Manaskriti

School
 Chemistry
Project
Project Title:
Thermodynamics
SUBMITTED BY: Submitted To: Shweta
Ma’am Sarvesh Pandian
Roll no- 20
Grade- XI-AMBAR
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project named

“Thermodynamics”

has been worked on by Sarvesh

Pandian of Class XI-Ambar,
Manaskriti School, under
the guidance of Ms. Shweta (PGT
Chemistry)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I, Sarvesh Pandian, wish to express my

gratitude with a Great pleasure towards
our respected Principal, Ms. Pooja Ahuja,
for providing all the facilities during this
investigation work. I am equally indebted
to my Chemistry Teacher Ms. Shweta for
her constant encouragement and able
guidance. She rendered to me for the
completion of this project. I am also
highly obliged to my parents who helped
me financially to undertake and
complete this project.
 INDEX
1.Thermodynamics
2.Thermodynamic Processes
 Adiabatic Process
 Isothermal Process
 Isochoric Process
 Isobaric Process
3. Thermodynamic Equilibrium

4. Laws of thermodynamics
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics
 First law of thermodynamics
 Third law of thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is indeed a foundational branch of physics that explores
the principles governing the conversion of energy between heat and
other forms. It's based on a few fundamental concepts, such as
temperature, work, energy, and entropy.

1. Energy Conversion: Thermodynamics describes how thermal

energy (heat) can be converted into mechanical work or other
forms of energy, like electrical energy. A common example is an
engine, where heat from burning fuel is transformed into work that
drives a vehicle or machinery.

2. Temperature and Particle Motion: As you mentioned, thermal

energy originates from the microscopic motion of particles—atoms
or molecules. The faster these particles move (increased kinetic
energy), the higher the temperature of the substance.

Basic Concepts in Thermodynamics:

Thermodynamics has a specific set of terms and concepts that are

fundamental to understanding the subject. Some key terms include:

3. System: The portion of matter or region under study.

4. Surroundings: Everything outside the system.

5. State Functions: Properties that depend only on the current state

of the system, not on how it reached that state (e.g., temperature,
pressure, volume, and internal energy).

6. Path Functions: It is a thermodynamic quantity whose value

depends on the specific path taken to reach a particular state,
rather than just the initial and final states of the system.

7. Process: A transition from one state to another (e.g., heating or

cooling).

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 8. Work: Energy transferred by a system when it changes its volume
(e.g., expansion of a gas).

9. Heat: Energy transferred due to a temperature difference between

a system and its surroundings.

10. Entropy: A measure of the disorder or randomness of a

system, which tends to increase in natural processes (Second Law
of Thermodynamics).

11. Enthalpy: The total heat content of a system, important in

constant pressure processes.

Thermodynamic Systems

Figure 1. Thermodynamic Systems

System

A thermodynamic system is a specific portion of matter with a definite

boundary on which our attention is focused. The system boundary may be
real or imaginary, fixed or deformable.
There are three types of systems:

 Isolated System – An isolated system cannot exchange energy and

mass with its surroundings. The universe is considered an isolated
system.

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  Closed System – Across the boundary of the closed system, the
transfer of energy takes place but the transfer of mass doesn’t take
place. Refrigerator, compression of gas in the piston-cylinder
assembly are examples of closed systems.

 Open System – In an open system, the mass and energy both may
be transferred between the system and surroundings. A steam
turbine is an example of an open system.

Table 1. Interactions of thermodynamic systems

Type of system Mass flow Work Heat

Isolated System ☓ ☓ ☓

Open System ✓ ✓ ✓

Closed System ☓ ✓ ✓

Surrounding

Everything outside the system that has a direct influence on the

behaviour of the system is known as a surrounding.

Thermodynamic Process

A system undergoes a thermodynamic process when there is some

energetic change within the system that is associated with changes in
pressure, volume and internal energy.

There are four types of thermodynamic processes that have their unique
properties, and they are:

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 Adiabatic Process – A process where no heat transfer into or out
of the system occurs.

A process that occurs without heat exchange with the

surroundings.

Work Done in adiabatic process is The change in internal energy

which is entirely due to work done on or by the system.

 Temperature Change: The temperature of the system

changes as work is done (compression or expansion).
 Example: Rapid compression or expansion of gas in a piston.

Figure 2. Thermodynamic Process (Pressure Vs Volume)

 Isochoric Process – A process where no change in volume occurs

and the system does no work.

o Heat Exchange: Any heat added to the system changes its internal energy,
which affects its temperature.
o Example: Heating a gas in a sealed, rigid container.

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 Figure 3. Isochoric Process
 Isobaric Process – A process in which no change in pressure
occurs.

o Work Done: Work is done by the system as it changes volume under constant
pressure (W=PΔVW = P \Delta VW=PΔV).
o Heat Exchange: Heat added to the system increases both the internal energy and
the work done by the system.
o Example: Heating a liquid in an open container at constant atmospheric pressure.

 Isothermal Process – A process in which no change in

temperature occurs.

o Heat Exchange: Heat is transferred to or from the system to maintain constant

temperature.
o Work Done: Work is done by or on the system, and the heat exchanged is equal
to the work done (Q=WQ).
o Example: Melting or boiling of a substance at its melting or boiling point

Reversible Process:

 A process that can be reversed by infinitesimal changes in

conditions, without causing any change in the surroundings.

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  The system remains in equilibrium at all stages, and the process
can be undone to return to the initial state.

Work Done: The maximum work is done in a reversible process,

and no energy is lost due to friction or other irreversible effects.

Example: Idealized processes in thermodynamic cycles (e.g., the

Carnot cycle).

Irreversible Process:

 A process that cannot be reversed without leaving permanent

changes in the system or surroundings.

 The system is not in equilibrium during the process, and energy is

lost due to factors like friction, heat loss, or rapid changes in the
system.

 Example: Free expansion of a gas into a vacuum or real processes

in engines.

Cyclic Process:

 A process that returns the system to its original state after

completing a series of changes.

 The system undergoes a sequence of processes but ends up at the

same state as it started, so ΔU=0\Delta U = 0ΔU=0 (no change in
internal energy).

 Work Done: In a cyclic process, the system does net work over one
complete cycle.

 Example: The operation of a heat engine or the Carnot cycle.

Polytropic Process:

 A process in which the relationship between pressure and volume

follows PV^n = constant, where n is the polytropic index.

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  It is a generalization that can describe various processes, such as
isothermal, adiabatic, and others, depending on the value of n.

 The work done depends on the specific value of n, with different

behaviours for different values of n.

 Example: A process involving a gas where the pressure and

volume change in a specific way.

 Thermodynamic cycle is a process or a combination of processes

conducted such that the initial and final states of the system are
the same. A thermodynamic cycle is also known as cyclic operation
or cyclic processes.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium

At a given state, all properties of a system have fixed values. Thus, if the
value of even one property changes, the system’s state changes to a
different one. In a system that is in equilibrium, no changes in the value
of properties occur when it is isolated from its surroundings.

 When the temperature is the same throughout the entire system,

we consider the system to be in thermal equilibrium.

 When there is no change in pressure at any point of the system, we

consider the system to be in mechanical equilibrium.

 When the chemical composition of a system does not vary with

time, we consider the system to be in chemical equilibrium.

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  Phase equilibrium in a two-phase system is when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level.

A thermodynamic system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it

is in chemical equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium and thermal
equilibrium and the relevant parameters cease to vary with time.

Thermodynamic Properties

Thermodynamic properties are defined as characteristic features of a

system, capable of specifying the system’s state. Thermodynamic
properties are :

1. State Function:

 Depends on the state: The value of a state function depends

only on the current state of the system (i.e., its properties such
as temperature, pressure, volume, etc.), not on the path taken
to reach that state.
 Path-independent: The change in a state function is
independent of the process or path the system follows between
two states.
 Examples: Temperature, pressure, volume, internal energy,
enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs free energy.
2. Path Function:
 Depends on the process/path: The value of a path function
depends on the specific way the process occurs (i.e., the path
taken between the initial and final states).
 Path-dependent: The change in a path function depends on the
actual process or sequence of events, not just the initial and
final states.
 Examples: Work (W) and heat (Q)
3. Extensive And Intensive

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  Intensive properties are properties that do not depend on the
quantity of matter. Pressure and temperature are intensive
properties.
 In the case of extensive properties, their values depend on the
mass of the system. Volume, energy, and enthalpy are extensive
properties.
4. Enthalpy:
 Enthalpy is a thermodynamic quantity that represents the total
heat content of a system. It is particularly useful in constant
pressure processes and is defined as: H=U+PVH = U +
PVH=U+PV where HHH is enthalpy, UUU is internal energy,
PPP is pressure, and VVV is volume.
 Changes in enthalpy (ΔH\Delta HΔH) are often used to
determine the heat absorbed or released during processes like
chemical reactions at constant pressure.
5. Entropy
Entropy is a thermodynamic quantity whose value depends on the
physical state or condition of a system. In other words, it is a
thermodynamic function used to measure the randomness or
disorder.

For example, the entropy of a solid, where the particles are not
free to move, is less than the entropy of a gas, where the particles
will fill the container.

6. Heat:
 Heat is the energy transferred between a system and its
surroundings due to a temperature difference. Heat always
flows from a higher temperature object to a lower temperature
object.
 Heat transfer can occur via conduction, convection, or
radiation, depending on the nature of the system and its
surroundings.
7. Internal energy

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  It is the total energy contained within a system, resulting from
both the microscopic kinetic and potential energy of its particles
(atoms, molecules, etc.).
 Internal energy is a state function and is extensive property
ΔU=Q−W
8. Work:
 Work is the energy transferred when a system undergoes a change in
volume, typically caused by an external force. In the case of an expanding
gas, for example, work is done as the gas pushes against the walls of its
container or a piston.
 Work is related to the pressure-volume relationship: W=PΔVW = P \Delta
VW=PΔV, where PPP is the pressure, and ΔV\Delta VΔV is the change in
volume.
9. Gibbs Free Energy (GGG):
 Definition: Gibbs free energy (GGG) is a thermodynamic quantity that
measures the maximum reversible work a system can perform at constant
temperature and pressure. It combines the system's enthalpy (HHH) and
entropy (SSS) to predict whether a process is thermodynamically favorable.
 Formula:
 G=H−TS
 G is the Gibbs free energy.
 H is the enthalpy (total heat content of the system).
 T is the temperature in Kelvin.
 S is the entropy (measure of disorder or randomness).
 Spontaneity of Reactions:
 If ΔG<0, the reaction is spontaneous (it can proceed without external
input of energy).
 If ΔG>0, the reaction is non-spontaneous (it requires energy input to
proceed).
 If ΔG=0, the system is at equilibrium (no net change occurs).

Laws of Thermodynamics

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Thermodynamics laws define the fundamental physical quantities like
energy, temperature and entropy that characterize thermodynamic
systems at thermal equilibrium. These thermodynamics laws represent
how these quantities behave under various circumstances.

How many laws of thermodynamics are there?

There are four laws of thermodynamics and are given below:

 Zeroth law of thermodynamics

 First law of thermodynamics
 Second law of thermodynamics
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are

individually in equilibrium with a separate third body, then the first two
bodies are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

This means that if system A is in thermal equilibrium with system C and

system B is also in equilibrium with system C, then system A and B are
also in thermal equilibrium.

An example demonstrating the Zeroth Law

Figure 4. Demonstration of Zeroth Law

Consider two cups A and B, with boiling water. When a thermometer is

placed in cup A, it gets warmed up by the water until it reads 100 °C.

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When it reads 100 °C, we say that the thermometer is in equilibrium with
cup A. When we move the thermometer to cup B to read the temperature,
it continues to read 100 °C. The thermometer is also in equilibrium with
cup B. By keeping in mind the zeroth law of thermodynamics, we can
conclude that cup A and cup B are in equilibrium with each other.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics enables us to use thermometers to

compare the temperature of any two objects that we like.

First Law of Thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of

energy, states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it
can be changed from one form to another.

The first law of thermodynamics may seem abstract, but we will get a
clearer idea if we look at a few examples of the first law of
thermodynamics.

First Law of Thermodynamics Examples:

 Plants convert the radiant energy of sunlight to chemical energy

through photosynthesis. We eat plants and convert the chemical
energy into kinetic energy while we swim, walk, breathe, and scroll
through this page.

 Switching on light may seem to produce energy, but it is electrical

energy that is converted.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy in an isolated

system always increases. Any isolated system spontaneously evolves
towards thermal equilibrium—the state of maximum entropy of the
system.

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The entropy of the universe only increases and never decreases. Many
individuals take this statement lightly and for granted, but it has an
extensive impact and consequence.

Visualizing the second law of thermodynamics

If a room is not tidied or cleaned, it invariably becomes messier and more

disorderly with time. When the room is cleaned, its entropy decreases,
but the effort to clean it has resulted in increased entropy outside the
room exceeding the entropy lost.

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THANK YOU

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