for further measurements.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Voltage Resistance Power Calculated
S.No. Current𝐼 (𝑚𝐴)
𝑉 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡) 𝑅 (𝑂ℎ𝑚) 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)
1
2
3
4
5

8. Plot the 𝑉 − 𝐼 characteristics from the measurements recorded in the table, to show
how the photoelectric current depends on the photoelectric voltage and to find
maximum power point.

Figure 3: Current voltage characteristics. Figure 4: Power curve of the

solar cell of the solar Cellas a function of voltage
Fill-Factor Calculation
Fill factor is the ratio of maximum useful power to ideal power:Maximum useful power is
the area of largest rectangle that can be formed under V-I curve. V and I are values of
voltage and current for these conditions.
Maximum useful power = V × I (𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)

Ideal power = V × I (𝑚𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡)

V = 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑚𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡)

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I = 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡(𝑚𝐴)
V ×I
Fill factor =
V ×I
From 𝑉 − 𝐼 characteristics you can find the maximum power point (𝑀𝑃𝑃). 𝑀𝑃𝑃
occurs where the product voltage and current is greatest.
Plot the curve of power as a function of voltage from the measurements recorded in
the table.
Expected Power - Voltage curve is as shown in figure 4.
The maximum power point (𝑀𝑃𝑃) is the maximum value of power in the above curve.
The resistance, 𝑅𝑀𝑃𝑃, at which the output power is at a maximum, can be calculated
using the following formula:
𝑉
𝑅 = (𝑜ℎ𝑚)
𝐼

TO CALCULATE THE EFFICIENCY (𝜼) OF SOLAR CELL

The efficiency of the solar cell is the ratio of produced electrical power (Pout) and the
incident radiant power (𝑃 ).
Efficiency of solar cell, 𝜂 = = ⋯%
where 𝑃 is the output electrical power (maximum power point).
𝑃 is calculated by multiplying approximated irradiance (“irradiance” means radiant
power of the light incident per unit area) by the effective area of the solar cell on the panel.
This method used the fact that the practical value of the current (maximum photoelectric
current measured) is proportional to the photons (radiation) striking the solar cell. This
current is therefore proportional to the incident radiant power of the light.
The open circuit voltage depends on the semiconductor material of which solar cell is
made. It is not proportional to the incident radiant power and therefore cannot be used
for this measurement.
Efficiency of solar cell, 𝜂 =
where 𝑃 (Output Electrical Power) = Maximum Power Point (𝑀𝑃𝑃)
𝑃 (Incident radiant power) = Approximated IrradiancexArea of the solar cells.
𝑃 = 𝐹 × 𝐼 × 𝐴, ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 A = Area of a solar cell (Length x Breadth) 𝑚 ,
here
𝐼 = Practical value of current (maximum photoelectric current measured) indicated
on the ammeter,
𝐹 is a constant and is given by
𝐹
Maximum Solar Irradiance( speci ied by Manufacturer)or ( the power of the source used)
=
Maximum Value of Current

The maximum irradiance in summer is approx. 1000 𝑊/𝑚 (or the power of the source

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used). The maximum value of the current specified by the manufacturer is achieved at
this value i.e. 150 𝑚𝐴 in the given solar cells. (The parameters of the solar cell/panel are
related to the standard test conditions of 1000 𝑊/𝑚 and cell temperature of 25° 𝐶)

1000𝑊/𝑚
𝐹=
150mA

𝑊
𝐹 = 6.67
𝑚 . 𝑚𝐴

Multiplying the practical value of current (𝐼 ) indicated on the ammeter by the factor
gives anapproximation of the radiant power per unit area (irradiance) striking the solar
cell.
𝑊
𝐹 = 6.67
𝑚 . 𝑚𝐴

The efficiencies of solar cells lie between 12 𝑡𝑜 15 %. If efficiency is slightly less than
determined value then it is due to measuring errors and inaccuracies in determining the
incident radiant power. Furthermore, the efficiency of solar panel is less than that of their
separate constituent cells. This is caused by losses that arise in matching solar cells that
do not all have exactly the same properties. If the solar cells are connected in series to
generate desired voltage, the maximum power point may not be same for all cells. Solar
cell losses arise as not all photons striking the solar cell can be converted into charge
carriers. Part of the light is reflected as soon as it hits the surface and the metal contacts
cast shadows. Since the photon energy does not correspond to the energy gap, less than
half of the incident energy is used. Recombination of charge carriers (atomic rebinding of
electrons) and electrical losses caused by internal resistances (ohmic losses in the
semiconductor) of the solar cell and its contacts also arise.
RESULT
The efficiency of the given solar cell is 𝜂 = ⋯ %
PRECAUTIONS
1. Do not make inter connections on the board with mains switched ON.
2. All the connections should be tight.
3. Switch off after taking the readings.

VIVA-VOCE
1. What is solar cell?
2. Why solar cell is also called photovoltaic cell?
3. What are the uses of solar cell?
4. What do you mean photoelectric effect?
5. On what factors does the photocurrent depend?
6. Define the efficiency of Solar Cell?

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7. How does temperature effect efficiency of solar cell/photo voltaic cell.
8. What happens to the current when Photo voltaic cells are connected in series and in
parallel.
9. What is the order of current in photo voltaic cell?
10. Define a fill factor of a photo voltaic cell.

APPLICATIONS
1. Telecommunication systems: Radio transceivers on mountain tops or telephone boxes
in the country can often be solar powered.
2. Remote monitoring and control: scientific research stations, seismic recording,
weather stations, etc. use very little power which, in combination with a dependable
battery, is provided reliably by a small PV module.
3. Ocean navigation aids: many lighthouses are powered by solar cells.
4. Water Pumping/Rural Electrification/Domestic supply
Health care/lighting, electronic industry and electric power generation in space.

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EXPERIMENT-8
PLANCK’S CONSTANT

AIM: Determination of Planck’s constant using light emitting diodes(𝐿𝐸𝐷𝑠).

APPARATUS: Variable 𝐷𝐶 power source, 𝐷𝐶 Voltmeter, 𝐷𝐶 Ammeter, Different color

𝐿𝐸𝐷𝑠.

FORMULA & THEORY

To explain the famous ultra-violet catastrophe (black body spectrum), Max-Planck
proposed an idea that light is emitted in discrete packets/quanta known as photons. The
question was how big is an energy packet or a photon? It was subsequently determined
that a photon energy (𝐸) is given by 𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 where 𝜐 the frequency of light and ℎ is the
Planck’s constant, ℎ = 6.63 × 10 𝐽 − 𝑠.
The objective of this experiment is to determine the value of ℎ using light emitting diodes
(𝐿𝐸𝐷𝑠) by observing the ‘reverse photo-electric effect’.
In case of the photoelectric effect, an electron is emitted from metal if the energy of the
photon is greater than the work function of the metal. If the energy of the said photon is
greater than the work function of the given material then the electron emitted possesses
a voltage, which equals the difference in these energies. In case of an 𝐿𝐸𝐷, the opposite
is true. If an electron of sufficient voltage is passed across a material then a photon is
emitted whose energy is equivalent to the work function of that material. The voltage at
which this effect is first observed is the ‘turn-on voltage’. This effect is not normally
observed in metals and other typical substances because the photons emitted are
outside the range of visible light, usually somewhere in infrared. In addition, the materials
in question are rarely transparent to the photons that they emit. Fortunately, many years
of research have been put forth to develop 𝐿𝐸𝐷𝑠 that work well and are relatively cheap,
making the materials relatively simple to acquire.
PLANCK'S CONSTANT:
Planck's constant is the fundamental constant in modern physics. It relates the energy of
a photon to its frequency. To determine this constant we use light emitting diodes
(𝐿𝐸𝐷𝑠). Diodes emitting different colors of light are available in today’s market. Each color
is achieved by having a slightly different semiconductor material. This experiment has
being carried out in many manners with a variety of 𝐿𝐸𝐷𝑠. We choose to do the
experiment using a number of 𝐿𝐸𝐷𝑠, with different colors including Blue, Green, Red and
Orange.
The experiment is based on the fact that the energy of the photon relates to its frequency
as:
𝐸 = ℎ𝜐, Where, 𝐸 is the energy of photon, ℎ is the Planck’s constant and 𝜐 is the
frequency of the emitted photon. When the diode first emits light the voltage across the
diode, 𝑉 is just enough to give energy to electrons to jump between two energy levels.
Therefore
𝐸 = ℎ𝜐= ℎ𝑐/𝜆 and 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑉

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ℎ 𝜐 = 𝑒𝑉
ℎ𝑐/𝜆 = 𝑒𝑉
ℎ = 𝑒𝑉 𝜆/𝑐

where, ℎ is Planck’s Constant, 𝑒 is the electronic charge, 𝑉 is threshold voltage, 𝜆 is

wavelength of 𝐿𝐸𝐷 and 𝑐 is the speed of light
If the threshold voltage 𝑉 is measured for several diodes of different color (and different
maximum wavelength 𝜆), a graph between 𝑉 and (1/𝜆) should be linear.
The slope (= ℎ𝑐/𝑒) of linear curve can be used to compute the experimental value of
Plank’s constant ‘ℎ’.
DIRAC CONSTANT:
The Dirac Constant or the "reduced Planck Constant", ħ = ℎ/2𝜋.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SIZE OF PLANCK'S CONSTANT:

Expressed in the 𝑆𝐼 units of joule seconds (𝐽 − 𝑠) , the Planck’s constant is one of the
smallest constants used in physics. The significance of this is that it reflects the extremely
small scales at which quantum mechanical effects are observed, and hence why we are
not familiar with quantum physics in our everyday lives in the way that we are with
classical physics. Indeed, classical physics can essentially be defined as the limit of
quantum mechanics as the Planck Constant tends to zero. In natural units, the Dirac
Constant is taken as 1 (i.e., the Planck’s constant is 2𝜋), as is convenient for describing
physics at the atomic scale dominated by quantum effects.

𝑳𝑬𝑫𝒔 WAVELENGTHS
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒: 470 𝑛𝑚, 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛: 560 𝑛𝑚, 𝑌𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤: 580 𝑛𝑚, 𝑂𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: 620 𝑛𝑚, 𝑅𝑒𝑑: 700 𝑛𝑚.

You need to determine the value of h by two methods: visual (or eye) observation
(Method 1) as well as by plotting the curves (Method 2).

METHOD 1: Determination of ℎ using 𝐿𝐸𝐷𝑠 by visual eye observations

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect positive terminal of 𝐷𝐶 power supply to positive terminal of any one 𝐿𝐸𝐷 and
positive terminal of 𝐷𝐶 voltmeter.
2. Now connect negative terminal of 𝐷𝐶 power supply to negative terminal of 𝐿𝐸𝐷 and
negative terminal of 𝐷𝐶 voltmeter.
3. Connect the mains cord and switch ‘On’ the power supply.
4. Now vary the 𝐷𝐶 voltage slowly by variable resistance pot and see the 𝐿𝐸𝐷 connected
in circuit.
5. When the 𝐿𝐸𝐷 is just starts to emit light note the value of applied voltage by 𝐷𝐶
voltmeter.
6. Now switch ‘Off’ the 𝐷𝐶 power supply and break the 𝐿𝐸𝐷 connection.

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7. Again make same connection for another color of 𝐿𝐸𝐷 and repeat the experiment for
different colors of 𝐿𝐸𝐷s.
8. Tabulate the data as in observation table- 1

Volt meter

+ -
+
Milli/micro
Different colour LEDs Ammeter
-
+
-
Variable power supply
Figure 1

𝑉 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡)
9. Plot a graph between 𝑉 𝑣𝑠 1/ as below
10. Obtain slope value, 𝐴𝐵 ⁄𝐵𝐶 A
11. Find ℎ using the relation as below
C B
𝑒𝑉 𝜆 𝑒 𝑉 𝑒 𝐴𝐵
ℎ = = × = × 𝐽−𝑠
𝑐 𝑐 1/𝜆 𝑐 𝐵𝐶 1
(𝑚 )
12. Find the % error 
ℎ−ℎ
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = ⋯ … ….
ℎ
13. Calculate mean value of ℎ and compare it with the value obtained from graph.

OBSERVATION TABLE-1

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S.No 𝐿𝐸𝐷 colour Voltage Wavelength 1 ℎ =
𝜆
𝑉 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠) 𝜆 (𝑛𝑚) (𝑚 ) 𝑒𝑉 𝜆 /𝑐
(𝐽 − 𝑠)

1 Blue 470 2.1106

2 green 560 1.8106
3 Yellow/Orange 580/620 1.7106
/1.6106
4 Red 700 1.4106

2. DRAW THE V-I CHARACTERISTIC FOR LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED’S) AND
DETERMINE THE VALUE OF PLANCK’S CONSTANT.

Volt meter

+ -
+
Different colour LEDs milli/micro
Ammeter
-
+
-
Variable power supply Figure 2

PROCEDURE
1. Connect positive terminal of 𝐷𝐶 power supply to positive terminal of any one 𝐿𝐸𝐷 and
positive terminal of DC voltmeter.
2. Now connect negative terminal of 𝐷𝐶 power supply to -ve terminal of 𝐿𝐸𝐷 and negative
terminal of 𝐷𝐶 voltmeter.
3. Connect the mains cord and switch ‘On’ the power supply.
4. Now vary the 𝐷𝐶 voltage slowly by variable resistance pot and see the `` connected in
circuit.
5. Reach the maximum current limit. Note current and voltage and tabulate it in the
observation table- 2.
6. Reduce voltage in suitable steps to mark zero current.
7. Between maximum current and zero current, take at least 10 data points.
8. Repeat the experiment for another 𝐿𝐸𝐷.
9. Plot the graph between current (along Y-axis) and voltage (along X-axis) as below.
10. Mark the threshold voltage (𝑉 ) for different colour as in figure.
11. Calculate ℎ using the formula…

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𝑒𝑉 𝜆
ℎ =
𝑐
OBSERVATION TABLE 𝟐

S.No 𝐿𝐸𝐷 (Blue) 𝐿𝐸𝐷 (green) 𝐿𝐸𝐷 (red)

𝑉( ) 𝐼( ) 𝑉( ) 𝐼( ) 𝑉( ) 𝐼( )
1
2
3
4
5

Blue
Red Green LED
𝐼 LED LED
Graph:

RESULT 𝑉 𝑉
The value of ℎ is found to be = …….𝐽 − 𝑠

PRECAUTIONS
1. Record the initial value for voltage very precisely.
2. Avoid loose connections in the circuit.

VIVA-VOCE
 What is Light emitting diode?
 Compare and suggest which method 1 or 2 is better.
 What is the major difference between a simple diode and a 𝐿𝐸𝐷?
 What is the relation between energy and wavelength?
 What is Knee or threshold voltage?
 What are the wavelengths of red, yellow, blue, green colors?
 What is infrared radiation? What is the range of its wavelength?
 What is value of Planck’s constant?
 What is the energy of quanta?
 What are the significances of Planck’s constant?
 Name a physical quantity that has same measurable unit as h.

APPLICATIONS
• Photomultipliers

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• Image sensors
• The gold-leaf electroscope
• Photoelectron spectroscopy
• Spacecraft
• Moon dust
• Night vision devices

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