THEME 1 - FUNCTIONS AND CHANGE

Unit 1.1 - What is a function - pp 2-5

Definition
A function is a rule that takes certain numbers as inputs and assigns to each a
definite output number.
The set of all input numbers is called the domain of the function and the set of
resulting output numbers is called the range of the function.
The input is called the independent variable and the output is called the dependent
variable.
Remarks
1. There are four ways to represent a function: using tables, graphs,
formulas and descriptions in words.
2. We use real value functions. The domain and range of a function always
consist of real numbers and it is not necessary to write down that the
elements of the range or domain are real numbers.
3. The range and domain of a functions are sets and must be written down
in either set notation or interval notation. A summary is given below.
Set notation Interval notation
x | a ≤ x ≤ b a, b
x | a  x  b a, b
x | a  x ≤ b a, b
x | a ≤ x  b a, b
Set notation Interval notation
x | x ≥ a a, 
x | x  a a, 
x | x ≤ b − , b
x | x  b − , b
We use the symbol, , for the set of all real numbers,
  − ,   x | x ∈ .
Example 1 (Interpretations)
The number of species of algae, a, is a function of the number of snails per
square meter, s.
1. Write the information above in function notation, that is in the form
f♣  .
2. Indicate the horizontal intercept and the vertical intercept on a set of axes,
write it in function notation and interpret your answers.
Example 2 (Working with time)
The function P  ft  6. 51. 04 t gives the population, in millions, of a town with t
in years since 2010.
1. Sketch the function without calculating function values.
2. Write down the domain and range of the function in interval notation.
3. Calculate and interpret the function value f4.
Definitions (Textbook, p 4)

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A function f is increasing if the values of fx increase as x increases.
A function f is decreasing if the values of fx decrease as x increases.
Example 3
Consider the function y  fx  −x 2  2x − 1
1. Sketch the function without calculating function values.
2. Write down the domain and range of the function.
3. Use the graph and find the interval(s) on which the function is increasing
and the intervals on which the function is decreasing.
Definitions
1. A function f is concave up on an interval if the graph of f lies above all
of its tangent lines on the interval.
2. A function f is concave down on an interval if the graph of f lies below
all of its tangent lines on the interval
3. A linear function is neither concave up nor concave down.
Example 4
Sketch a function that is
1. Concave up and increasing on the interval −2, 2.
2. Concave up and decreasing on the interval 0, 2
3. Concave down and increasing on the interval 2, 4.
4. Concave down and decreasing on the interval −1, 3.
Unit 1.2 - The functions that we use in this course - Lecture notes
Linear functions
Formula: y  fx  mx  b.
The domain is −,  and the vertical intercept is y  f0  b.
The slope (gradient) is m.
If m  0 the function is increasing on the interval −, .
If m  0 the function is decreasing on the interval −, .

m0 m0 m0

Exponential functions
Formula: y  fx  a x , a  0.
The domain is −,  and the range is y | y  0  0, .
The vertical intercept is y  f0  a 0  1.
If a  1 the function is increasing on the interval −, .
If 0  a  1 the function is decreasing on the interval −, .

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 y  ax, a  1 y  ax, 0  a  1
Remark
e ≈ 2. 718. . is the symbol for an important irrational number (just as  ≈ 3. 14 6. . is
a symbol for an important irrational number).
The exponential functions y  e kx are important exponential functions.

y  ex y  e kx , k  0 y  e −x y  e kx , k  0
Logarithmic functions
Formula: y  fx  log a x.
The domain is x | x  0  0,  and the range is −, .
The function has no vertical intercept and the horizontal intercept is x  1.
If a  1 it is an increasing function on the interval 0, .
If 0  a  1 it is a decreasing function on the interval 0, .
The logarithmic function with base e  2. 718, y  log e x  lnx, is the logarithmic
function that we will use in this course,

y y 1 1
1 y
0
1 2 3 4 5
0 -1 x -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
2 4 x
x
-1 -2 -1

y  log a x, a  1 y  log a x, 0  a  1 y  ln x

Power functions:
Formula: y  fx  x a , a ∈ 
You have to know the graph, domain and range of the power functions below.
1. If n  2, 4, 6, . . . the shape of the graph y  x n is similar to the graph of
y  x 2 . The domain is −,  and the range is y | y ≥ 0  0, .
2. If n  3, 5, 7, . . . the shape of the graph y  x n is similar to the graph of
y  x 3 . The domain is −,  and the range is −, .
3. If n  −2, −4, −6, . . . the shape of the graph y  x n is similar to the graph
of y  12 . The domain is x | x ≠ 0 and the range is y | y  0  0, .
x
4. If n  −1, −3, −5, . . . the shape of the graph y  x n is similar to the graph of
y  1x . The domain is x | x ≠ 0 and the range is y | y ≠ 0.

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 1
5. If n  2, 4, . . . the shape of the graph y  x n is similar to the graph of
y  x.
The domain is x | x ≥ 0  0,  and the range is y | y ≥ 0  0, .
1
6. If n  3, 5, . . . the shape of the graph y  x n is similar to the graph of
y  3x.
The domain is −,  and the range is −, .

y y

x
x

y  x n , n  2, 4, 6, . . . y  x n , n  3, 5, 7, . . . y  x n , n  −2, −4, −6, . . .

y y y

x x
x

y  x n , n  −1, −3, −5, . . . 1

y  x n , n  2, 4, 6, . . .
1
y  x n , n  3, 5, . . .
Remarks
1. When you sketch a function, the concavity is important. For example,
fx  x 5 is increasing and concave down on −, 0 and gx  x 1/5 is
increasing and concave up on −, 0.
2. What do we mean when we say the graph of y  x 4 is similar to the
graph of y  x 2 ?
Both functions have domain −, , range 0,  and have one turning
point at x  0. The shape of the graphs are similar, both functions are
decreasing on the interval −, 0 and increasing on the interval 0, 
and both are concave up on the interval −, .
On the left the graphs of y  x 4 (solid line) and y  x 2 (dotted line) are sketched
on a small window, x ∈ −1. 5, 1. 5.
The two graphs on the right are sketched on the window x ∈ −10, 10.

y4 100 10000
y y
50 5000
2

-2 -1 0 1 2 -10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
x x x

y  x2 y  x4
Polynomial functions
Definitions
1. A polynomial is the sum of power functions with nonnegative integer
exponents.
A polynomial is a function y  fx  a n x n  a n−1 x n−1  . . . a 1 x  a 0 ,

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p5

 with n a nonnegative integer and a n ∈ , n  0, 1, 2, . . . .
2. If a n ≠ 0 we say that the degree of the polynomial is n.
3. If a n ≠ 0 we say the leading term is a n x n .
Remarks
1. A polynomial of degree n has at most n − 1 turning points.
The polynomial fx  x 3 − x  xx − 1x  1 is a polynomial of degree 3
with 2 turning points and the polynomial px  x − 1 3  x 3 − 3x 2  3x − 1
is a polynomial of degree 3 with no turning points.
2 y 5
y
1

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1 1 2 3

-1 x x
-2 -5

fx  x 3 − x px  x − 1 3
2. If you sketch the graph of the polynomial px  a n x n  a n−1 x n−1  . . .
a 1 x  a 0 on a large window the shape of the graph of px is similar to
the shape of the graph of the power function y  a n x n .
The leading term of the polynomial fx  −x 3  2x 2 − x  −xx − 1 2 is
y  −x 3 . On the left the graph of fx  −x 3  2x 2 − x is sketched on the
window x ∈ −0. 5, 1. 5. In the middle is the graph is sketched on the
window x ∈ −10, 10 and you cannot see the turning points.
y 1.0 y 1000 y
1000

0.5

-10 -5 5 10
1
-10 -5 5 10
x x
x -1000

fx  −x 3  2x 2 − x fx  −x 3  2x 2 − x y  −x 3
Trigonometric functions
Formulas: y  fx  sin x and y  gx  cos x.
The domain is −,  and the range is y | − 1 ≤ y ≤ 1  −1, 1.
Remark
We will NOT use degrees to calculate the function values. In the course we will use
radian measure (real numbers). We will discuss this in Theme 3.
1.0
y y
1.0
0.5 0.5

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-0.5 x -0.5 x
-1.0 -1.0

y  sin x y  cos x
Example 1
Consider the three functions fx=−4x, gx=x4 and hx=4x. Write down the name of
the function and sketch the function (without calculating function values).

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Use the sketch to write down the domain and range of the function.
Example 2
Sketch the exponential functions fx  1. 2 x , gx  0. 2 x and hx  e −2x
Example 3
Use a graph to solve the inequality − x 2  x  2 ≤ 0
Unit 1.3 - New functions from old functions - pp 60 - 63
Example 1
Consider the functions below:
x 0 2 4 6 8 10 x 0 2 4 6 8 10
fx 10 6 3 4 7 11 gx 2 3 5 8 12 15
Calculate fg0, gf0 and gg0
Example 2
Let fx  x 4 and gx  3 x . Write down the functions fgx and gfx.
Example 3
Consider the functions h 1 x  1 − x , h 2 x  sin 3 x  sin x 3 and
h 3 x  cosx 5 .
Write down functions fx and gx if h i x  fgx, i  1, 2, 3.
You cannot use the function y  x or a composite function.
Example 4
Write down functions fx, gx and hx if y  fghx  1 . You
ln1 − 2x
cannot use the function y  x or a composite function.
Example 5 (Finding the domain of a function - this is a very important
example)
Find the domain of the function and write your answer in set notation.
i ft  2 1 ii fa  4 a 2 − a − 6 iii fb  3 b 2 − b − 6
t − 81
iv fx  lnx 3  x 2 − 2x v fz  z  10 − z vi fx  ln4 − x 2 
Example 6 (Shifts)
Sketch fx  x − 1 5 and gx  x 7 − 1
Example 7 (Reflections)
Find the domain and sketch the function fx  − 4 x and gx  −x
Unit 1.4 - Linear Functions - pp 8-12
Summary
1. A linear function is a function with formula y  fx  mx  b and vertical
intercept f0  b.
2. m is the slope of the line.
3. If m  0 the function is increasing on −,  and if m  0 the function is
decreasing on −, 
4. If x 1 , y 1  and x 2 , y 2  are points on the linear function then
Δy y −y fx 2  − fx 1 
m  x 22 − x 11  x2 − x1 .
Δx
5. m is the rate of change of y with respect to x.
6. The values of x and y in a table could come from a linear function

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p7

 y  mx  b if differences in y −values are constant for equal difference in
x.
Example 1
In 2005 the population of a city was 3 490 000 and in 2010 the population was
3 740 000.
1. Find a formula for the population, P in millions, as a function of time, t in
years since 2000, assuming that it is a linear function.
2. Interpret the slope of the linear function.
3. Estimate the population in 2020.
Example 2
If the function below can be a linear function, find the formula of the function.

i r 2 4 6 8 ii x 20 40 60 80
t 3 5 8 12 y 90. 5 89. 8 89. 1 88. 4

Unit 1.5 - Rates of change - pp 16 - 22

Definitions and remarks (You have to memorize this)
Let y be a function of t, that is y  ft.
1. The change in y between t  a and t  b is Δy  fb − fa
2. The average rate of change of y between t  a en t  b is
Δy fb − fa
 .
Δt b−a
The average rate of change is the slope of the secant line between the
points a, fa and b, fb.
3. The relative change in f as f changes from fa to fb is
change in f Δf fb − fa
  .
the initial value of f fa fa
The relative change in f is a number and we interpret the number as a
percentage.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p8

Example 1
In this example we show you how to answer a question in this course. You have to
show steps, include units with your answer and in most cases your final answer is a
sentence.
Let ft  2t 2  1 be the height of a rocket, in meters, t seconds after liftoff.
1. Find the change in f over the interval 1, 2 and indicate it on a sketch.
2. Find the average rate of change of f between t  1 en t  3 and
indicate it on a sketch.
3. Find the relative change in f as f changes from f1 to f3 and
interpret your answer.
Solution
1. Δf  f2 − f1  6.
The change in f between t  1 and t  2 is 6 meters.
It is the length of the vertical dotted line in sketch 1.
Δf f3 − f1
2.   8.
Δt 3−1 and
The average rate of change of f between t  1 en t  3 is
8 meters per second. It is the slope of the secant line in sketch 2.
Δf f3 − f1
3.   5. 333. . .
f1 f1
The relative change in f as f changes from f1 to f3 is 5. 333
The height of the rocket increases by 533. 333% over the time interval..

f f
10 15

10
5
5
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 1 2 3
t t

Sketch 1 sketch 2
Example 2
The amount of quinine in your blood is given by the function Q  ft  500. 94 t
with Q in mg and t in hours since taking the medication.
i Calculate the change in Q between t  1 and t  4.
ii Calculate the average rate of change in Q over the interval 2, 6 and
interpret your answer.
iii Find the relative change in Q over the interval 2, 6 and interpret your
answer.
Unit 1.6 - Continuity, rate of change and the derivative - p 132 - 133 and 90 - 95
Definition
A function f is continuous on an interval if the graph of f on the interval is in "one
piece."
Remarks
1. If f is continuous on an interval I you can sketch the graph without

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p9

 "lifting" your pencil from the paper. The graph has no "holes" or " jumps"
or "breaks" on the interval I.
2. We will not use the formal definition on p 134 in the textbook
3. The functions in unit 1.2 are continuous on the domain of the function.
Example 1
Find the interval(s) on which the function given below is continuous.
(i) fx  lnx  3 (ii) gt  t − 2 (iii) hx  1
x1
Solution
i The domain of fx  lnx  3 is x | x  3  0  x | x  −3
f is continuous on the interval −3, .
ii The domain of gt  t − 2 is t | t − 2 ≥ 0  t | t ≥ 2
g is continuous on the interval 2, 
iii The domain of hx  1 is x | x  1 ≠ 0  x | x ≠ −1
x1
h is continuous on the interval −, −1 and on the interval −1, 
Revision
Let y be a continuous function of t, y  ft
1. The average rate of change of f over the interval a, b is
f fb − fa
 .
t b−a
2. the average rate of change of f over the interval a, b is the slope of the
secant line through the points a, fa and b, fb.
3. The length of the interval a, b is b − a.
Remark
How do I measure the change in a function at a point ?
Definitions
Let a be in the domain of the function f.
1. The rate of change of f at a is the limit of average rates of change over
shorter and shorter intervals containing a.
2. The rate of change of f at a is called the derivative of f at a and
indicated by f ′ a.
fa  h − fa
3. In symbols: f ′ a lim if the limit exists.
h→0 h
4. f ′ a is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at x  a
5. We write "rate of change" and not "instantaneous rate of change".
Remarks
In the sketches below the function y  fx  x 2  2 is sketched with a thin line.
1. The slope of the line in the sketch to the left is the average rate of change
of y  fx  x 2  2 over the interval 1, 5
2. The slope of the line in the sketch left is the derivative of fx  x 2  2 at
x3

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p10

 y y
20 20

10 10

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
x x

Remarks
fa  h − fa
How can we estimate the limit f ′ a lim ? In this course the
h→0 h
derivative limit will exists. We can use one small interval (the length of h to
estimate the limit. If you use an interval of length 0. 0001 then
fa. 0001 − fa
f ′ a ≈ .
0. 0001
Example 2
The function P  ft  10e −0.05t gives the population of a town, in millions with t in
years since 2000.
1. Find the average rate of change in the population from 2000 to 2013.
2. Find the rate of change of the population in 2005 by using an interval of
length 0. 0001.
Example 3
Let fx  ln2x  1. Estimate f ′ 2 by using an interval of length 0. 0001 and use
the derivative to write down the equation of the tangent line to fx at x  2.
Remark
How to we estimate a derivative if a table of function values is given? You cannot
estimate it by using one small interval, because you do not have the formula. You
have to calculate the average rate of change to the right of a and the average rate
of change to the left of a and then calculate the average of these two numbers.
Example 4
An object is moving in a line. Let s  ft be the distance (in meters) after t
seconds.
i Use the table below to estimate the velocity at t  7.
ii Use the table below to estimate the velocity at t  9.
t 0 2 4 7 9
s 0 3 2 2. 5 5
Solution
i Velocity is the rate of change of distance, you have to estimate f ′ 7.
f9 − f7
The average rate of change to the right is  5 − 2. 5  1. 25
9−7 2
f7 − f4 2. 5 − 2  0. 167
The average rate of change to the left is 
7−4 3
∴ f ′ 7 ≈ 1. 25  0. 167  0. 7085
2
The velocity is 0. 7085 meter per second
ii You cannot calculate the average rate of change to the right of t  9.
f9 − f7
∴ f ′ 9 ≈  5 − 2. 5  1. 25 meters per second
9−7 2

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p11

 The velocity is 1. 25 meter per second
Unit 1.7 - The derivative function - p 131 and pp 97 - 99
Definition
Let y be a function of x, y  fx.
fx  h − fx
The derivative function, y  f ′ x, is defined as f ′ x lim if the limit
h→0 h
exists. If the limit exists we say f is differentiable in x
Theorem (You have to memorize this)
Let I be an interval.
Assume that the function is continuous on the interval I and you can calculate the
derivative on the interval.
1. f is increasing on I if on only if f ′ x  0 on I
2. f is decreasing on I if and only if f ′ x  0 on I
3. f is constant on I if and only if f ′ x  0 on I

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p12

Remark
You must be able to sketch the graph of the derivative function if the graph of the
function is given.
It can be prove that if fx  x 4  1 then f ′ x  4x 3 . Consider the two graphs:

y y

x
x

fx  x 4  1 f ′ x  4x 3
f ′ 0  0 because a tangent line at x  0 is parallel to the x −axis and the slope
is 0.
On the interval −, 0 f is decreasing (graph left) and f ′ x is negative (graph
right)
On the interval 0,  f is increasing (graph left) and f ′ x is positive. (graph right)
Example 1
Use the graph of f given below to sketch the graph of f ′ .

y
10 1.0 y
y 0.6

0.5
5 0.4

0.0
1 2 3 4 0.2
x
-2 2 4 -0.5
x 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
-5 -1.0 x

Remark
The derivative in the point a, fa does not exists if
i the function in not continuous at x  a (the graph has a "hole" or a
"jump), then f ′ a does not exists.
ii the graph has a "corner" at x  a.
The following functions are NOT differentiable at x  1.

y4 y4
y5
2 2

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 -4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
x x x

THEME 2 - DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS AND RULES

Unit 2.1 - Differentiation formulas and rules - Notes
Remark
To find the formula of the derivative of some functions, we can use the limit
definition. In this course we will use the formulas without proofs, but below is one
example of using the limit definition to find the derivative of a function.
Example

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p13

Use the limit definition to find the derivative of fx  1x .
Solution
1 − 1 x − x  h
fx  h − fx x x  hx
f ′ x lim lim x  h lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
−h
x  hx −1
lim lim  −12
h→0 h h→0 x  hx x
THE DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS
1. d k  0, k ∈R
dx
2. d x n  nx n−1 for every real number n
dx
3. d e x  e x
dx
4. d a x  ln aa x , a  0
dx
5. d ln x  1x , x  0
dx
6. d sin x  cos x
dx
7. d cos x  − sin x
dx
SUMMARY OF THE RULES
1. Derivative of a constant multiple
d kfx  k d fx
dx dx
2. Sum rule
d fx  gx  d fx  d gx
dx dx dx
3. Derivative of a difference
d fx − gx  d fx − d gx
dx dx dx
4. Product rule
d fxgx  d fx gx  fx d gx
dx dx dx
5. Quotient rule
d fx gx − fx d gx
d fx dx dx

dx gx gx 2
Example 1
i Find the derivative of fx  x  12  x 3  7.
x
ii Find g ′ x if gx  x 5  5 x  5e x  5 lnx.
iii Find f ′  if fz  8 cosz − 2 sinz.
iv Find the derivative of fx  x 3 cosx.
x
v Find f ′ x if fx  2 − e .
3x  sin x
vi Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of fz  z 4 at the point

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p14

 where z  −2.
vii Find all the x −values such that the tangent line to the polynomial
px  9x  3x 2 − x 3 at x is parallel to the x − axis.
The graph of the polynomial px  9x  3x 2 − x 3 is sketched below, so
that you can check your answer.
y
20

10

-2 2 4
x

Revision - Theorem
Let I be an interval and let y  fx a functions that is continuous and
differentiable on I
1. f ′x0 on I f increases on I
2. f ′x0 on I f decreases on I
Method
When using the theorem above, you have to use a number line. You have to
1. Find the domain of the function y  fx.
2. Use the formulas and rules and find f ′ x. Because you will use the
formula, simplify your answer. Factor if possible
3. Draw the number line (indicating the domain on the line)
4. Find the zero’s of the function y  f ′ x and indicate it on the number
line. The zero’s divided the number line into intervals.
5. Find the sign of the derivative function on each of these intervals by
substituting one value in the interval in the formula of y  f ′ x and write
down f ′ pos/neg on that interval.
6. Answer with a sentence " The function in increasing on...".
Example 2
Use a number line to find the interval(s) on which fx  x 4 − 2x 3  1 is increasing
and the interval(s) on which f is decreasing
Example 3
Find the interval(s) on which ft  2t 2 is increasing .
4−t
Unit 2.2 - The chain rule - pp 150 - 153
Revision
fgt is a composite function with g the inside function and f the outside
function
How do you find the derivative of a composite function?
The function y  x 3 is a power function with derivative d x 3  3x 2
dx
The function y = 5 − 6x3 is a composite function where the inside function is a
linear function , y 5 − 6x, and the outside function is the power function y x3. We
can expand and use the rules and the formulas of the derivatives to find the
derivative of the resulting polynomial:

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p15

 d 5 − 6x 3  d −216x 3  540x 2 − 450x  125  −648x 2  1080x − 450
dx dx
What is the relationship between the answer above and the derivative of the power
function d x 3  3x 2 ?
dx
Rewrite the answer, take out 3 as a common factor:
d 5 − 6x 3  −648x 2  1080x − 450  3−216x 3  360x − 150
dx
The next step is to write down the square,  2 . In our case the "inside" was the line
y  5 − 6x with 5 − 6x 2  36x 2 − 60x  25
Rewrite the derivative in that form:
d 5 − 6x 3  3−216x 3  360x − 150  336x 2 − 60x  25 −6
dx
What about the extra " −6" ? It is the derivative of the inside function!
Therefore d 5 − 6x 3  35 − 6x 2  −6
dx
d 5 − 6x 3  35 − 6x 2  −6
dx 
derivative of outside function derivative of inside function

THE CHAIN RULE

The chain rule is used to find the derivative of a composite function.
d fgx  f ′ gx  g ′ x or dy  dy  dz
dx dx dz dx
The rule tells us to find the derivative of the outside function first (the inside
function remains the same) and to multiply that with the derivative of the inside
function
THE DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS IN TERMS OF THE CHAIN RULE
1. d fx n nfx n−1 f ′ x for every real number n
dx
2. d e fx  e fx  f ′ x
dx
3. d a fx ln aa fx  f ′ x, a  0
dx
′
4. d ln fx f x , fx  0
dx fx
5. d sin fx  cos fx  f ′ x
dx
6. d cos fx − sin fx  f ′ x
dx
Example 1
Find the derivative of the function and do not simplify your answer.

1. i ft  t ii ft  t3 − et iii fx  x 4

iv fx  2 − 3x 4 v fz  ln1  z 5  vi fz  1  ln z 5
4
i ft  e t ii ft  e −2t iii ft  e t
2. iv fx  3 x v fx  4 1−x vi fx  5 x
2 −3x

vii ft  lnt viii fx  lnx 3 − 4x ix ft  lncost

3. i ft  cos4t ii fx  cos 4 x iii ft  sin1 − t 5 

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p16

Remark
Sometimes you have to use the other rules with the chain rule, in the example
below you have to use both the product and chain rule.
d x 4 ln6x  1  d x 4 ln6x  1  x 4 d ln6x  1 (product rule)
dx dx dx
3
 4x  ln6x  1  x 4 6
6x  1
Example 2
Find the derivative of the function and do not simplify your answer.
1. i fx  1 − x 7 e −3x ii fx  5e 1−3x iii fx  5 x lnx 3  3x

2. i ft  1 − 3tt ii ft  5 iii ft  1 − e 0.5

4t  3 1 − 3t
5 t
3. i fx  sin5x ii fx  sin x iii ft  cos5 
iv ft  5 cos t v fx  e −0.2x vi ft  t 3 ln1 − t 4 
Unit 2.3 - Interpretations of the derivative - pp 103 - 108
Revision
y
If y  mx  b is a line, the slope of the linear function can written as m  .
x
Notation
Let y  fx.
We use the following notations for the derivative of the function f:
dy
f ′ x   d y  d fx  Dfx  Dy  y ′ .
dx dx dx
dy
The notation is called Leibnitz’s notation.
dx
dy
How do we indicate the derivative at a point a, fa? f ′ a 
dx x  a
Remarks
Let y  fx.
dy
1. The units of f ′ x  are (the units of y per (the units of x.
dx
2. When we have to interpret a derivative we will use the following:
If the derivative of f in a point does not change much,
dy y
then ≈ ≈ y if x  1.
dx x
dy
That means that if x increases by one unit then gives the change
dx
in y.
Remember change can be positive or negative.
Example 1
The function N fhgives the number of species of fish h meter below the
surface.
i Interpret the function value f215.
ii Write down the units of f ′2
iii Interpret the derivative f ′2=−4
Solution

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p17

 i f2  15 means that 2 meters below sea level there are 15 species of
fish.
ii (Use f ′ h  dN )
dh
The units of f ′ 2 are number of species fish per meter.
iii (Use dN ≈ N ≈ N if h  1. 
dh h
If the depth of the water increases by 1 meter from 2 to 3 meters the
number of species of fish decreases by 4
Remark
Let y  fx be a continuous function on the domain.
Assume that you do not have the formula of the function but you have the
coordinates of the point, a, fa, and the value of the derivative in the point, f ′ a.
Then you have enough information to find the equation of the tangent line at the
point a, fa and then you can use the tangent line to estimate function values
"near" x  a.
The sketch below shows the difference between the exact value of fx and the
estimation.

y
exact value
estimation
f(a)

a x

1. One method to estimate fx is to find the formula of the tangent line at
x  a and then substitute the value of x in the equation.
2. A shorter method (the answer is the same) is to use the following:
fx ≈ fa  f ′ a  x with x  x − a
Example 2
Consider the function N  fw with N the number of items (in thousands) that is
produced per day by w workers (in hundreds).
Assume that f ′ 25  15 and f25  160
i Write down the units of f ′ 25.
ii Interpret the statement f ′ 25  15.
iii Estimate the number of units produced by 2000 workers.
Revision
Relative change from P 0 to P 1 was defined as P 1 − P 0 .
P0
Definition
Let y  ft.
f ′ a
The relative rate of change y at t  a is defined as .
fa
We interpret the number as a percentage growth / decay.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p18

Example 3
Let P  ft  131. 03 t the population of a country (in millions) with t in years
since 2000.
Find the relative rate of change of the population in 2011 and interpret your
answer.
Unit 2.4 - The second derivative - pp 112 - 115
Notation
Let y be a function of x, y  fx.
dy
The (first) derivative of f is denoted by f ′ x  d fx  .
dx dx
As the first derivative is also a function, we can derive it again. We call this
d2y
derivative the second derivative and write it as f x  d f ′ x 
′′
.
dx dx 2
Example
Let s  ft be the distance, in meter, of an object moving in a line, t in seconds.
Then v  ds  f ′ t is the velocity, in meter per second
dt
2
and a  dv  d 2s  f ′′ t is the acceleration in (meter per second) per second.
dt dt
Remarks
Let f be a function that is continuous on an interval I and that you can calculate
the first and second derivative of the function on the interval I
We know that f ′ x  0 on I  f is increasing on I and therefore
′′
f x  0 on I  f ′ is increasing on I.
What does it mean if f ′ is increasing? It means that the slopes of the tangent lines
are increasing. Consider the sketch of the concave up function below. As x
increases the slopes, f ′ x, increases from negative tot positive.

concave up concave down

Theorem
Let I be an interval and let f be a function so that the second derivative of f is
defined on I.
′′
1. f is concave up on I if and only if f x  0 on I
′′
2. f is concave down on I if and only if f x  0 on I
Example 1
Consider the graphs of a function f that is defined on an interval I.
i Write down the sign of the first derivative and state whether the function is
increasing or decreasing on the interval.
ii Write down the sign of the second derivative and state whether the
function is concave up or concave down on the interval

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p19

 I II III

IV V VI
Example 2
Let fx  x 4 − 2x 3  1
1. Use a number line to find the interval(s) on which f is increasing and the
interval(s) on which f is decreasing
2. Use a number line to find the interval(s) on which f is concave up and
the interval(s) on which f is concave down
3. Use the information and sketch the polynomial. If you cannot factor the
polynomial, you do not have to write down the intercepts on the horizontal
axis.
Remark
Below on the left is the sketch of the polynomial fx  x 4 − 2x 3  1 on a large
window. Off cause the graph is similar to the graph of y  x 4 .
On your sketch you have to show the turning points and the concavity,as in the
graph to the right.

y 800 4
y3
600
400 2
200 1

-4 -2 0 2 4 -1 1 2
x x
Theme 3
Unit 3.1 - Exponential functions of the form P  ft  a t , a  0 - pp 39-42
Introduction
You deposit R10 000 in an account with a interest rate of 10%, compounded yearly.
Let B  ft be the balance in the account, t in year since the initial deposit. Find
a formula for the function B  ft.
B  f0  10 000 B  f1  10 000  1000  11000
B  f2  11 000  1100  12 100 B  f3  12 100  1210  13 310
Compare the ratios:
f1 f2 f3
f0
 11000
10000
 1. 1 and f1  12100
11000
 1. 1 and f2  13310
12100
 1. 1
Therefore
f1  1. 1  f0

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p20

f2  1. 1  f1  1. 1  1. 1  f0  1. 1 2  f0
f3  1. 1  f2  1. 1  1. 1 2  f0  1. 1 3  f0
The formula is
fn  f01. 1 n , n  0, 1, 2, . . .
Summary
P is an exponential function of t with base a  0 if P  ft  P 0 a t .
P 0  f0 is the initial value (please use this notation).
P 0 is also the vertical intercept.
Case 1
If a  1 we have exponential growth.
a  1  r, r  0, with r the percentage growth as a decimal fraction.
The function is increasing and concave up on the domain.
Case 2
If 0  a  1 we have exponential decay.
a  1 − r, r  0 with r the percentage decay as a decimal fraction.
The function is decreasing and concave up on the domain.

a1 0a1
Explanation
If ft  241. 058 t with t in years then 24 is the initial quantity.
a  1. 058  1  0. 058  r  0. 058 and the yearly growth rate is 5. 8%.
If ft  4. 50. 945 t with t in months then 4. 5 is the initial quantity.
a  0. 945  1 − 0. 055  r  0. 055 and the monthly decay rate is 5. 5%.
Properties of exponents
Let a and b be positive real numbers and let x and y be real numbers.
x
1. a x a y  a xy 2. a y  a x−y 3. a x  y  a xy
a
x
4. ab x  a x b x 5.  a  x  a x 6. a −x  1x
b b a
Remark
If you have to write down the formula of an exponential function and the initial
quantity is not given, use the symbol P0. For example, if you have to describe any
quantity that is decreasing at an annual rate of 5% the formula is
P ftP00. 95t, t in years.
If you have to use the formula do not substitute P0 100,
Example 1
In 2000 a population of a small town was 1. 2 million.
1.1 Find a formula for the population, P ft, with t in years since 2000
and P in millions if the population is growing with 750 people per year.
1.2 Find f16and f ′16.
Example 2

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p21

In 2000 a population of a small town was 1. 2 million.
2.1 .Find a formula for the population, P  gt, with t in years since 2000
and P in millions if the population is growing by 7. 5% per year.
2.2 Find g16 and g ′ 16.
Example 3
You took one tablet with 500 mg aspirin. Aspirin decays at a rate of 20% per hour.
How much aspirin in your blood after 1 day?
Example 4
If a quantity decreases at a rate 10% per hour, what percent of the quantity
remains after three hours?
Unit 3.2 - Compound interest in the number e - pp 492 - 495
Definition
Assume the initial deposit in an account is B 0 rand and the interest at an annual
rate of r is compounded n times a year.
The balance, B, in the account after t years is B  B 0 1  nr  nt .
Note that r is written as a decimal fraction, if the annual rate is 5. 4% then
r  0. 054.
Example 1
You deposit R10 000 at an annual interest rate of 6%.
What is the balance in the account after 5 years if the interest is
i compounded annually? ii compounded monthly? iii compounded daily?
Remark - The irrational number " e" .
What happens if the interest rate is compounded continuously? What happens with
1  nr  nt as n gets bigger and bigger?
There exist an irrational number e such that 1  nr  n → e r and 1  nr  nt → e rt
n n

 
1
Use your calculator to find the value of e : e  e ≈ 2. 718. . .
Definition
If the annual interest rate is r (written as a decimal fraction) and the interest rate is
compounded continuously the balance, B, in the account after t years is B  B 0 e rt
with B 0 the initial deposit.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p22

Example 2
What is the balance in the account after 5 years if you deposit R 10 000 at an
annual rate of 6% compounded continuously?
Remark
To find the effective annual interest rate you calculate the balance after one year.
For example, if the annual interest rate is 4. 5%, compounded monthly, the balance
in the account after one year is
B  B 0 1  nr  nt  B 0 1  0. 045  121  B 0 1. 045939825 and the effective annual
12
interest rate is 4. 593%
Example 3
If the annual interest rate is 4. 5% find the effective annual interest rate if the
interest is compounded continuously.
Unit 3.3 - The natural logarithm - pp 46 - 49
Revision
If function f has an inverse function and fx  y then f −1 y  x, with f −1 the
inverse function.
The function fx  10 x has an inverse function f −1 x  log 10 x  log x .
f3  10 3  1000 and f −1 1000  log1000  3
Definition
The function y  fx  e x has an inverse function f −1 x  log e x  ln x.
Do not use the notation log e ,use the notation ln.
Graphs

y6
8 y
2
4
1
2
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 15
x -1 x

y  ex y  ln x
x
The domain of y  e is −,  and the range is 0, .
The domain of y  ln x is 0,  and the range is −, 
Properties of the function y  e x
Let x, y ∈ . 1 e x e y  e xy 2 e xy  e x−y 3 e x  y  e xy
e
Properties of the function y  ln x
Let a  0 and b  0 and c ∈ 
1 lnab  ln a  ln b 2 ln a   ln a − ln b 3 lna c   c ln
b
Example 1
3x 7x
i Find u if e 4e 2x  e u ii Find v if 2 ln x − lnx 3   ln v
e 
Cancellation laws
As y  ln x is the inverse function of y  e x the following is true:

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p23

lne x   x for all x ∈  and e ln x  x for x  0

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p24

Example 2
Solve and give the exact solution.
i e −2x  8 ii ln x  −8 iii e 2x  −8
iv 10e 5x − 25e 2x  0 v ln2x  4 − ln x vi lnx 2   lnx 4 

Definition The exponential function with e as basis.

Let P  ft  P 0 e kt
The initial value is P 0 (the vertical intercept)
Case 1
If k  0 you have exponential growth with k the growth percentage as a fraction.
Case 2
If k  0 you have exponential decay with k the decay percentage as a fraction.

e x , k  0 e x , k  0
Example 3
How to write down the formulas of the growth rate / decay rate is given.
Find a formula for the population, P  ft, t in years, if the population
i grows at a annual rate of 5%.
ii grows at a continuous rate of 5% per year.
iii decreases at an annual rate of 5%.
iv decreases at a continuous rate of 5% per year.
Solution
For t in years and P 0 the initial population
5
i P  P 0 1  100  t  P 0 1. 05 t
ii P  P 0 e 0.05t
5
iii P  P 0 1 − 100  t  P 0 0. 95 t
iv P  P 0 e −0.05t
Example 4
In 1990 a population, P, consists of 100 000 animals. Find the population in 2016 if
the population is growing
i at a constant rate of 1500 animals per year.
ii at a rate of 1. 5% per year
iii at a continuous rate of 1. 5% per year
Example 5
In 1990 a population, P, consists of 100 000 animals. Find the population in 2015 if
the population is decreasing
i at a rate of 2. 5% per year

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p25

 ii at a continuous rate of 2. 5% per year

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p26

Example 6
If the interest rate is 8. 3% per year, compounded annually, what is the equivalent
interest rate, compounded continuously?
Example 7
You invest an amount at an interest rate of 5. 5% per year, compounded
continuously.
What interest rate, compounded annually, will have the same yield?
Example 8
Let P be a population, in millions and t in years since 2010.
i If P  ft  2. 41. 04 t find f ′ 5 and interpret your answer.
ii If P  ft  2. 4e −0.4t find f ′ 5 and interpret your answer.
Example 9
Let P  ft  2. 4 ln20 − t 2  be a population, in millions and t in years since 2010.
i What was the population in 2010?
ii Find f ′ 3 and interpret your answer.
Unit 3.4 - Exponential growth and decay - pp51 - 55
Definitions
The doubling time of an exponentially increasing quantity is the time required for
the quantity to double.
The half-life of an exponentially decreasing quantity is the time required for the
quantity to be reduced by a factor of one half.
Example 1
Find the doubling time of a quantity growing at a continuous rate of 15% per year.
Example 2
Find the half-life of a quantity decreasing at a rate of 15 % per hour. Use the form
Q0at.
Example 3
The half-life of nicotine is about 2 hours. You smoked one cigarette at 07:00.
i When will there be 30% of the nicotine left?
ii What percentage of the nicotine is left after 12 hours?
Example 4
What is the doubling time for an investment with an annual interest rate 4. 8%,
compounded monthly?
UNIT 3.5 - The absolute value function - Notes .
Definition
The absolute value of a real number a, denoted by |a|, is the distance from a to
0 on the real number line.
Remark
Distance cannot be a negative number, therefore we cannot say that the distance
between − 2 and 0 is −2. The distance between −2 and 0 is |−2|2. Definition of
the absolute value function.
Let x be a real number. The absolute value function, denoted by fx=|x|, is
defined as

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p27

 5
y
-4 -2 0 2 4
x if x ≥ 0 x
fx  |x| .
−x if x  0
fx  |x|
The domain of the function fx  |x| is −,  and the range is 0. .
The function is continuous on −, .
The function is not differentiable at x  0 because the graph has a "corner" at
x  0.
Example 1
Use the definition to calculate the following absolute values
1 |14 − 2| 2 |−3 − 14| 3 |−2| − |−14|
Some properties of the absolute value function (You have to memorize this)
Let x and a be real numbers with a ≥ 0.
1. |x|≥ 0 for all values of x.
2. |x| 0 if and only if x  0.
3. |x| a if and only if x  a.
Example 2
Solve the equations below.
1 |x − 8| 0 2 |x| 5 3 |x| −5 4 |x − 8| 2
Remark
fx as fx ≥ 0
How to you sketch the graph of y  |fx| ?
−fx as fx  0
If fx  0 (the part above the x −axis) the graphs of y  |fx| and y  fx are
the same.
If fx  0 (the part below the x −axis) you reflect the graph of y  fx over the
x −axis

3 3
y y
2 2
1 1

-2 -1 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
-1 x x

y x2 − 1 y |x2 − 1|
Example 3
Sketch the graphs fx|−2x 4| and gx|−x2 2x 8|
Example 4
Use graphs to solve the inequalities below.
1 |x|3 2 |x|−5 3 |x|−3 4 |x − 1|≤ 2
Example 4
Find the interval(s) on which the function fx=|lnx| is continuous and
differentiable.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p28

Unit 3.6 - Periodic functions, pp 71 -75
Definition
1. A periodic function complete the same cycle over and over.
2. The period is the time to complete one cycle.
3. If f is a periodic function with period p , then fx  p  fx and
fx  k  p  fx for k  1, 2, 3, . . .
4. The amplitude of a periodic function is  12 maximum value − minimum
value)
Example 1
Consider the periodic function below.

y 10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x

i Find the period of the function.

ii Find the amplitude of the function.
iii Find the function values f3, f31 and f−37
Example 2
The function y  fx is a periodic function. Some function values are given in the
table below. Find the period of the function and the value of f−585
x 5 10 15 20 25
fx 1. 8 1. 4 1. 7 2. 1 1. 8
Radian measure
Why do we have to use radian measure? We only use real value functions, where
the domain and range consist of real numbers. If you have to calculate the function
fx  x  sin x, you must be able to calculate y  x and y  sin x for x
a real number.. Therefore we have to change the domain of the very important
trigonometric functions y  sin x and y  cos x so that x ∈ . In this course
ALWAYS use the "rad"-mode of your calculator and not "deg" for degree.
The Trigonometric functions y  sin x and y  cos x

1 1
y y

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
x x
-1 -1

y  sin x y  cos x
Both functions have domain , range 1, 1, period 2 and amplitude 1.
Theorem
The trigonometric functions y A cosBt+C and y A sinBt+C have an

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p29

amplitude of |A|, a period of 2 and a vertical shift of C.
B
Remark
When you sketch a periodic function such as y  A cosBt  C or
y  A sinBt  C, you have to write down the period and the amplitude, indicate the
vertical shift clearly by using dotted lines, divide the period (on the horizontal axis)
in 4 equal parts and write down the values and use concavity when sketching the
function
Example 2
Sketch one cycle of the trigonometric functions fx  y  −4  2 sin2x and
gt  3 − 2 cos t 
2
Example 3
Over the period of one year, the mouse population, M, in a certain region
decreased from 24 000 to 16 000.
i Assume that the graph M  ft is a periodic function. Sketch one cycle
of the graph. Clearly indicate the important information on both axes.
ii Write down the formula of M  ft, t in years, assuming that it is a cos −
or sin −function.
iii What is the size of the population after 33 months?
iv At what rate was the population changing after 5 months?
Example 4
The depth of water in a tank oscillates once every 6 hours. The smallest depth is
5. 5 meters at 03 : 00 and the largest depth is 8. 5 meters.
Let H  ft with H. the the depth of the water in meters and t in hours since
03:00.
i Sketch one cycle of the graph.
ii Find a formula for the function, assuming that it is a cos − or
sin −function.
iii What was the depth of the water at 23:00?
iv At what rate is the depth changing at 10:00?
Example 5
The function P  ft  10  sin 2  3t  may be use to estimate the number of
insects, in thousands, in a region with t in months since December 2010.
i What is the size of the initial population?
ii At what rate was the population changing in May 2011?
Unit 4.1 - Local extremes of a function - pp 176 - 181
Definitions
Let p be in the domain of function f .
1. f has a local minimum at x  p if fp is less than or equal to all the
values of f "near" p
2. f has a local maximum at x  p if fp is greater than or equal to all the
values of f "near" p
Remarks
1. Local minima and local maxima are called "local extremes "
2. If we talk about values "near" p it is the values in a "small" interval around
p and the interval is getting smaller and smaller. It is a limit process.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p30

3. A function can have a local extreme at an endpoint.
4. Where do we find local extremes? We have to find the critical points
(Definition below).
5. Remember, if a function has a "corner" at a point, the function is not
differentiable at the point.
Example 1
In the sketch below, if x → − then fx → −
5
y
4
3
2
1

1 2 3 4 5 6
-1 x

Write down the x −values of the local minimum(s) and the local maximum(s).

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p31

Definition
Let f be a function. The point x  p is a critical point of f if
1. p is in the domain of f and f ′ p  0, or
2. p is in the domain of f and f ′ p does not exists., or
3. the domain of the function is a closed interval p, b, p, , −, p or
b, p
Remarks
1. Note that a critical point is NOT a pair of numbers.
2. The functions sketched below have a critical point at x  c.

y y y

c c x c x
x

I II III

y y y

c c c
x x x

IV V VI
Remark
In sketches III and VI above the function has a critical point at x  c but the
function does not have a local extreme at x  c. That means that we have to TEST
if the function has a local extreme at a critical point or not.
The first derivative test for local extremes
Let p be a critical point of a continuous function f .
Moving from left to right:
1. If f ′ changes from negative to positive at p then f has a local minimum
at x  p, that is
If f changes from decreasing to increasing at p then f has a local
minimum at x  p
2. If f ′ changes from positive to negative at p then f has a local maximum
at x  p, that is
If f changes from increasing to decreasing at p then f has a local
maximum at x  p
The second derivative test for local extremes
Let p be critical point of a continuous function f with f ′ p  0
′′
1. If f p  0 then the function is concave up at x  p and f has a local
minimum at x  p,
′′
2. If f p  0 then the function is concave down at x  p and f has a
local maximum at x  p
′′
3. If f ′ p  0 and f p  0 you cannot use the test.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p32

The functions on the next page has a local extreme at x  p.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p33

 y y y y

p x p x p x p x

local min local max local min local max

Method
When you to find the local extremes of a function, you have to
1. Write down the domain of the function.
2. Find the derivative of the function and simplify your answer.
3. Find the critical points.
4. Use one of the two test to identify the local extremes . If you use the First
Derivative Test you have to use a number line.
5. Write down your answers in the form:
f has a local minimum at x   and the local minimum value is f . .
Example 2
Use the first derivative test and find the local extremes of
fx  −6x 4  80x 3 − 300x 2  20
Example 3
Use the second derivative test and find the local extremes of fx  4x 2 ln x
Remark
If the function is defined on a closed interval then the endpoint(s) of the closed
interval is a critical point. You must use a number line to decided whether you have
a local maximum or minimum at the endpoint..
Example 4
Find the local extremes of the functions fx  2x − x , gx  x 2/5 and
hx  x 2 − 9
Unit 4.2 - inflection points - pp 183 - 185
Revision
Let f be a function that is continuous and twice differentiable on an interval I.
1. f is concave up on I if the graph of f lies above all its tangent lines on I
f is concave up on I  f ′′  0 on I
2. f is concave down on I if the graph of f lies below all its tangent lines
on I
f is concave down on I  f ′′  0 on I

f concave up on R f concave down on R f changes concavity

Definition
Let f be a function The function f has an inflection point at p if 1. p
is in the domain of f

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p34

2. the graph of f changes concavity at p
Test for inflection points
Let f be a function
1. Find all the values of p in the domain of f where f ′′ p  0 or where
f ′′ p does not exists.
2. Make sure that the function is defined on both sides of p.
3. If f ′′ changes sign at p then p is an inflection point.
Remarks
1. We will always use a number line to test if the function has an inflection
point at p or not.
2. f can only have an inflection point at p if p is in the domain of f.
3. If f ′′ p  0 or f ′′ p does not exists it does not meant that p is an
inflection point, you have to use the test
Example 1
Find the inflection point(s) of fx  2x 2  ln x
Remark
If you have to sketch a polynomial, you have to find
i The interval(s) on which p is increasing and the interval(s) on which p is
decreasing.
ii The local extremes of p. (Use the First Derivative test with a number
line).
iii The interval(s) on which p is concave up and the interval(s) on which p
is concave down (Use a number line).
iv The inflection points of p. You need both the x and y values of the
inflection points.
v The horizontal intercepts, if you can factor the polynomial, and the
vertical intercept.
Example 2
Sketch the polynomial px  −x 4  4x 3 .
Remarks
We can use a computer program to sketch a graph, but if you sketch the
polynomial on the window −6, 6 you cannot see any extremes or inflection points.
If you use the tests you can sketch part of the polynomial on a smaller window to
see the local extremes and inflection points.

x y y 2
y
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
20 20
y
10 -1 1 10
-1000
x
-2
0 0
1 2 3 4 -4 0 1 2 3
-2000 x x

Unit 4.3 - Global extremes - p 189

Definition
Let y fxbe a function.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p35

1. The function has a global minimum at x  p if fp is less than or equal
to ALL function values of f.
It means that if D f the domain of f then p ∈ D f and fp ≤ fx for
EVERY x ∈ D f
2. The function has a global maximum at x  p if fp is greater than or
equal to ALL function values of f.
It means that if D f the domain of f then p ∈ D f and fp ≥ fx for
EVERY x ∈ D

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p36

Example 1
The domain of the function f below is 0. 5, 4. 5.
12
y
10

0
0 1 2 3 4
x

i Write down the x −values of the global extremes of the function.

ii Write down the x −values of the local extremes of the function.
Remark
Every global extreme is also a local extreme.
Remarks
1. If you have to find the global extremes, you have to find the global
minimum and the global maximum.
2. If you have to find the global extremes and the function doesn’t have a
global minimum and/or a global maximum, you have to mention it and
explain your answer.
3. A continuous function that is defined on a CLOSED interval, always has a
global minimum and a global maximum ON THE INTERVAL.
4. If the function is not defined on a closed interval and you have to find the
global extremes, you have to sketch the graph.
The technique to find the global extremes of a function that is continuous on
a closed interval
Consider the function y  fx that is continuous on a closed interval a, b
1. Find all the critical points of f IN THE INTERVAL a, b .
2. Calculate the function values of the critical points in number 1.
3. Calculate the function values of the endpoints, fa and fb.
4. The smallest function value calculated in points 2 and 3 is the global
minimum.
5. The largest function value calculated in points 2 and 3 is the global
maximum.
Example 2
Consider the polynomial gxx4 − 2x3 x2 with
g′x4x 3 − 6x2 2x 2x2x − 1x − 1
Find the global extremes of g on the interval
i 4, 0. 25ii 5, −1iii 0, 2
Example 3
Use graphs to find the global extremes of the functions fxx 3,
gx=x2 − 4x 5 = x − 22 1 and hx=cos x, x ∈ 0, 4].

Example 4
Let ftte2t

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p37

i Find the global extremes of f on −1, 1
ii Find the global extremes of f on its domain.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p38

Unit 5.1 - Total change - pp 242 - 246
Introduction
Let v  ft  4 be the velocity of an object in meter per second.
How far did the object move in 5 seconds?
Solution
distance
As velocity  it follows that distance  velocity  time  4  5  20 meters.
time
The object moved 20 meters in 5 seconds.
Remarks
1. Note that velocity is the rate of change (derivative) of distance.
2. Note that the distance  4  5 is the area of a rectangle
graph of rate of change
y4
2 total change = area
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x

Definition
The (total) change of a continuous function over a closed interval
Let y  ft with f a function that is continuous over the interval a, b.
dy
Let the rate of change,  f ′ t, be positive over the interval a, b.
dt
The change in y over the interval a, b is
Δy  fb − fa
 area under the graph of the rate of change of y  ft
 area under the graph of y  f ′ t.
Example 1
Let v  ft  4t be the velocity of an object in meter per second..
How far did the object move in 5 seconds?
Definition
How to estimate the area under the graph of a continuous function over a
closed interval.
Let g be a function that is continuous and positive over the interval a, b.
We estimate the area between the graph of g, the x −axis and the lines x  a and
x  b by using Riemann-sums. A Riemann-sum is the sum of areas of
rectangles.
Notation
 We use n rectangles.
 We divide the interval, a, b into n equal parts. We call each part a
subinterval.
 We use the length of the subinterval as the width of the rectangle, that is
Δx  b−a
n .
 The height of the rectangle is a function value.
For a left-hand sum (LHS) - use the left-endpoint of the subinterval to
calculate the function value.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p39

 For a right-hand sum (RHS) - use the right-endpoint of the subinterval to
calculate the function value.
If we use the subinterval, 1, 4, the he width of the subinterval is
Δx  b − a
n  1 3
4−1

10
y y8 y8
6 6
5 4 4
2 2
0 0 0
0 2 4 0 2 4 0 2 4
x x x

one subinterval left-hand sum right-hand sum

Example 2
The function O  ft gives the oil consumption of a country, in millions of barrels
per year, with t in years since 1990.
t 0 5 10 15
O 22. 4 21. 5 22. 9 23. 2
Estimate the total volume of oil used from 1990 to 2005.
Solution
The function: O  ft is a rate of change function. The units are millions barrels
per year.
The table gives the width of the subinterval, Δt  5.
Add a first row to the table, a counter i, starting at i  0.
i 0 1 2 3
t 0 5 10 15
O 22. 4 21. 5 22. 9 23. 2
The Riemann-sum will be equal to the sum of areas of 3 rectangles.
The left-hand sum is
LHS  22. 4  5  21. 5  5  22. 9  5  334 million barrels.
The right-hand sum is
RHS  21. 5  5  22. 9  5  23. 2  5  338 million barrels.
The total volume of oil is approximately 334  338  336 million barrels.
2
Example 3
Let v  ft  101. 2 t be the velocity of an object in meters per minute.
Estimate the distance covered in 15 minutes using
i 3 rectangles ii n  5
Solution of i
You have to set up a table and use the table to write down the Riemann-sums
 The first row in the table is a counter, i, from i  0 to i  n  3
b−a 15−0
 Calculate the width of the rectangle using the formula Δt  n   5.
3
Use this to write down the values of t in the second row from t  a  0 to
t  b  15.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p40

 The third row are the function values, use the formula and do not write it as
a decimal number.
i 0 1 2 3
t 0 5 10 15
v 101. 2 0 101. 2 5 101. 2 10 101. 2 15

LHS  101. 2 0  5  101. 2 5  5  101. 2 10  5  484

RHS  101. 2 5  5  101. 2 10  5  101. 2 15  5  1204. 4
The distance covered in 15 seconds is approximately 484  1204. 4  844. 2
2
meters.
Unit 5.2 - The definite integral - pp250 - 252
Definition
Let y  ft be a continuous function on the closed interval a, b
Divide the interval a, b into n equal subintervals, each interval with width
t  b − n
a
Let t 0 , t 1 , . . . , t n be the endpoints of the subintervals.
b
The definite integral of f from a to b,  ft dt, is defined as
a
n−1
b
 a ft dt  limLHS  lim ∑ ft i t
n→ n→
i0
which is equal to
n
b
 a ft dt  limRHS  lim ∑ ft i t
n→ n→
i1
Remarks
1. ft is called the integrand.
2. a and b are the limits of the integral.
b
3. If you have to estimate  fx dx, you have to calculate the LHS and RHS
a
and use the average of the sums as the value of the definite integral..
Example 1
Estimate  1x dx by using 4 subintervals.
9
1
Solution
Set up a table to calculate the LHS and RHS.
x  b − a
n  4 2
9−1

i 0 1 2 3 4
xi 1 3 5 7 9
1 1 1 1
fx i  1 3 5 7 9
3
LHS  ∑ fx i x  1  2   13  2   15  2   17  2  3. 352
i0
4
RHS  ∑ fx i x   13  2   15  2   17  2   19  2  1. 5775
i1

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p41

 1 1x dx ≈ 3. 352  1. 575  2. 464
9
2
Remark
In unit 5.4 we will find another method to calculate definite integrals.
The answer is  1x dx  ln9  2. 197
9
1

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p42

Revision
If the function f is continuous and positive on the closed interval a, b, then
b
 a fxdx is equal to the area between the graph, the x −axis and the lines x  a
and x  b
Example 2
2
Use areas to find  2 dx .
−5
Example 3
3
i Estimate  2t dt by using 4 subintervals
1
3
ii Use areas to find  2t dt .
1
Unit 5.3 - Antiderivatives - Notes
Remark
b
If we use Riemann-sums to estimate the definite integral,  ft dt, we called the
a
technique numerical integration. It is an important technique to calculate some
definite integrals. For some functions there is an easier method to calculate the
definite integral, using antiderivatives. We will use this technique in Unit 5.4
Definitions
1. An antiderivative of the function y  fx is a function Fx such that
F ′ x  fx.
2. We defined that  fx dx  Fx  C if an only if F ′ x  fx.
If  fx dx  Fx  C then F is an antiderivative of f.
3.  fx dx is called an indefinite integral
Example 1
Find an antiderivative of the function fx  x 7
Solution
fx  x 7 is a power function.
The derivative of a power function is also a power function, if y  x n then
d x n  nx n−1 .
dx
An antiderivative of fx  x 7 will be a power function, with power n, where
n−1  7
As d x 8  8x 7 an antiderivative is Fx  18 x 8 .
dx
Test your answer by using differentiation:
F ′ x  d 18 x 8  18  8x 7  x 7  fx
dx
This is not the only answer as d C  0 for any number C and therefore
dx
Fx  18 x 8  C, C ∈  gives all the possible antiderivatives.
Remark
When we differentiate a composite function the answer is a product. For example
d
cose x=− sinex e x
dx

If you have to write down an antiderivative of fx)=e x sinex your answer is NOT a
product. Your answer is ONE COMPOSITE FUNCTION, namely y − cose x

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p43

Example 2
Find
i a antiderivative of ft  cost 4 t 3
ii the antiderivative of fx  x 1  x 2 , Fx, with F0  4
iii all the antiderivatives of fx  cos x  4 sin x
Indefinite integrals
1.  x n dx  1 x n1  C for n ≠ −1
n1
2.  1 x dx  ln|x|C
3.  e x dx  e x  C
4.  a x dx  ln1a a x  C
5.  sin x dx  − cos x  C
6.  cos x dx  sin x  C
7.  k dx  kx  C
Indefinite integrals of composite functions
1. fx n f ′ xdx  n 1 1 fx n1  C for n ≠ −1
′
x
2.  ffx dx  ln|fx|C

3.  e fx f ′ xdx  e fx  C

4.  a fx f ′ x dx  ln1a a fx  C
5.  sin fx f ′ x dx  − cos fx  C
6.  cos fx f ′ xdx  sin fx  C
Properties of indefinite integrals
Let f and g be functions and let k be any real number.
1. fx  gx dx   fx dx   gx dx
2. fx − gx dx   fx dx −  gx dx
3.  kfx dx  k  fx dx
Remark
When we ask you to find the indefinite integral of a composite function,
 fgtg ′ t dt, remember that if you derive a composite function, the answer is a
product. The answer of the indefinite integral will be ONE composite function.
Example 6
Find
1. (i)  x 6 dx (ii) 1 − x 4  6 x 3 dx (iii)  sin 6 3x cos3x dx
−3x
2. (i)  1x dx (ii)  x 2 dx (iii)  e −3x dx
1−x 4e
3. (i)  e dx
3x
(ii)  e dx
1−2x
(iii)  sin xe cos x dx

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p44

 (i)  4 x dx (ii)  4 sin x cos xdx (iii)  x4 x dx
2
4.
(i)  (ii)  sin 5x  dx
sinx
5. 5
dx (iii)  5 x sin5 x dx
(iii) 
cosln x
6. (i)  cos2x dx (ii)  cosx 5 x 4 dx x dx
7. Ii)  5 dx (ii)  6dt
−x
8. (i)  e −x dx (ii)  e −x dx
1e 1  e −x  3
Unit 5.4 -The fundamental theorem - pp 302 - 304
Revision
1. Let y  fx be continuous on the closed interval a, b.
We defined the definite integral as
b n b n−1
 a fx dx nlimRHS
→
lim ∑ fx i x
n→
or as  a fx dx nlimLHS
→
lim ∑ fx i x
n→
i1 i0
As n →  the answer will be the same, whether you use a LHS or a RHS
2. If y  fx is continuous and positive on the closed interval a, b , then
b
 a fxdx is equal to the area between the graph, the x −axis and the lines
x  a and x  b.
The Fundamental theorem
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval a, b.
Let F be an antiderivative of f (that is F ′  f on the interval a, b ).
b b
Then  fx dx  Fx  Fb − Fa
a a
Properties of definite integrals.
Let f and g be continuous functions on the closed interval a, b.
Let k be any real number.
b b b
1.  a fx  gx dx   a fx dx   a gx dx
b b b
2.  a fx − gx dx   a fx dx −  a gx dx
b b
3.  a kfx dx  k  a fx dx
b c b
4.  a fx dx   a fx dx   c fx dx for any c ∈ a, b.
Example 1
5
Calculate  6x dx by using areas and the Fundamental Theorem.
1
Solution
5
As y  6x is positive on the interval 1, 5,  1 6x dx is the area between the graph
and the x −axis and the lines x  1 and x  5.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p45

 y 30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
1
Area  area of rectangle  area of triangle  4  6  2
 4  30 − 6  72.
5
∴  1 6x dx  72
An anti-derivative of 6x is 3x 2 because d 3x 2  6x.
dx
Using the Fundamental Theorem:
5 5
 1 6x dx  3x 2  3  5 2  − 3  1 2   72
1
Example 2
Calculate the following definite integrals.
2 1 2
i  −1 t 2 − 1 dt. ii  −2 2 − x 1/3 dx iii 1 x
2
dx
x 9
1 /2 2
 −1 cos3xe sin3x dx  −/2  −1
x
iv v cos2xdx vi 3 dx
x
Unit 6.1 - The definite integral as area - pp 255 - 258
Summary - Area between a graph and the x −axis
Let f be continuous on the interval a, b
Let A  0 be the area between the graph of y  fx and the x −axis and the lines
x  a and x  b.
Case 1
b b
If fx  0 on the interval a, b, then  fxdx  0 and  fxdx  A.
a a
Case 2
b b
If fx  0 on the interval a, b, then  fx dx  0 and  a fx dx  −A
a
Summary - Area between graphs
Let f and g be continuous on the interval a, b with fx ≥ gx for x ∈ a, b
The area between the graph of y  fx and the graph of y  gx and the lines
b
x  a and x  b is equal to  a fx − gx dx
Remarks
 If you have to calculate the area between a graph and the x −axis between
two lines x  a and x  b sketch the function if possible.
If you cannot sketch the function, you have to find the horizontal intercepts
because you have to know when on which interval(s) the function is positive
and on which interval(s) the function is negative.
 If you have to find the area between two graphs, y  fx and y  gx, you
have to find the point(s) of intersection of the graphs (let fx  gx and
then you have to find on which interval(s) is fx  gx and on which

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p46

 interval(s) is gx  fx.
Example 1
1
i Calculate  x 3 dx
−2
ii Find the area of the region between the graph of y  x 3 and the x −axis
and the lines x  −2 and x  1.
Example 2
Find the area of the region between the graph of
i y  cos x  and the x −axis and the lines x   and x  2.
2
2
ii y  xe −x and the x −axis and the lines x  1 and x  2.
Example 3
Find the area of the region between the graph of fx  3e −x and the graph of
gx  e x and the lines x  0 and x  1.
Example 4
Find the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of fx  x 2 and gx  x
Remark
Why do you have to write  1x dx  ln|x|c?
The graph of y  1x is sketched below. As f is continuous on the interval −2, −1
−1
you can calculate  1x dx and the answer is a negative number.
−2
As the domain of y  ln x is 0, , ln−2 is undefined but ln|−2| ln2 is defined.
−1
 −2 1 dx  ln|x| −1  ln|−1|− ln|−2| ln 1 − ln 2  − ln 2  −0. 693 15
x
−2

4
y 2

-3 -2 -1 -2 1 2 3
-4
x

Example 5
Consider the function fx  x
9 − x2
2
i Calculate  x dx
2
−1 9 − x
ii Find the area of the region between the graph of y  fx, the x −axis and
the lines x  −1 and x  2.
0.4
y
0.2

-1 1 2
x

y x
9 − x2
Example 6
Consider the graph of the function y fx.
The area between the graph and the x −axis and the lines x a and x b is

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p47

158.
The area between the graph and the x −axis and the lines x  b and x  c is 30.

y
30
a b c
158

b c c
Complete: i  fx dx  i  fx dx  iii  fx dx 
a b a
Unit 6.2 - Interpretations of the definite integral - pp 260 - 269
Revision
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval a, b and let F be an
antiderivative of f (that is F ′  f on the interval a, b
b n
 a fx dx  lim RHS  nlim
→
∑ fx i x
i1
b a
 a fx dx  Fx  Fb − Fa (The fundamental Theorem)
b

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p48

Definitions
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval a, b
b
1. The units of  a fx dx are the product of the units of f and the units of
x.
2. Let f the the rate of change of F (that is f  F ′ 
The total change of F between t  a and t  b is equal to
b b
F  Fb − Fa   a F ′ t dt   a ft dt
Example 1
Water flows into a tank at a rate of t m 3 per hour
2
3t  1
b
i What are the units of a 2
t dt?
3t  1
2
ii Find 0 t
dt and interpret your answer.
2
3t  1
iii If there was 5 m 3 in the tank, how much water is in the tank after 4
hours?
Example 2
The temperature of an object was 200 0 C and decreases at at a rate of 8e −0.07t
degrees C per minute. Find the temperature of the object after 2 hours.
Example 3
The height of the water against the habour wall changes at a rate of −2. 6 sin 6 t
meter per hour.
If the height at 06:00 was 15 meters, find the height at 14:00.
Unit 6.3 - Average value - pp 272 - 274
Revision
Let f be a continuous function on the interval a, b.
b n
a ft dt  lim ∑ ft i t
n→
i1
Remark (You do not have to memorize this)
The average of the three numbers a, b and c is equal to a  b  c
3
How to you find the average of a continuous function y  ft on the interval a, b?
Divide the interval a, b in n equal parts each with length t  b −
n
a

ft 1   ft 2  . . . . ft n 

The average of the n numbers ft 1 , ft 2 , .... , ft n  is n
as t  b − a b−a
n  t  n  b − a  n  t
the average of the n numbers is
ft 1   ft 2  . . . . ft n 
n

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p49

 ft 1   ft 2  . . . . ft n 
  1  ft 1   ft 2  . . . . ft n t
b−a b−a
n
t
b
1 ∑ ft i t → 1  ft dt
n

b−a  b−a a
i1

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p50

Definition
If the function y  ft is continuous on the interval a, b we defined the average
value of f on the interval as 1  b ft dt.
b−a a
Remark
Assume that function f is continuous and positive over the interval a, b.
Let A be the average value of f on the interval a. b .
b b
then A  1  ft dt   ft dt  A  b − a
b−a a a
The expression shows that two areas are equal.
b
On the left is  ft dt, the area between the graph and the x −axis and the lines
a
x  a and x  b.
On the right is A  b − a, the area of a rectangle with base b − a and height the
average of the function on the interval a, b
Example 1
Let fx  x 2
1. Find the average of f1 and f3
2. Find the average value of f on the interval 1, 3
3. Explain your answer in 2 in terms of areas
Solution
f1  f3
1. The average of f1 and f3 is  19  5
2 2
3 3
2.  x 2 dx  1 x 3  1 3 3 − 1 1 3  26  8. 67
1 3 1 3 3 3
The average of f on the interval 1, 3 is
1  b fxdx  1  3 x 2 dx  1  26  13  4. 33
b−a a 3−1 1 2 3 3
3. the areas below are equal.

y y
5 5
area area
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
x x

Example 2
A population is given by the function P  ft  6. 1e 0.0125t with P in millions and t
in years since 2000.
i Find the average of the population in 2000 and the population in 2015
ii Find the average population on the interval from 2000 to 2015.
Unit 7.1 Application of functions to economics pp 28 - 33
Definitions
1. The cost function, Cq, gives the total cost of producing q items.
2. The fixed costs are the cost which are incurred even if nothing is
produced.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p51

 If Cq is the cost function, then the fixed costs are equal to C0.
3. The variable costs depends on how many units are produced.
4. The revenue function, Rq, gives the total revenue from selling q items.
5. If the items are sold at a price of p rand per item, then
The revenue from selling q items is Rq  price  number of units  pq.
The revenue function normally consists of linear functions. The function
goes through the origin.
6. The profit function, q, gives the profit / loss from selling q items.
The profit function is q  Rq − Cq.
7. The break-even point. is where the profit is zero, that is the revenue is
equal to the cost.
Example 1
It costs R 5500 to create your web site and R 66 to buy and print a T-shirt that you
sell for R120.
How many T-shirts must you sell to make a profit?
Definitions
1. The supply curve gives the number of items, q, that the manufacturer will
produce at a price of p rand per item.
The supply curve is an increasing function.
2. The demand curve gives the number of items, q, that the consumer will
buy at a price of p rand per item.
The demand curve is a decreasing function. Note the labeling of the axes.
3. The point of intersection of the demand and supply curve is gives the
equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity
It is assumed that the market settles to this point.

p p p

q q q

supply demand break-even point

Example 2
Consider the functions q  300 − 6p and q  9p − 150 with q the number of items
and p the price in rand per item.
i Which function is the demand curve q  Dp and which function is the
supply curve, q  Sp?
ii At a price of R 20 per item how many items will the supplier be willing to
manufacture and how many items will the consumers buy?
iii Will the equilibrium price be more or less than R 20 per item ?
iv Find the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity
v Use the demand curve to find the global maximum of the revenue function.
Unit 7.2 - Marginal cost and revenue - pp 118 - 122

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p52

Definitions
1. The marginal cost is the cost to produce one more item.
The marginal cost is represented by the slope (derivative) of the cost
function.
2. The marginal revenue is the revenue from selling one more item.
The marginal revenue is represented by the slope (derivative) of the
revenue function.
3. The marginal profit is the profit or loss from selling one more item.
The marginal profit is represented by the slope (derivative) of the profit
function.
Definitions
Let Cq be the cost function and Rq be the revenue function with q the
number of units
1. The marginal cost (MC) at q is the cost to produce one more unit and is
Cq1−Cq
equal to Cq  1 − Cq  1
≈ C ′ q
For any cost function we define that MC  C ′ q, the slope of the cost
function at q .
2. The marginal revenue (MR) at q is the revenue if one more unit is sold
Rq1−Rq
and is equal to Rq  1 − Rq  1
≈ R ′ q.
For any revenue function we define that MR  R ′ q, the slope of the
revenue function at q.
Example 1
Consider a manufacturer whose cost and revenue functions (in rand) are
q2 q2
Cq  5000  300q − and Rq  400q 
10 5
i What are the fixed costs?
ii Find the total cost to produce 50 items
iii Find the marginal cost at q  50 and interpret your answer.
iv Find the marginal revenue at q  50 and interpret your answer.
Remark
What is marginal analysis? The cost function gives the total cost if q items are
produced and the revenue function the total revenue if q items are sold. It is
possible if one more unit is produced and sold, you can lose money selling that
ONE unit.
Summary
1. If for item q, MR  MC (R ′ q  C ′ q you are making a profit if you
produce and sell that item and you can increase production.
2. If for item q, MR  MC (R ′ q  C ′ q you are not making a profit if you
produce and sell that item and you maybe you should not increase
production
3. If you can sketch the graphs of the cost and revenue functions on the
same set of axis, you just compare the slopes of the tangent lines at a
point when you do marginal analysis.
Example 2
The cost function for a manufacturer is Cq=0. 02q2 50q 4000 with q the
number of items and C in rand.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p53

At the moment the manufacturer sells 749 items per week at a price of R 79.50 per
item.
Should the manufacturer expand his production?
Remark
What can we learn from the second derivative of the cost function?
Consider the graph of a cost function, Cq.

rand

a
q

A cost function is always increasing and therefore C ′ q  0.

For 0  q  a the function is concave up, C ′′ q  0, and the cost is increasing at
an increasing rate.
For q  a is the function is concave down, C ′′ q  0, and the cost is increasing at
a decreasing rate
Example 3
Consider the revenue and cost function below.
The two function intersect at q  a and q  b

rand rand

a i b a i b q
q

i When does the company make a profit?

ii Does the company make a profit if item i is produced and sold?
iii Should they produce more than i items?
iv What are the signs of the first and second derivatives of the cost and
revenue function at q  i? Interpret your answer.
Unit 7.3 - Maximum profit,cost and revenue pp 194 - 198
Example 1 (Maximum revenue)
At a price of R 8 per item consumers will buy 1500 units.
If the company increases the price by R1 per item, the number of items that the
consumers will buy will decrease by 75.
i Is the function described above a supply or demand curve?
Find the formula of the function assuming that it is a linear function.
ii Find the price that will maximize the revenue.
How to find the critical points of the profit function
Assume that the cost and revenue functions are differentiable.
1. Let q  Rq − Cq
2.  ′ q  0  R ′ q − C ′ q  0  R ′ q  C ′ q

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p54

3. You have to find the points where the slopes of the cost and revenue
functions are equal, But, the critical point can also give maximum lost, so
find the critical point(s) q where Rq  Cq
Example 2
Consider the cost function, Cq  100q  200 000 and the revenue function
Rq  −0. 02q 2  400q with q the number of units and C and R in rand.
Find the maximum profit.
Example 3 (Maximum profit/lost by using a sketch).
The graphs of a cost function and revenue function are given with C and R in
tens of thousands of rands and the number of items, q, in thousands..
i When will the company make a profit?
ii When will the company make the maximum profit?
iii When will the company make maximum loss?
Remark
As you have to use tangent lines, I sketched it on the second sketch.

15 15
C,R C,R

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
q q

Unit 7.4 - Finding total cost - p 269

Summary
Let Cq be the cost function with q the number of units
1. The cost to increase production from a to b units is
b
Cb − Ca   a C ′ qdq
2. The total cost to produce b units is Cb and as
b b
Cb − C0   0 C ′ qdq it follows that Cb  C0   C ′ qdq
0

Example 1
Consider the cost function Cq  5000  10q  1. 5e 0.2q with C in rand and q the
number of items.
i Find the fixed costs.
II Calculate the cost to produce item 10.
iii Calculate the cost to increase production from 10 to 20 items.
Example 2
Consider the marginal cost function C ′ q  5  10 with C in rand and q the
2q  2
number of units.
The fixed costs are R 4000
i Calculate the cost to produce item 10.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p55

ii Calculate the cost to increase production from 20 to 30 items.
iii Calculate the total cost to produce 30 items.

wtw 134, calculus lecture notes, p56