APPLIED PHYSICS-2024-SEM-I

UNIT-II- SEMICONDUCTORS & DEVICES

Essay Questions and Answers:
1Q. Define and distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
ANS: The key distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors lies in their purity
and the way they conduct electricity.
Pure form of semiconductors are intrinsic semiconductors. Examples: Silicon (Si),
Germanium (Ge).
The process of adding impurities to the pure semiconductors is known as ‘doping’.
Addition of impurities to pure semiconductors increases density of charge carriers and hence
improves the conducting properties of semiconductors.

Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors

Pure form of When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped
semiconductors are intrinsic with trivalent group elements such as B,
Doping semiconductors. Al, Ga or Indium P-type of semiconductors
Examples: Silicon (Si), are formed.
Germanium (Ge). When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped
with pentavalent group like P, As, Sb or Bi)
n-type of semiconductors are formed.
Conduction Conductivity arises due to Majority charge carriers are electrons in n-
thermally excited electrons type and holes in p-type semiconductors.
and holes. The impurity-produced carriers are voltage
dependent but not temperature dependent
and amount of impurity added.
Electrical Relatively low electrical Electrical conduction is high.
conductivity conductivity.
Fermi Energy Fermi energy level exactly In n-type of semiconductor, Fermi level is
Level lies at the centre of energy close to conduction band and in p-type of
gap. semiconductor, Fermi level is close to
valence band.
Applications Not commonly used for Used extensively in electronic devices like
practical devices. diodes or transistors.
Differences between n-type and p-type of semiconductors:

Basis of
P-Type Semiconductor N-Type Semiconductor
Difference

When a pentavalent impurity (P,

When a trivalent impurity (Al, Ga,
As, Sb or Bi) is added to an
In, or B) is added to an intrinsic
intrinsic semiconductor, the
Definition semiconductor, the obtained
obtained semiconductor is
semiconductor is known as P-type
known as N-type
semiconductor.
semiconductor.

Electrons are the majority

Holes are the majority charge
Majority charge carriers in an N-type
carriers in a P-type semiconductor.
charge semiconductor. Number of
Number of holes is much more than
carriers electrons is much more than the
number of electrons, i.e. Nh >> Ne.
number of holes, i.e. Ne >> Nh.

Movement of In an N-type semiconductor

In a P-type semiconductor, holes
majority electrons (which are negative),
(which are positive), moves from
charge moves from lower potential to
higher potential to lower potential.
carriers higher potential.

P-type semiconductor has acceptor N-type semiconductor has

Energy energy levels very close to the donor energy levels very close
levels valance band and away from the to the conduction band and
conduction band. away from the valance band.

When the temperature of P-type When the temperature of N-type

Effect of semiconductor is increased, it can semiconductor is increased, it
temperature easily accept an electron from can easily donate an electron
rise valance band to acceptor energy from donor energy level to the
level. conduction band.

Conductivity is due to the presence Conductivity is due to the

Conductivity
of holes. presence of electrons.

The fermi level lies between the The fermi level lies between the
Fermi level acceptor energy level and the donor energy level and the
valance band. conduction band.

2Q. With neat sketch explain the Hall effect? Derive a relation between Hall Voltage and
Hall Coefficient.
ANS:
Hall effect was discovered by E.H. Hall in 1879.
Definition:
“When magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying conductor (metal or
semiconductor) then a voltage (P.D) is developed in the material perpendicular to both
magnetic field and current directions. This effect is known as Hall effect and the voltage
developed is known as Hall voltage (VH)”.

Experimental arrangement:
A thin rectangular semiconductor slab is mounted on an insulating strip and two pairs of
electrical contacts are provided on opposite sides of the slab. One pair of contacts is connected
to a constant current source. The other pair is connected to a sensitive voltmeter. This
arrangement is mounted between the two pole pieces of an electro magnets, such that, the
magnetic field acts perpendicular to the two opposite faces of a semiconductor.
Theory:
Let a current ‘I’ is passed through the conductor along x-direction and magnetic field (B) is
established along Y-axis as shown in the figure. Due to this magnetic field the charge carriers
experience a force perpendicular to X-Y plane i.e. along Z-axis. As a result of this force
(downward), the charge carriers are forced down into the bottom surface.
If the specimen is a p – type semiconductor, Since the holes are the charge carriers, they are
forced down into the bottom surface and hence the upper surface is occupied by the electrons.

By Fleming left hand rule this creates a transverse potential difference known as Hall voltage
(VH) which results in an electric field EH called as Hall electric field. When equilibrium is
reached, the magnetic deflecting forces are balanced by the force due to the Hall electric field
EH.

Lorentz force, experienced by the charge carriers due to the application of magnetic field is
given as follows;
⃗ 𝑑 𝐵
FL = q (𝑉 ⃗) _______ (1)
⃗ 𝑑 is the drift velocity of the carrier)
(𝑉
= q Vd B sin
= q Vd B sin 90° = q Vd B
(  is 90° as force is acting in perpendicular direction of the charge carriers)

 FL = e Vd B
_______ (2)
The electric force due to electric field created by the surface charges.
 FH = q 𝐸⃗ = eEH _______ (3)
Where, is EH is the hall electrical field. Under equilibrium condition,
FL = FH i.e.,
e Vd B = eEH
Cancelling common terms, we get
EH = Vd B _______ (4)

The current density is

J = n e 𝑉d _______ (5)

From eq. (4) and (5),

𝑱𝑩
EH = _______ (6)
𝒏𝒆

The current density is also given by

𝐼
J=𝐴 _______ (7)

From eq. (6) and (7)

𝑰𝑩
EH = _______ (8)
𝑨𝒏𝒆

𝑉𝐻
If VH be the Hall voltage in equilibrium, the Hall electrical field EH = ; substituting EH
𝑑

value in eqn. (8); we get,

𝑉𝐻 𝑰𝑩
= 𝑨𝒏𝒆 _______ (9)
𝑑

1
Eq. (9) can be written by taking RH = ; where RH is the Hall coefficient, and by substituting
𝑛𝑒

Area = width thickness = t  d in eqn. (9); and cancelling the common terms, we get,

𝑉𝐻 𝑰 𝑩 𝑹𝑯
𝑑
= (𝒕  𝒅)
; or VH =
𝑰 𝑩 𝑹𝑯  RH =
𝒕 𝑽𝑯
𝒕 𝑰𝑩

RH can be measured by measuring I, B, t, and Hall voltage VH. From RH, one can find the value
of the concentration (n) of the carriers. By knowing the concentration of the carriers, the
mobility of the charge carriers is determined using the relation.

𝜎 = n e and  = 𝜎 RH

Where 𝝈 is the conductivity of the material and  mobility of the charge carriers.
For n – type material, Since, the charge is negative, also RH is negative and for a p – type
material, RH is positive.

Applications of Hall effect

➢ It is used to determine whether the given semiconductor is N − type or P − type.

➢ It is used to measure the carrier concentration, mobility and conductivity of a given
semiconducting material.
➢ This phenomenon is used in magnetic field sensor. Using the Hall effect devices, the
magnetic field ranging from 1T to 1Tesla can be sensed.

3Q. Explain characteristics of p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias.

Formation of PN Junction Diode

A P-N junction is formed from a piece of semiconductor by diffusing p-type material to one
half side and n-type material to other half side. The plane dividing the two regions forms P-N
junction.
A P-N junction diode can be fabricated from grown junction, fused junction and diffused
junction methods.

Un-Biased Condition:
In a P-N diode, holes are the majority charge carriers in p-type and electrons are the majority
charge carriers in n-type. When these two are joined, electrons diffuse from n-region and holes
diffuse from p-region to n-region where they combine with the opposite charges. This leaves
the n-region as positively charged and p-region as negatively charged near the boundary. As a
result, an electro static field appears in a small region W on either side of the junction. The
region which is free of mobile charge carriers is known as the depletion region.
Forward Biasing:
The PN junction is forward-biased when the P-type is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and the N-type is connected to the negative terminal. In this condition, the
applied electric field and the internal electric field at the P-N junction are in opposing
directions.
As a result, the depletion area becomes thinner and less resistant. At 0.6 V, the resistance of
the depletion zone in silicon becomes absolutely insignificant, allowing the current to flow
freely over it. The forward voltage at which the diode starts allowing large electric current is
called cut-in voltage or Knee voltage.
When the external voltage applied on the diode, then it starts allowing large electric current
through it. At this point, a small increase in voltage increases the electric current rapidly. The
forward voltage at which the diode starts allowing large electric current is called cut-in voltage.
Reverse biasing: -
If the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the diode is said to be in
reverse bias.
In reverse biased p-n junction diode, VR represents the reverse voltage whereas IR represents
the reverse current.

If the external reverse voltage applied on the p-n junction diode is increased, the free electrons
from the n-type semiconductor and the holes from the p-type semiconductor move away from
the p-n junction. This increases the width of depletion region. This condition supresses the flow
of majority charge carriers but allows the minority charge carrier current.

The electric current developed due to the minority charge carriers in the p-n junction diode, is
called reverse current. In n-type and p-type semiconductors, very small number of minority
charge carriers is present.
Hence, a small voltage applied on the diode pushes all the minority carriers towards the
junction. Thus, further increase in the external voltage does not increase the electric current.
This electric current is called reverse saturation current.

Volt-Ampere characteristics of P-N diode:

As seen from the diagram, V-I characteristics of P-N

diode are non-linear, and hence, P-n diode is a non-
linear device.
The P-N junction acts as a closed switch in forward
biased condition, allowing large current to flow
through it. The voltage at which the current rises
sharply is called as the cut-in voltage. When VF is
steadily increased, an exponential increase in forward
current is observed.
In reverse bias condition, it acts as an open switch
4Q: Draw the P-N diode Energy level diagrams.
ANS:
Energy level diagram for un-biasing (zero-biasing) condition:

Energy level diagram for forward biasing condition:

Energy level diagram for reverse biasing condition:

5Q. Explain construction, working and characteristics of Zener diode in forward and
reverse bias.

In normal PN junction diode, when the reverse voltage reaches the break down voltage, the
current and the power dissipation through the junction will be high. In such case the diode gets
damage. Hence the diodes can be designed with adequate capability to operate in breakdown
region. Such diodes are known as Zener diode.
The schematic symbol for the Zener diode is shown as below.

Zener diode is heavily doped than the ordinary diodes.

V-I Characteristics of the Zener Diode
Zener diode is always operated in reverse bias for breakdown condition.
Forward biased Condition:
The operation of the Zener diode is same as that of ordinary P-N diode under forward biased
condition. When the forward voltage is greater than the barrier voltage, (VF>VB), then the
forward current increases rapidly as shown in the diagram.
Reverse biased Condition:
In reverse biased condition initially, only a small current flow due to thermally generated
minority carriers is observed as shown in the figure. With the increase of reverse voltage, at the
reverse breakdown voltage, the current increases suddenly and sharply.
The breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the Zener diode is heavily doped
the depletion region will be thin and consequently breakdown occurs at lower reverse voltage
and further the breakdown voltage is sharp.
The sharp increase in the current under breakdown conditions are due to two mechanisms.
1. Avalanche breakdown
2. Zener breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown:
The phenomenon of Avalanche breakdown occurs both in the ordinary diode and Zener Diode
at high reverse voltage. For a high value of reverse voltage, the free electron in the PN junction
diode gains energy and acquires high velocity and these high-velocity electrons collide with
other atoms and knock electrons from that atom. This collision continues and new electrons
are available for conducting current thus the current increase rapidly in the diode.
This phenomenon of a sudden increase in the current is called the Avalanche breakdown. This
phenomenon damages the diode permanently whereas the Zener diode is a specific diode that
is made to operate in this reverse voltage area.
Zener breakdown:
Zener breakdown happens in heavily doped PN junction diodes. In these diodes, if the reverse
bias voltages reach closer to Zener Voltage, the electric field gets stronger and is sufficient
enough to pull electrons from the valance band. These electrons then gain energy from the
electric field and break free from the atom.
Thus, for these diodes in the Zener breakdown region, a slight increase in the voltage causes a
sudden increase in the current.
Uses: Zener diodes can be used as a voltage regulator, switching applications, clipper circuits.
6Q. What is transistor? With the suitable schematic diagram, explain the working of NPN
transistor.
The transistor was invented in 1947, by American Physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain
and William Shockley (Bell labs).
A transistor is a semiconductor device consisting of three regions separated by two distinct p-
n junctions. Bipolar transistors are of two types: NPN and PNP, depending on the manner in
which the two junctions are combined.
Bipolar Junction Transistors:
In bipolar junction transistor the current is due to majority and minority charge carriers.
Transistors are two types.
1. NPN transistor
2. PNP transistor.
It is a three-terminal device with two junctions. The three terminals are emitter, base and
collector.
Emitter:
Emitter is heavily doped and has moderate region. It provides the majority carriers i.e. holes in
P-region and electrons in N- region.
Base: It is always thin (narrower) and lightly doped region. It controls the majority charge
carriers and minimizes the recombination of holes and electrons
Collector: It consists of wide region (high region) and is moderately doped to dissipate the
heat. It collects the majority charge carriers from the emitter after recombination in base region.
Schematic Representation:

1. Always emitter is indicated by an arrowhead.

2. It always shows direction of the conventional current flow i.e. P to N.
3. The arrowhead shows the type of the transistor.
4. It always shows the emitter location.
NPN TRANSISTOR:
Construction and working:
The most commonly used transistor configuration is the NPN Transistor.
When the emitter-base junction is forward biased, the majority charge carriers (electrons) in
the emitter are injected into the base region. The electron-hole recombination is very small in
the base region since the base is lightly doped. Most of the electrons cross into the collector
region.
When the emitter is forward biased, electrons move towards the base and create the emitter
current IE. Since the base of the NPN transistor is lightly doped, it allows only a few electrons
to combine and the remaining current is known as the base current IB.

As the collector -base junction is reverse biased, majority of the electrons emitted by the emitter
flow into the collector region. It causes a large reverse current IC.
From the above diagram, Emitter Current = Collector Current + Base Current
Construction of PNP Transistor:
When the emitter-base junction (P-N) is forward biased, the majority charge carriers (holes) in
the emitter are injected into the base region. The electron-hole recombination is very small in
the base region since the base is lightly doped. Most of the holes cross the junction (N-P) and
enter into the collector region.

Working of PNP Transistor:

As shown in the above figure, the forward bias applied to the emitter-base junction of PNP
transistor causes a lot of holes from the emitter region to crossover to the base region as the
base is lightly doped with N type material. The number of electrons in the base region is very
small and hence the number of holes combined with electrons in the N-type base region is also
very small. Hence a few holes combined with electrons to constitute a base current IB. The
remaining holes (more than 95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute a collector
current IC. IE = - (IC + IB).
In the external circuit of the PNP bipolar junction transistor the magnitude of the emitter
current IE, the base current IB and the collector current IC are related by IE = IC + IB.
Applications of Transistor:
Transistors can be used as Amplifiers, switches, Oscillators, power supplies, Digital circuits
and microprocessors and memory devices.
7Q. Explain the construction and working, Characteristics and applications of LED.
LED or Light Emitting Diode:

It is an optoelectronic device in which a forward biased p-n diode converts electrical energy
into light energy. Materials used for fabricating Led are GaP, GaAsP, GaAs etc.
Construction:

An n-type layer is grown on a substrate and a p-type layer is grown on it by the process of
diffusion. The P-region is made very thin to prevent loss of photons due to absorption in the
layer. The metal connections are made at the edges of the p-region in order to allow the light
to escape. A metal film is deposited at the bottom of the substrate for reflecting as much as
possible towards surface of the device and provides electron connection.
The device is encapsulated in a clear epoxy resin of suitable refractive index.
LED Working:
The P-N junction emits light when electrical energy is applied to it. This phenomenon is
generally called electroluminescence, which can be defined as the process of emitting the light
by a semiconductor device by applying an electrical source of energy. When P-N junction diode
is connected in the forward biasing condition, the charge carriers recombine as the electrons
cross from the N-region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. The forward
voltage across an LED is much greater than the ordinary diode. It is in between 1.2V and 3.2V.
The amount of light emitted is directly proportional to the forward current.
Free electrons are in the conduction band, while holes are in the valence band. Thus, the energy
of the holes will be lesser than the energy of the electrons. Some portion of the energy must be
dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form
of heat and light.
 In case of a forward biased P-N junction, the electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat for
Si & Ge diodes but in GaAsP and GaP semiconductors, the electrons dissipate energy by
emitting photons. Hence, direct bandgap semiconductors are used for fabricating LEDs.
V-I characteristics of LED:

The forward bias Voltage-Current (V-I) curve and the output characteristics curve are shown in
the figure. Up to certain forward voltages, the LED passes almost no current, until the threshold
voltage is reached. When a certain forward voltage is reached, the current rises very steeply.
The minimum forward voltage required to rise the current is known as threshold voltage in
LED.
When the junction is reverse biased, no light will be produced by the LED, the device may get
damaged.
Advantages and applications of LED are as follows;
➢ It saves energy.
➢ Reduction in costs.
➢ Long life time and fast response time.
➢ Used in burglar alarm systems, displays, calculators etc.

Semiconductor Photodetectors:
Photodetectors are the devices that absorb optical energy and convert it to electric energy. The
operation of the photoelectric detectors is based on the internal photoelectric effect.
These are mainly three types.
1. Solar cell
2. P-I-N Diodes
3. Avalanche Photo Diodes
When the light incident on the semiconductor, electrons are excited from the valance band to
the conduction band leaving holes in the valance band. The free electrons and holes generated
in the material do not leave the material and so free charge carrier concentration is increases.
This is known as internal photo electric effect. The frequency of the photons satisfies the
Eg
condition,  ≥ ℎ

8Q. Explain the construction and working of a solar cell.

Construction and Working of Solar cell:
A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device
that converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is
basically a p-n junction diode that can be operated in un-biased condition.
Solar cell essentially consists of silicon P-N junction diode with antireflecting glass window
on top surface of N material. The top layer N material is made extremely thin, so that the
incident photons may easily reach P-N junction and strikes the neutral silicon atoms. The
bottom layer is made up of P-type material is thick layer. These two P-types and N type
materials are in contact with metal plates.
When light reaches the p-n junction, the photons can easily enter in the junction, through very
thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the
junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal
equilibrium condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly
come to the n-type side of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion region can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction.
Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n - region, cannot further cross the junction
because of barrier potential of the junction.

Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the
junction became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons
becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes
more in another side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a
small battery cell.
A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. The voltage produced from this solar
cell is in between 0.5V to 0.6V. The light energy required to create the free electrons should
be greater than the energy band gap (Eg).
V-I characteristics of Solar cell:
V-I characteristics of a solar cell is basically a graphical representation of the operation of the
solar cell. It gives the relation between the current produced and the voltage developed in solar
cell. The power delivered by the solar cell is the product of the current produced and voltage
developed (V  I).
The values of current produced and voltage developed are below the values of Isc and Voc.
Where Isc is maximum current in short circuit at zero voltage and Voc is maximum voltage in
open circuit at which the current become zero.
When the solar cell is open-circuited, i.e., it is not connected to any load, the current will be at
its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells’
open circuit voltage, or Voc.
When the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and negative leads connected together,
the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing out of the cell
reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells’ short circuit current, or Isc.
The maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at
short circuit. The point at which the cell generates maximum electrical power and this is
shown in the graph as rectangle.
Fill Factor of Solar Cell:
The ratio between product of current and voltage at maximum power point to the product of
short circuit current and open circuit voltage of the solar cell. It gives the efficiency of the
solar cell.

9Q. Explain the construction and working of a PIN diode.

Construction:
A diode obtained by sandwiching pure intrinsic (I) between heavily doped P region and N
region forms PIN diode. The intrinsic layer is placed between the P region and N region to
increase the width of depletion region.
When the diode is unbiased, their charge carrier will diffuse. The process of diffusion occurs
continue until the charges become equilibrium in the depletion region.
Forward Biased PIN Diode:
When the diode is kept forward biased, the charges are continuously injected into the I-region
from the P and N-region. The width of the depletion layer decreases because of applied forward
potential, and resistance provided by diode in no-bias conditions starts decreasing. As the
forward voltage increases, more charge carriers get injected into the intrinsic region. This
reduces the forward resistance of the diode, and it behaves like a variable resistance.
Reverse Biased PIN Diode
When the reverse voltage is applied across the diode, the width of the depletion region
increases and the intrinsic region becomes depleted of carriers. When the depletion layer is
fully depleted, the capacitance of the pin diode becomes independent of the bias level. Hence,
in reverse bias, the diode behaves like a capacitor. The P and N region acts as the positive and
negative plates of the capacitor, and the intrinsic region is the insulator between the plates.

Applications of PIN Diode

➢ They have a very wide bandwidth, from DC to GHz frequencies. They are useful for
R.F. applications. They are used in photodetectors.
➢ They can handle high voltages in the reverse bias state and high currents in the forward
bias state.
➢ PIN diodes have low capacitance, so they are used in radio frequencies, microwave
switches, and microwave variable attenuators.

10Q. Explain the construction and working of Avalanche photodiode (APD).

APDs are high sensitivity, high speed semiconductor light sensors. APDs have an internal
region where electron multiplication factor occurs by application of an external reverse voltage
so that low light signal can be measured at high speed. These diodes are used to change the
signals from optical to electrical. These diodes can be operated in high reverse bias. The
avalanche photodiode symbol is similar to the Zener diode.
Working Principle:
➢ APD operates in high reverse biasing condition.
➢ N+ and P+ regions are heavily doped semiconductors with low resistance value. -
region is lightly doped and nearly intrinsic.
➢ Photons enter the device through the p+ region and are mostly absorbed by the high
resistivity intrinsic -p type layer where electron hole pairs are created.
➢ The relatively weak electric field in this region, separates the carriers causing the
electrons and holes to drift into the high electric field region.
➢ The electrons are drifted towards the p - n+ layer. Because of the high field intensity,
electrons are accelerated with high kinetic energy.
➢ The kinetic energy of electrons is greater than bandgap energy of the valence
electrons, so the collision can free a bound electron.
➢ The newly generated electrons are again accelerated and collides with other atoms, a
large number of minority carriers are generated.
➢ The generated free electron and hole carriers acquire enough kinetic energy to cause
further ionization known as impact ionization. It results in avalanche with the
number of carriers growing exponentially as the process continues.
➢ Avalanche photodiodes are used in the applications where high gain is an important
factor.
➢ Data transmission, Range finding, distance measurement, scientific instruments
required higher level of sensitivity etc.

S. No Avalanche Diode PIN Diode

1. Avalanche diode includes PIN diode includes three layers
four layers like P+, I, P & N+. like P+, I & N+.
2. Response time is very high. Response time is very low.
3. Internal gain is 200 dB. Internal gain is insignificant.
4. Sensitivity is high. Sensitivity is low.
5. High noise. Low noise.
6. High-temperature stability. Low-temperature stability.
7. The reverse bias voltage is The reverse bias voltage is very
very high. low.

There are several features that set avalanche photodiodes apart from other types of
photodetectors:
High sensitivity: Due to the avalanche effect, APDs are capable of detecting very low light
levels. This makes them suitable for applications where weak light signals need to be
detected.
Fast response time: APDs can respond to light signals within a few nanoseconds, making
them ideal for high-speed applications such as fibre-optic communications and time-of-flight
measurements.
Low noise: The avalanche process can be carefully controlled to minimize noise, resulting
in a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for the detected light signal.
Wide spectral range: APDs are available in various materials, allowing them to detect light
across a broad range of wavelengths. Silicon (Si) APDs are commonly used for visible and
near-infrared detection, while indium gallium arsenide (In GaAs) APDs are used for longer
wavelengths.
Fiber-optic communication systems: APDs are used as receivers in long-haul and high-
speed optical communication networks. Their ability to detect low-level light signals makes
them crucial for maintaining signal integrity over long distances.
LIDAR: Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) systems rely on APDs to accurately measure
distance and generate high-resolution 3D images for various applications, such as
autonomous vehicles, topography mapping, and atmospheric research.
Medical imaging: In medical imaging applications, such as positron emission tomography
(PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), APDs are used to detect
low-intensity gamma rays with high sensitivity and precision.