Here's a detailed summary of everything we've covered in this

Detailed Summary of Operating System Topics

1. Memory Allocation

Memory allocation is the process of assigning memory space to processes during

execution.

Types of Memory Allocation:

1. Contiguous Memory Allocation – Each process occupies a single continuous

block of memory.

o Fixed Partitioning – Divides memory into fixed-sized blocks.

o Dynamic Partitioning – Allocates variable-sized memory blocks based on

process needs.

2. Non-Contiguous Memory Allocation – A process can be allocated memory in

different locations.

o Paging – Memory is divided into fixed-sized pages mapped to physical

frames.

o Segmentation – Memory is divided into variable-sized segments based on

logical sections of a program.

Memory Allocation Strategies:

• First Fit: Assigns the first available block large enough for the process.

• Best Fit: Chooses the smallest available block that fits the process.

• Worst Fit: Allocates the largest block to leave larger free spaces.

• Next Fit: Similar to First Fit but continues searching from the last allocated position.

2. Address Translation

Address translation is the process of converting logical addresses (used by programs) into
physical addresses (used by hardware).

Types of Address Binding:

 1. Compile-Time Binding – Addresses are fixed at compile time.

2. Load-Time Binding – Addresses are assigned when the process is loaded into
memory.

3. Execution-Time Binding (Dynamic Relocation) – Addresses are translated during

execution using MMU.

Components Involved in Address Translation:

• Base and Limit Registers – Used for address relocation in simple contiguous
allocation.

• Page Tables – Used in paging to map logical pages to physical frames.

• Segment Tables – Used in segmentation to track variable-sized memory blocks.

Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB):

• A hardware cache that stores frequently used page table entries to speed up
address translation.

3. Protection in Operating Systems

Protection mechanisms prevent unauthorized access to memory, processes, and system

resources.

Memory Protection Mechanisms:

• Base and Limit Registers – Prevents a process from accessing memory outside its
allocated range.

• Paging Protection – Uses valid/invalid bits to restrict access to certain memory

pages.

• Segmentation Protection – Ensures processes can only access their assigned

segments.

CPU and Process Protection:

• User Mode vs. Kernel Mode – Protects critical OS functions from user programs.

• Privileged Instructions – Certain instructions can only be executed in kernel mode.

4. Fragmentation

Fragmentation occurs when free memory is divided into small, unusable sections.

Types of Fragmentation:

1. Internal Fragmentation – Occurs when allocated memory is slightly larger than

required.

2. External Fragmentation – Occurs when free memory is available but not in a

contiguous block.

Solutions to Fragmentation:

• Compaction – Rearranges memory to create a large contiguous free space (only in

dynamic allocation).

• Paging – Eliminates external fragmentation by allowing non-contiguous allocation.

• Segmentation with Paging – Combines segmentation and paging for flexible

allocation.

5. Paging

Paging is a non-contiguous memory allocation technique where memory is divided into

fixed-size pages.

How Paging Works:

• Logical memory is divided into pages (fixed size).

• Physical memory is divided into frames (same size as pages).

• Page Table maps each logical page to a physical frame.

Types of Paging:

• Single-Level Paging – A single page table is used for translation.

• Multi-Level Paging – Hierarchical page tables reduce memory usage.

• Inverted Page Table – Uses a single table for all processes, reducing memory
overhead.

Advantages of Paging:
 No external fragmentation.
Supports virtual memory.

Disadvantages of Paging:

Internal fragmentation (if page size is too large).

Requires page table lookup (can be slow without TLB).

6. Segmentation

Segmentation divides memory into variable-sized segments based on the program's

logical structure.

How Segmentation Works:

• Each segment has a base address (starting location) and limit (size).

• Segment Table is used for translation, mapping logical segments to physical

memory.

Advantages of Segmentation:

No internal fragmentation.
Better logical organization (Code, Data, Stack stored separately).

Disadvantages of Segmentation:

External fragmentation.
More complex address translation.

Segmentation vs. Paging:

Feature Paging Segmentation

Size Fixed-size pages Variable-sized segments

Fragmentation Internal External

Address Mapping Page Table Segment Table

7. Hardware Support for Memory Management

To support memory management, modern OSes use:

• Memory Management Unit (MMU) – Translates logical to physical addresses.

• Base and Limit Registers – Used in simple address translation.

• Page Tables – Used in paging for dynamic memory allocation.

• TLB (Translation Lookaside Buffer) – Speeds up address translation by caching

page table entries.

8. Base and Limit Registers

Base and Limit Registers are used in contiguous memory allocation to restrict access:

• Base Register – Stores the starting address of a process.

• Limit Register – Defines the process’s memory range.

• Used in: Simple memory management, but replaced by paging and segmentation
in modern OSes.

9. Relocation

Relocation allows a process to execute regardless of its actual memory location.

Types of Relocation:

1. Static Relocation (Load-Time Binding)

o Address binding happens before execution.

o Process cannot be moved during execution.

2. Dynamic Relocation (Execution-Time Binding)

o Address binding happens at runtime.

o Base Register is used to adjust addresses dynamically.

o Allows swapping and memory compaction.

How Relocation Works:

• Logical Address = Address generated by the program.

• Base Register = Starting physical address of the process.

 • Physical Address = Base Register + Logical Address.

Used in paging and segmentation for dynamic memory allocation.

Summary of Key Concepts

Topic Key Points

Assigns memory to processes using contiguous or non-contiguous

Memory Allocation
methods.

Converts logical addresses to physical addresses via MMU and

Address Translation
page tables.

Prevents unauthorized access using segmentation, paging, and

Protection
access control mechanisms.

Memory wastage due to internal or external fragmentation, solved

Fragmentation
by paging.

Fixed-size memory blocks mapped using page tables, eliminating

Paging
external fragmentation.

Variable-sized memory blocks mapped via segment tables,

Segmentation
avoiding internal fragmentation.

Uses MMU, page tables, base registers, and TLB for efficient
Hardware Support
memory management.

Base and Limit Restrict process memory access, replaced by modern paging
Registers techniques.

Allows processes to execute anywhere in memory, using base

Relocation
registers or page tables.

This detailed summary covers everything we've discussed. Let me know if you need any
last-minute clarifications before your quiz!