Virtual Humans

Today and Tomorrow

 Chapman & Hall/CRC
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The Virtual Mind

Designing the Logic to Approximate Human Thinking
Niklas Hageback

Intelligent Autonomy of UAVs

Advanced Missions and Future Use
Yasmina Bestaoui Sebbane

Artificial Intelligence
With an Introduction to Machine Learning, Second Edition
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Behavior Trees in Robotics and AI

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Michele Collendanchise, Petter Ögren

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Virtual Humans
Today and Tomorrow
David Burden, Maggi Savin-Baden

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Virtual Humans
Today and Tomorrow

David Burden
Maggi Savin-Baden
CRC Press
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Suppose that sometimes he found it impossible to tell the difference
between the real men and those which had only the shape of men, and
had learned by experience that there were only two ways of telling them
apart… first, that these automata never answered in word or sign, except
by chance, to questions put to them; and second, that though their move-
ments were often more regular and certain than those of the wisest men,
yet in many things which they would have to do to imitate us, they failed
more disastrously than the greatest fools.

René Descartes
The Philosophical Writings of Descartes: Volume 3,
The Correspondence
(Trans. J. Cottingham., R. Soothoff., D. Murdoch., A. Kenny.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991)
To our partners, Deborah and John,
the least virtual humans we know.
Permissions

T he quote from Snow Crash by Neal Stephenson in Chapter 2 is used

with permission of Penguin Random House and Darhansoff & Verrill
Literary Agents.
Contents

List of Figures, xxi

List of Tables, xxiii
Acknowledgements, xxv
Authors, xxvii

INTRODUCTION, XXIX

Section i The Landscape

chapter 1 ◾ What Are Virtual Humans? 3

INTRODUCTION 3
WHAT IS A VIRTUAL HUMAN 3
EXISTING DEFINITIONS OF VIRTUAL HUMAN 5
FROM SELF-DRIVING CAR TO VIRTUAL HUMAN 6
THE TRAITS OF A VIRTUAL HUMAN 6
Physical or Digital? 7
Visual, Auditory or Textual? 7
Embodied or Disembodied? 8
Humanoid or Non-Humanoid? 9
Natural Language or Command-Driven Communication? 9
Autonomous or Controlled? 9
Emotional or Unemotional? 10
Presence of a Personality? 10
Ability to Reason? 11

xi
xii ◾ Contents

Can It Learn? 11
Is It Imaginative? 12
Sentient or Non-Sentient? 12
DEMONSTRATING INTELLIGENCE? 12
A VIRTUAL HUMAN PROFILE 13
VIRTUAL HUMANOIDS AND VIRTUAL SAPIENS 14
TOWARDS A WORKING DEFINITION 16
EXAMPLES OF VIRTUAL HUMANS 17
Chatbots 17
Autonomous Agents 18
Conversational Agents 19
Pedagogical Agents 20
Virtual Mentors 20
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, MACHINE LEARNING
AND VIRTUAL HUMANS 21
CONCLUSION 21
REFERENCES 22

chapter 2 ◾ Virtual Humans and Artificial Intelligence 25

INTRODUCTION 25
AN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE LANDSCAPE 26
Complexity and Sophistication 26
Presentation and Humanness 28
Marketing AI versus Real AI 28
THE THREE BIG CHALLENGES IN AI DEVELOPMENT 30
THE TURING TEST AND UNCANNY VALLEY 31
VIRTUAL HUMANS LANDSCAPE 32
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE VERSUS AUGMENTED
INTELLIGENCE 33
VIRTUAL HUMANS IN SCIENCE FICTION 33
Film and Television 33
Radio 35
 Contents ◾ xiii

Drama 36
Literature 37
Games 38
CONCLUSION 42
REFERENCES 43

Section ii Technology

chapter 3 ◾ Body and Senses 49

INTRODUCTION 49
WHAT MAKES AN AVATAR? 49
FACIAL RENDERING 51
FACIAL AND SPEECH ANIMATION 53
HAIR MODELLING 54
Hair Shape Modelling 54
Hair Dynamics 55
Hair Rendering 55
BODY RENDERING/MODELLING 55
BODY ANIMATION/MECHANICS 56
CLOTHES AND CLOTH MODELLING 57
BODY PHYSIOLOGICAL MODEL 58
SENSES 60
Sight 61
Hearing 62
Other Human Senses 63
Data as a Sense 63
Data from a Virtual World 63
Data from a Physical World 64
Data from the Cyber-World 64
CONCLUSION 64
REFERENCES 65
xiv ◾ Contents

chapter 4 ◾ Mind 71
UNDERSTANDING WHAT CONSTITUTES THE MIND 71
PERCEPTION 72
ATTENTION 73
APPRAISAL, EMOTION AND MOOD 75
PERSONALITY 77
MOTIVATION, GOALS AND PLANNING 79
DECISION-MAKING, PROBLEM-SOLVING
AND REASONING 81
World Models 82
MEMORY 84
LEARNING 85
IMAGINATION AND CREATIVITY 87
META-MANAGEMENT AND SELF-MONITORING 89
CONCLUSION 90
REFERENCES 91

chapter 5 ◾ Communications 97
INTRODUCTION 97
COMMUNICATIONS: NON-LANGUAGE MODALITIES 97
COMMUNICATIONS: LANGUAGE-BASED MODALITIES 98
Speech Recognition 98
Speech Generation (Text to Speech) 101
NATURAL LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING
AND COMMUNICATION 103
Machine Learning 105
Conversation Management 105
Uses and Future Developments 106
NATURAL LANGUAGE GENERATION 107
INTERNAL DIALOGUE 109
CONCLUSION 110
REFERENCES 110
 Contents ◾ xv

chapter 6 ◾ Architecture 115

INTRODUCTION 115
BACKGROUND 115
THE SOAR MODEL 117
ACT-R 119
SLOMAN’S H-COGAFF MODEL 120
OPENCOG 122
RODRIGUEZ’S NEUROSCIENCE MODEL 125
LIN’S EMOCOG ARCHITECTURE 126
THE FEARNOT! AFFECTIVE MIND ARCHITECTURE
AND PSI MODELS 128
BECKER-ASANO’S WASABI MODEL 130
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA’S VIRTUAL
HUMAN TOOLKIT 132
OPENAI 134
INTEGRATION STANDARDS 135
CRITIQUE AND FUTURES 135
CONCLUSION 137
REFERENCES 138

chapter 7 ◾ Embodiment 143

INTRODUCTION 143
FROM SYMBOLIC TO EMBODIED ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE 144
EMBODIMENT AND COGNITION 144
Intelligence and Emergence 146
Situatedness 146
Embodiment 146
GROUNDING 147
ENACTIVE AI 149
CHALLENGES TO EMBODIED AI 150
xvi ◾ Contents

VIRTUAL HUMANS AND VIRTUAL WORLDS 151

Assessing Virtual Worlds against Brooks’ Five Principles 153
Assessing Virtual Worlds against Other Embodied Models 155
CONCLUSION 155
REFERENCES 156

chapter 8 ◾ Assembling and Assemblages 159

BUILDING A VIRTUAL HUMAN 159
The Natural Language Core 160
Memory and Knowledge 160
Problem-Solving and Decision-Making 161
Representation 161
Emotions and Motivation 162
Embodiment 162
Meta-Management and Personality 163
Its Own Life 163
HALO – A CASE STUDY 164
THE ROLES OF VIRTUAL HUMANS 166
Intelligent Speaker 167
Customer Service Chatbot 167
Personal Virtual Assistant 168
Virtual Tutor 168
Virtual Non-Player Character 168
Virtual Life Coach 169
Virtual Expert 169
Virtual Persona 170
Virtual Person 171
Digital Immortal 171
And Sentience? 171
Transhuman Space Revisited 171
VIRTUAL HUMANS THROUGH DIFFERENT LENSES 172
The Lens of Trust in Technology 173
 Contents ◾ xvii

The Species Lens 174

The Lens of Personhood 175
MORE THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS? 176
REFERENCES 177

Section iii Issues and Futures

chapter 9 ◾ Digital Ethics 181

INTRODUCTION 181
RECENT CONSIDERATIONS OF ETHICS AND VIRTUAL
HUMANS 181
Robotics Ethics 181
Machine Morality and Intimacy Ethics 182
Technical and Design Ethics 184
Legal Issues 184
ETHICAL STANDPOINTS AND VIRTUAL HUMANS 185
Utilitarian 186
Deontological 186
Virtue Ethics 186
Situational Ethics 186
Discourse Ethics 186
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS 188
ETHICAL GUIDELINES AND RESEARCH 188
Ethical Behaviour 189
Ethical Practice 190
Anonymity 190
Confidentiality 190
Informed Consent 190
Minimal Risk 191
Honesty 191
Privacy 191
Plausibility 192
xviii ◾ Contents

Research Governance 192

Disclosure 193
THE ‘HUMAN SUBJECT’ AND VIRTUAL HUMANS 193
CONCLUSION 195
REFERENCES 195

chapter 10 ◾ Identity and Agency 197

INTRODUCTION 197
RETHINKING IDENTITY 197
Dimension One: Dislocated Avatars 198
Dimension Two: Representative Avatars 198
Dimension Three: Avatars as Toys and Tools 198
Dimension Four: Avatars as Extensions of Self 199
Dimension Five: Avatars as Identity Extensions 199
FORMATIONS AND FORMULATIONS OF IDENTITY 200
Spatial Identities 200
Networked Identities 201
Bridged Identities 201
Discarded or Left-Behind Identities 202
Cyberspace and Virtual Humans 203
UNDERSTANDING AGENCY 203
Phenomenological Agency 204
Neurocognitive Agency 205
Attributed Agency 205
AGENCY AND AFFORDANCES 206
PROXEMICS 207
AGENCY AND IDENTITY 209
CONCLUSION 210
REFERENCES 210

chapter 11 ◾ Virtual Humans for Education 213

INTRODUCTION 213
LEARNING 213
 Contents ◾ xix

NETWORKED LEARNING AND TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED

LEARNING: SOME DEBATES 215
Networked Learning 215
Technology-Enhanced Learning 216
Online Learning 216
Blended Learning 216
Digital Education 217
VIRTUAL HUMANS AS INTERRUPTION AND CHANGE
TO CURRENT PEDAGOGIC PRACTICES 218
USING VIRTUAL HUMANS IN EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS 220
Virtual Humans as Teachable Agents 220
Virtual Humans as Teaching Assistants 220
Virtual Humans for Motivating Learning 223
LEARNING, IMMERSION AND VIRTUAL HUMANS 224
DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 224
CONCLUSION 227
REFERENCES 227

chapter 12 ◾ Digital Immortality 231

INTRODUCTION 231
BACKGROUND 231
RESEARCH AND LITERATURE 233
MODELS, CONCEPTS AND PRACTICES 233
Models of Grief 234
Digital Grief Concepts 234
Digital Grief Practices 235
FORMS OF DIGITAL IMMORTALITY 236
Digital Immortality Creators 236
Digital Immortality Recipients 236
DIGITAL LEGACY 236
DIGITAL IMMORTALITY AND VIRTUAL HUMANS 237
xx ◾ Contents

CREATING DIGITAL IMMORTALITY 239

Passive Updating 241
Interacting with Systems 241
Interacting with People 242
Interacting with the Physical World 242
CONSENT AND DIGITAL IMMORTALITY 242
CONCLUSION 243
REFERENCES 243

chapter 13 ◾ Futures and Possibilities 247

INTRODUCTION 247
FUTURE CAUTION 248
The Gartner Hype-Cycle 248
McLuhan’s Tetrad 249
FUTURE SCENARIOS 251
Taking Stock: Virtual Humans 2018–2030 251
Developments 2030–2050: Routes to an Artificial Mind 253
Uploading the Brain 253
The Technological Singularity 254
Developments 2050–2100 255
THE THREE CHALLENGES 257
Challenge 1: Improving Humanness 258
Challenge 2: Artificial General Intelligence 258
Challenge 3: 2100 and Onwards – Artificial Sentience and
Virtual Sapiens 260
THE ANTHROPOMORPHIC CHALLENGE 263
VIRTUAL SAPIENS: THE FUTURE? 264
REFERENCES 267

GLOSSARY, 271

INDEX, 279
List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Elements of a virtual human 4

Figure 1.2 (a) 2D and (b) 3D virtual human avatar 8
Figure 1.3 Traits of virtual humans 13
Figure 1.4 Profiles of virtual humanoids (dashed line), virtual sapiens
(solid line – effectively the complete edge of the decagon)
and virtual humans (the shaded space in between) 15
Figure 1.5 Mapping current virtual human types: chatbots (dashed),
conversational agents (dotted), and pedagogical agents (solid) 18
Figure 2.1 The AI/computing landscape 26
Figure 2.2 The complexity/sophistication dimension 27
Figure 2.3 Marketing AI 29
Figure 2.4 The populist/science fiction view of AI 30
Figure 2.5 Virtual humans on the AI landscape 32
Figure 2.6 Mapping fictional AI and virtual humans 42
Figure II.1 Virtual human component architecture 46
Figure 3.1 The elements of a virtual human body 50
Figure 3.2 Simple 2D avatars developed with the Sitepal system
(www.sitepal.com). Animated, talking versions are
available at www.virtualhumans.ai, as well as links to
more state-of-the-art facial renders. (a) A cartoon 2D
animated avatar. (b) An animated 2D avatar based on a
photograph of one of the authors. (c) An animated 2D
avatar based on a photograph of one of the authors 51
xxi
xxii ◾ List of Figures

Figure 4.1 The key mind processes of a virtual human 72

Figure 4.2 Kismet robot 74
Figure 5.1 Research on dialogue systems for language learning
mapped against four different disciplines 104
Figure 6.1 Original SOAR architecture 118
Figure 6.2 The basic Cog-Aff model 121
Figure 6.3 Sloman’s H Cog-Aff architecture 122
Figure 6.4 OpenCOG model 124
Figure 6.5 Rodriguez’s neuroscience model 126
Figure 6.6 EmoCOG model 127
Figure 6.7 FAtiMA/PSI model 129
Figure 6.8 The PSI model 129
Figure 6.9 The pleasure arousal dominance (PAD) space 130
Figure 6.10 The WASABI architecture 131
Figure 6.11 WASABI integrated into a virtual human 132
Figure 6.12 USC virtual human toolkit 133
Figure 8.1 Representations of Halo 164
Figure 8.2 Intelligent Speaker profile 167
Figure 8.3 Virtual persona profile 170
Figure 8.4 The HU-HN matrix 175
Figure 10.1 Hall’s interpersonal distances 208
Figure 12.1 An overview of a potential virtual humans-based
digital immortality system 239
Figure 13.1 Marshall McLuhan’s Tetrad of media effects 250
Figure 13.2 The 3 challenges of virtual human development 257
Figure 13.3 Maturity of different technologies contributing to
‘humanness’ 258
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Presentational Dimensions of Humanness 28

Table 4.1 Seven Methods of Virtual Human Learning 86
Table 6.1 Virtual Human Interface Standards 136
Table 9.1 Types of Virtual Humans and Approaches to Ethics 187
Table 11.1 Learning Approaches and Virtual Humans 214
Table 11.2 Forms of eLearning 217
Table 13.1 Virtual Human Capabilities c. 2030 252
Table 13.2 Challenges for Virtual Humans c. 2030 252
Table 13.3 Estimates of Likelihood of Human-Level Machine
Intelligence 260

xxiii
Acknowledgements

T his book has been a challenge to create in these liquid times of

moving technologies. We are grateful to colleagues and family for
keeping us up to date and informed, as the initial reviewers of the proposal,
and to Randi Cohen at CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, who has been
so positive about it as a project. Any mistakes and errors are ours; we are
after all, only physical humans.

xxv
Authors

David Burden has been involved in artificial intelligence (AI), virtual

reality (VR) and immersive environments since the 1990s. David set up
Daden Limited in 2004 to help organisations explore and exploit the social
and commercial potential of using chatbots, AI and virtual environments.
David and his team have delivered over 50 immersive learning and chatbot
projects for clients across the globe and have led over a dozen collabora-
tive research projects funded by InnovateUK and the Ministry of Defence
(MOD). David was a finalist in British Computer Society’s (BCS) machine
intelligence competition and has authored over 20 papers on virtual worlds
and AI. In his early life, David was an officer in the Royal Corps of Signals,
and he still maintains an interest in wargaming, alongside science-fiction
role-playing (Traveller) and space exploration – although he’s just as happy
walking and trekking on high hills or in remote places.

Maggi Savin-Baden is Professor of Education at University of Worcester

and has researched and evaluated staff and student experience of learning for
over 20 years and has gained funding in this area (Leverhulme Trust; JISC;
Higher Education Academy; MoD). She has a strong article record of over
50 research articles and 16 books, which reflects her research interests on the
impact of innovative learning, digital fluency, cyber-influence, pedagogical
agents, qualitative research methods, and problem-based learning. In her
spare time, she runs, bakes, climbs, and attempts triathlons.

xxvii
Introduction

V irtual Humans are typically seen as human-like characters on

a computer screen or speaker with embodied life-like behaviours,
which may include speech, emotions, locomotion, gestures and move-
ments of the head, eyes or other parts of an avatar body. At one end of the
scale are smart-speaker and virtual assistant systems, such as Siri, Alexa
and Cortana, the chatbot-based virtual coaches found in several mobile
phone applications and the customer service chatbots which are becoming
increasingly prevalent on the Internet. More developed examples include
virtual tutors, virtual life coaches, digital twins and virtual personas, and
even the non-player characters in some computer games. At the other, more
sophisticated, end of the scale are the virtual humans of science fiction,
from Iron Man’s J.A.R.V.I.S and Red Dwarf’s Holly to Star Trek Voyager’s
Emergency Medical Hologram. All portray themselves as human, and offer
differing degrees of human capability, and, indeed, humanness.
This book argues that virtual humans are a phenomenon of the twenty-
first century, and while some people have debated their impact on society,
few have researched them in-depth. It presents an overview of current
developments, research and practice is this area thus far, offering a fair
and honest overview of the issues, outlining the risks, not exaggerating the
claims but providing evidence and research. It will review current practices
at a time when education is changing rapidly with digital, technological
advances. It will outline the major challenges faced by today’s developers,
teachers and researchers, such as the possibility for using virtual humans
for teaching, training and practice. The book will situate many of the dis-
cussions around related applications with which the general reader may
be aware (for example, Siri, Cortana and Alexa, as already mentioned),
and draw examples from speculative and science fiction (from Pygmalion
and Prometheus, in classical mythology, to Battlestar Galactica, Her and
Channel 4’s Humans).

xxix
xxx ◾ Introduction

The book is not particularly concerned with the use by physical humans
of avatars in, for example, virtual worlds (another use of the term virtual
human). However, such situations can put the virtual human and physical
human on an equal footing within a virtual environment.
The first section of the book, Part I: The Landscape, outlines understand-
ings of virtual humans and begins by providing much needed definitions
and a taxonomy of artificial intelligence. This section includes Chapter 1:
What Are Virtual Humans?, which presents an introductory analysis of
the traits which are important when considering virtual humans, argues
for a spectrum of virtual human types, and evaluates the common virtual
human forms against that spectrum. The second chapter, Chapter 2: Virtual
Humans and Artificial Intelligence, broadens this discussion by engaging
with the issue that there is a range of perspectives about what counts as
artificial intelligence (AI) and virtual humans. Thus, this chapter presents a
virtual humans/AI landscape and positions the different terms within it, as
well as identifying three main challenges within the landscape that need to
be overcome to move from today’s chatbots and AI to the sort of AI envis-
aged in the popular imagination and science fiction literature.
The second section of the book, Part II: Technology, explores approaches
to developing and using relevant technologies, and ways of creating virtual
humans. It presents a comprehensive overview of this rapidly developing
field. This section begins with Chapter 3: Body, which examines the tech-
nologies which enable the creation of a virtual body for the virtual human,
explores the extent to which current approaches and techniques allow a
human body to be modelled realistically as a digital avatar and analyses
how the capability might develop over the coming years. The chapter also
explores the senses, and examines how human (and other) senses could be
created for a virtual human. Chapter 4: Mind complements the study of
the ‘body’ and ‘senses’ in Chapter 3 by examining the different technolo-
gies and approaches involved in the creation of the mind or ‘brain’ of a
virtual human. The chapter will consider current research in the areas
of perception, emotion, attention and appraisal, decision-making, person-
ality, memory, learning, and meta-cognition, and anticipates the future
directions that may develop over the coming decade.
The next chapter, Chapter 5: Communications, explores how the senses
and abilities created for a virtual human can support language and non-
verbal communications. Chapter 6: Architecture then reviews some of the
leading architectures for creating a virtual human. The range considered
will show the breadth of approaches, from those which are theoretical, to
 Introduction ◾ xxxi

those that have emerged from being engineering-based, to those inspired

by neuroscience. The final chapter in the section, Chapter 7: Embodiment,
begins by examining the current and significant research around the con-
cept of embodiment, and some of the challenges to it. The importance of
‘grounding’ will also be discussed. The possibilities for the use of virtual
worlds to provide that space for embodiment and grounding will then be
presented, and its implications for virtual human development assessed.
Chapter 8: Assembling and Assemblages considers how all the elements
considered so far can be used to build a virtual human and describes some
of the more common types of virtual human which could be encountered
now or in the future. It then uses several different lenses to assess the
‘humanness’ of such virtual humans, and whether a virtual human needs
to be more than the sum of its parts.
Part III: Issues and Futures is the final section of the book, which exam-
ines issues such as identity and ways of dealing with the complexities and
ethical challenges of these liquid technologies. It also examines possible
futures, including digital immortality. It begins with Chapter 9: Digital
Ethics which explores some of the ethical, moral and social issues and
dilemmas which virtual humans introduce. It also examines what it means
to undertake ethical research in the context of virtual humans and exam-
ines issues, such as technical ethics, design ethics, legal issues and social
concerns, including honesty, plausibility and the nature of consent. The
next chapter, Chapter 10: Identity and Agency, explores the notion of virtual
humans from a broad perspective by examining studies into identity and
agency in virtual reality, immersive environments and virtual worlds.
Chapter 11: Virtual Humans for Education examines the current and
possible future impact that virtual humans could have on education and
analyses the potential impact of virtual humans on education in terms of
new developments and uses of virtual humans for guiding and support-
ing learning. Building on the issues of relationships, Chapter 12: Digital
Immortality explores the emotional, social, financial and business impact
that active digital immortality could have on relations, friends, colleagues
and institutions. This chapter presents recent developments in the area of
digital immortality, explores how such digital immortals might be created
and raises challenging issues but also reflects on the ethical concerns pre-
sented in Chapter 9. The final chapter, Chapter 13: Futures and Possibilities,
considers what the impact of virtual humans might be, and what signifi-
cant related developments might take place, within three successive time-
frames: 2018–2030; 2030–2050; and 2050–2100 and beyond. The chapter
xxxii ◾ Introduction

then examines how the three main challenges to the developments of

virtual humans identified in Chapter 2, namely improving humanness,
Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) and Artificial Sentience (AS) might
be addressed in order to move from virtual humanoids to ‘true’ virtual
humans, and even virtual sapiens.
This book focusses on the virtual human technologies that are available
currently or will be available by 2020. It is not concerned with more specu-
lative concepts, such as brain interfaces and mind uploads, ‘evil AIs’ and
the technological singularity, although some of these will be discussed
in Chapter 13. This book is also not concerned with robots, i.e., physical
bodies controlled by computer programs. Instead, it is suggested here that
any suitably developed virtual human should be able to slip in and out of
a robot body in the same way as it might take control of an avatar, and the
unique challenges of robotics are fundamentally electro-mechanical ones.
With existing technologies, it is possible to create some form of proto-
virtual human, a virtual humanoid which can exhibit some of the charac-
teristics of a physical human, and may even deceive people in some areas,
but which, as a holistic digital copy of a physical human, falls short.
However, it is only through starting to build and create virtual humans
that are more than simple chatbots or personal assistants that researchers,
engineers, ethicists, policymakers and even philosophers will be able to
investigate and begin to understand the true challenges and opportunities
that the creation of fully realistic and perhaps sentient virtual humans
might create. If such virtual humans do become a possibility during this
current century, then their impact on human society will be immense.

virtualhumans.ai Website
Supporting material for this book, including links to virtual human images,
videos, applications and related work and papers, can be found on the
website at www.virtualhumans.ai.
 I
The Landscape

INTRODUCTION
Part I sets the bounds to this book. Many similar terms are used for
artefacts, which are, to some greater or lesser extent, virtual or digital
versions of a physical human. These range from chatbots, conversational
agents and autonomous agents to virtual humans and artificial
intelligences. There is also a blurring between the digital and physical
versions of virtual humans, the latter being represented by robots and
androids. Somewhere between the two sit the digital entities which are
linked to specific physical platforms such as Siri and Alexa.
Chapter 1 will consider some of these different manifestations of
virtual humans and identify a set of traits which can be used separate
virtual humans from other software systems, and to compare and contrast
different versions of virtual humans. This leads to a working definition of
a virtual human and also to the identification of lower-function virtual
humans – termed virtual humanoids, and higher function virtual humans,
which are the true equivalent of physical humans and have been termed
virtual sapiens. The chapter closes with an examination of several key use
cases of virtual humans which will be considered throughout the book,
namely those of chatbots, conversational agents and pedagogic agents.

1
2 ◾ Virtual Humans

Chapter 2 will consider the broader software landscape within which

virtual humans exist. In particular, the chapter will look at the landscape
of artificial intelligence, which, in the late 2010s, is a term which is being
much abused and being applied to everything from data analytics to self-
driving cars. This landscape will be used to help place the concepts of
virtual humanoids, virtual humans and virtual sapiens, and to identify
the three big challenges facing virtual human development. Chapter 2
will conclude by looking at how virtual humans are represented in the
popular media – on film, TV, in books, on the radio, in both computer
and roleplaying games and even on stage. Whilst science-fiction cannot
give much guidance on how to actually build a virtual human, it can
help identify what it would be like to live and work with them, highlight
moral and ethical issues, and even give some useful insights into possible
ontologies and terminology.
 Chapter 1

What Are Virtual

Humans?

INTRODUCTION
Virtual Humans are human-like characters, which may be seen on a
computer screen, heard through a speaker, or accessed in some other way.
They exhibit human-like behaviours, such as speech, gesture and movement,
and might also show other human characteristics, such as emotions,
empathy, reasoning, planning, motivation and the development and use of
memory. However, a precise definition of what represents a virtual human
or even ‘artificial intelligence’ (AI) is challenging. Likewise, establishing the
distinctions between different types of virtual human, such as a chatbot,
conversational agent, autonomous agent or pedagogic agent is unclear, as is
how virtual humans relate to robots and androids. This chapter presents an
introductory analysis of component parts of a virtual human and examines
the traits that are important when considering virtual humans. It examines
existing definitions of a virtual human before developing a practical working
definition, and argues for a spectrum of virtual human types, and presents
some common examples of virtual humans.

WHAT IS A VIRTUAL HUMAN

A virtual human is, fundamentally, a computer program. In the far future,
it may be something else, but for the foreseeable future, a virtual human
is simply code and data which has been designed, and may be evolving, to
give the illusion of being human.

3
4 ◾ Virtual Humans

Senses Sensation Meta-Management and Personality

Enviro
nment
Passing sensory data
Appraisal Motivation,
Imagination
Emotion & Goals &
& Creativity
Mood Planning

Actions Enaction
Natural Language Reasoning

BODY /
AVATAR
MODEL Learning

Passing action
instructions

Memory

APIs

External – ‘Body’ Internal – ‘Mind’

FIGURE 1.1 Elements of a virtual human.

Figure 1.1 provides a very basic schema of the possible elements of a

virtual human program and its environment. Not all of these elements
would be expected to be present in every virtual human (as will be seen,
some are very challenging to implement), and not every element needs to
be present to the same degree. The diagram will be developed more fully
in Part II and all the component parts considered in some detail.
The main elements are:

• A body, which may be a digital avatar or simply a microphone and

speaker or text-chat interface
• A set of senses and the ability to detect sensations
• The ability to appraise sensation triggers and respond to them,
including showing emotion and changing mood
• The ability to plan to achieve goals, ideally set by some internal
motivation
• The ability to reason and problem solve
• The ability to show imagination and creativity
 What Are Virtual Humans? ◾ 5

• The ability to communicate in natural human language

• The ability to learn
• The ability to remember and access memories
• The ability to manage all the above, which may be reflected in a
personality
• The ability to enact its decisions through taking actions with its
‘body’
• Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) to other systems
• An environment in which to exist and interact with

EXISTING DEFINITIONS OF VIRTUAL HUMAN

There are many definitions of ‘virtual human’ in the literature, and just
a few are considered here. Rickel defines virtual humans as autonomous
agents that support face-to face interaction in virtual environments (Rickel
et al., 2002). The difficulty with this definition is that it is unclear what an
autonomous agent or a virtual environment is, and implies a relatively
limited scope of action, and an emphasis on only face-to-face interaction.
The definition is more appropriate to a non-player-character within a
computer game than recognising the wider and more capable forms that a
virtual human could take.
Chatbots.org, a leading hobbyist website on chatbots, identifies 161 differ-
ent terms for human-like conversational agents (Van Lun, 2011). The website
defines virtual humans as automated agents that converse, understand,
reason and exhibit emotions. They possess a three-dimensional body and
perform tasks through natural language-style dialogues with humans.
This offers a broader range of capabilities for the virtual human, and the
explicitness of face-to-face interaction has been replaced by a more general
‘natural language’ definition and the need to be in a virtual environment
has been removed.
Traum defines virtual humans as artificial agents that include both
a visual body with a human-like appearance and range of observable
behaviours, and a cognitive component that can make decisions and control
the behaviours to engage in human-like activities (Traum, 2009).
This definition moves beyond the focus on dialogue and interaction,
and highlights that a broader range of human activities and behaviours
may be involved.
6 ◾ Virtual Humans

FROM SELF-DRIVING CAR TO VIRTUAL HUMAN

A useful way to help consider what is and is not a virtual human is to think
of a modern self-driving car. Such a car will have sophisticated sensors
(senses), complex decision-making algorithms acting on a sub-second basis
and dealing with, ostensibly, moral issues, for example, to stay on course
and collide or to swerve and risk hitting a mother and baby. It will also have
a high level of autonomy within its domain, for example, the ‘driver’ chooses
where to go, but the car chooses the route and is controlling the steering
wheel. However, while the car is unlikely to be seen as a virtual human, it
may be called intelligent (indeed, this field of research is often known as
‘intelligent vehicles’). The question, though, is what happens if the car is
given a natural language interface for defining the route and discussing road
conditions with speech input and output? It then appears to be more human,
but possibly a long way from David Hasselhoff’s KITT car in the Knight
Rider TV series. With the addition of some virtual assistant capability, such
as access to your diary and emails, and access to the web and Wikipedia, it
begins to be more than just a car, and a lot closer to the KITT model. From
there, it would be possible to create a personality, emotion and motivation,
along with a head-and-shoulders animated avatar on the pop-up screen
in the car so that you have a Red Dwarf Holly-like character to whom you
can relate and talk. Yet what then changes if an android robot is placed in
the driver’s seat? It’s a purely mechanical device slaved to the car’s virtual
human-like interface—but there is now not only the issue about whether the
car and the character are separate, but also whether the humanness resides
in the car or the android. Perhaps, it needs the android to get out of the car
and say ‘Drive yourself’ for us to consider it truly human!
As this example shows, the boundaries between what is and what is not
a virtual human are fluid, as is whether it is a good (accurate, effective,
useful) or bad (inaccurate, ineffective, useless) virtual human. However,
the traits described below should help to identify just how ‘virtual human’
something is.

THE TRAITS OF A VIRTUAL HUMAN

In defining a virtual human, it is useful to examine the different traits
which could be used to differentiate a virtual human from other forms of
computer program that may be either showing intelligence or are based on
some human characteristic. In some cases, such traits may relate directly
to the elements shown in Figure 1.1, but others may be more holistic. The
traits considered here, and often presented as dichotomies, are:
 What Are Virtual Humans? ◾ 7

• Is it physical or digital?
• Is it manifest in a visual, auditory or textual form?
• Is it embodied or disembodied?
• Is it humanoid or non-humanoid?
• Does it use natural language or command-driven communication?
• Is it autonomous or controlled?
• Is it emotional or unemotional?
• Does it have a personality?
• Can it reason?
• Can it learn?
• Is it imaginative?
• How self-aware is it?

Physical or Digital?
The first of these traits is whether the entity is defined by a physical or digital
presence. In much popular literature, for example, replicants in Blade Runner
or Kryten in Red Dwarf, physical androids are considered virtual humans.
Whilst possessing a presence in some form of humanoid or non-humanoid
physical robot body may well be useful at times to a virtual human, the
essence of the virtual human is in its digital form. This is particularly salient
when, represented as an avatar within a virtual world, it is able to present
itself as just as ‘human’ as any avatar controlled by a physical human.
It should be noted that many authors refer to software-based virtual
humans as ‘digital humans’ (for example, Jones et al., 2015 and Perry, 2014),
but the term ‘digital humans’ is also used in other areas, such as filmmaking
(Turchet et al., 2016) and ergonomic design (Keyvani et al., 2013) to refer
only to the creation of the ‘body’ of the virtual human, and not of any higher
functions. Hence, there is a preference in this work for the term ‘virtual human’.

Visual, Auditory or Textual?

Having defined the virtual human as essentially a digital construct, it is
questionable as to whether it matters how the virtual human is manifest
within the digital domain. For example, the virtual human could be
8 ◾ Virtual Humans

presented as a two-dimensional (2D) head-and-shoulders animated avatar

(for example, the Sitepal system – www.sitepal.com), as a three-dimensional
(3D) avatar within a virtual world, such as ‘Second Life’ (www.secondlife.
com), as a voice on the phone, home speaker or a Skype call, or as a
participant within a text-based chat room. It is argued here that the virtual
human should be independent of its digital (or physical) manifestation.
Indeed, it is the possibility for fluidity between different forms that could be
an important capability for the future. However, in order to be recognised
as a virtual human, the entity must have some ability to communicate
through one of these, or closely related modes. Yet, even the most basic
computer program can have a text interface, so having such interfaces is
not a sufficient condition to define a virtual human (Figure 1.2).

Embodied or Disembodied?
Whilst closely linked to the issue of manifestation, there is also the
matter of whether the virtual human needs to be embodied, digitally or
physically. One belief in cognitive science is that ‘intelligence’ needs to be
embodied (Iida et al., 2004); it needs the sensation, agency and grounding
of having a ‘body’ within a rich and changing environment in order to
develop and experience ‘intelligence’. Whilst these issues will be discussed
in more detail in Chapter 7, there does appear to be a case that an entity
which never has some form of embodied manifestation may never be able
to become a ‘true’ virtual human—although it could still be a very smart
computer or artificial intellect, a so-called artilect. If being embodied is a
requirement of a virtual human, the implication would be that many of
the ‘virtual human’ computers of science fiction (Hal, Orac, J.A.R.V.I.S,
Holly) would be better considered as artilects, not virtual humans.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.2 (a) 2D and (b) 3D virtual human avatar.

 What Are Virtual Humans? ◾ 9

Humanoid or Non-Humanoid?
The next concern is whether the entity has a humanoid form. Myth and
popular literature contains numerous examples of humans able to take
on animal and other forms, such as lycanthropes and Native American
skin-walkers; so just because a virtual human can represent itself as some-
thing other than human does not mean that it cannot be a virtual human.
If the entity’s core personality, default appearance, actions and thought
processes are those of a human, then it should be considered as a virtual
human. However, if the entity only ever represented itself in a particular
animal form in appearance, deed and thought, then it should be termed a
virtual animal.

Natural Language or Command-Driven Communication?

A key capability for almost any human is the ability to communicate
through ‘natural language’, be that through voice, signing or other
mechanisms. This implies a relatively free-flowing conversation using
accepted vocabulary and grammar, and with the ability to track the context
of the conversation and make appropriate responses to the utterances of
others. Indeed, it is often seen as a sign of mental impairment, whether
from mental health problems, such as dementia or a temporary state, like
drunkenness, when a person is not able to communicate to this standard.
The free-flowing conversation requirement precludes the inclusion systems
based on simple command-based exchanges. So, to be considered a virtual
human, an entity must be able to do more than merely respond to a set
of commands. There are gray areas where commands give way to natural
language. Entities such as Siri and Alexa could readily be thought of as
virtual humans despite their natural language conversational ability being
limited, since the natural, human, inclination towards anthropomorphism
can readily see them as ‘human’. The Turing Test (Turing, 1950), and related
Loebner Prize (Floridi et al., 2009), which will be discussed in more detail
in Chapter 2, have become useful ways of evaluating the natural language
conversational ability of chatbots. Yet, it is unlikely that having a good
natural language capability, as in a good chatbot, is a sufficient condition
for being a virtual human, although it may well be a necessary one.

Autonomous or Controlled?
Despite some of the current philosophical and neurological debates about
freewill (for example, Caruso, 2013), it is generally accepted that a human
has autonomy for most practical purposes, although such autonomy is
10 ◾ Virtual Humans

limited by laws and social, moral, and ethical frameworks. A true virtual
human should also therefore be expected to have a similar degree of auton-
omy and be bound by similar frameworks. Whilst a virtual human may
not initially exhibit the same level of autonomy as a physical human, its
level of autonomy should still be extensive within the scope of its coding.
A further consideration is how much intrinsic motivation the virtual
human possesses. Autonomy often exists within a well-defined set of
tasks, for instance, a self-driving car choosing a route and then a more
complex set of second-by-second decisions over speed and direction,
based on a rapidly evolving and complex environment, need to be made.
Once the journey is completed, the car just waits for its next command
or possibly drives itself off home to its garage to recharge. A true virtual
human, though, should always be operating in a relatively autonomous
way. Once it finishes one task, it needs to decide on its next one. Such
decisions should be driven by a set of long-term goals, by motivation, as
they are in physical humans.

Emotional or Unemotional?
Demonstrating and responding to emotions is certainly seen in popular
culture as being evidence of humanity (for example, the Voight-Kampff test
in Blade Runner), and the lack of emotions is often taken as an indication of
a disturbed or even psychotic personality. Certainly, within the literature
(for example, Mell, 2015; Mykoniatis, 2014), the ability for a virtual human
to be able to show and respond to emotions is seen as an important feature.
One of the key questions is to what extent the virtual human is ‘faking
it’ – does it ‘feel’ emotion or empathy – or is it just exhibiting the features
and responses that we associate with those traits? Often, though, it is the
emotional response of the human party to the virtual human’s condition
that can be just as important (for example, Bouchard et al., 2013). So, if
an emotional reaction is elicited in a physical human to a virtual human
showing emotion, then do the mechanisms through which that emotion
was generated matter? Since surely almost any emotion portrayed on stage
or in film is artificial as well?

Presence of a Personality?
In considering the possible traits of a virtual human, the word ‘personality’
is often used. Personality can be defined in a variety of ways, and personality
theories include: dispositional (trait) perspective, psychodynamic,
humanistic, biological, behaviourist, evolutionary and those based on
 What Are Virtual Humans? ◾ 11

social learning. This suggests that a virtual human should also appear
to behave, feel and think in a unique and individual way, not identical
to any other virtual human (except, possibly, clones of itself) or even to
any other physical human. If the virtual human does not show a unique
personality, or indeed any personality, then it is possibly not worthy of the
term. However, there is again the danger of anthropomorphism, people
will quite readily attribute personalities to very obviously non-human
objects, from cars to printers, and it is important to be cautious about
whether any perceived personality is just being implied by the observer or
is actually present within the system.

Ability to Reason?
Reasoning here is used to refer to the ability to accept a set of inputs and
make a sensible decision based on them. Reasoning can include theories
about moral reasoning, as suggested by Kohlberg (1984), as well as models
of novice to expert reasoning used in professional education (Benner,
1984). Reasoning is also taken here as including problem-solving, which is
a more constrained version of the reasoning ability. At its lowest level within
a virtual human, the reasoning may be as simple as identifying that if a
website customer has enquired about lighting, then they should be shown
all the desks, tables and floor lamps in stock. In a more developed virtual
human, it would be expected that the reasoning capability is beginning
to match that of a human – in other words, given the same inputs, it will
make a similar decision to a human, even though the number of factors, or
their relation to the output, might be more complex, or there may be high
degrees of uncertainty involved, so called fuzzy or even wicked problems.

Can It Learn?
One common definition of an intelligent system is that of having the
capacity to learn how to deal with new situations (Sternberg et al., 1981).
Intelligence is not so much about having the facts and knowledge to
answer questions (a more popular view of what intelligence is), but rather
an adaptive ability to cope with new situations, often by applying patterns
and knowledge (reason) previously acquired. As such, the ability to learn
(in a whole variety of different ways and applied to a whole variety of
different situations) must be an important trait for a virtual human.
One of the ultimate goals of AI research is so-called Artificial General
Intelligence (discussed in more detail in Chapter 13), a computer system
that exhibits a very generalized and human form of such learning and
12 ◾ Virtual Humans

adaptability. For current practical purposes, it could be expected that a

virtual human would show some ability to learn and adapt within the
scope of its programming.

Is It Imaginative?
As will be discussed in Chapter 4, there are a lot of computer programs
which demonstrate creativity, using parametrics, neural networks, genetic
algorithms or other approaches to create pieces of music, paintings, poems
or other works of art. There is, however, a difference between creativity
and imagination. The imagination trait is more about an internal ability
to visualise something, something which may not exist or at least has
not been sensed, and perhaps to take an existing trope and change its
parameters to create a whole new experience. The ‘creative’ element is then
more about taking this piece of imagination and using craft, skills and
‘creativity’ to make it manifest and bring it into the social domain. So, the
important trait is probably that of imagination, with creativity coming
from combining imagination with other traits, such as reasoning (what
colour where) and learning (how did I do this last time).

Sentient or Non-Sentient?
In common discourse, sentience can be viewed as an equivalence of
‘thinking’: Does the machine have a cognitive function? Is it sentient?
There is also some potential overlap with free will and autonomy. A further
definition of sentience aligns it with consciousness, but defining that is
similarly fraught with problems. Indeed, the question of what consciousness
means in terms of the way that we have subjective, phenomenal experiences
is often described as the ‘hard problem’. Such consciousness implies some
form of self-awareness and internal narrative, for example Nagel’s ‘What
Is It Like to Be a Bat?’ (Nagel, 1974). Achieving sentience using current
technologies is beyond the present capabilities for a virtual human.
However, an aspiration to develop some form of internal self-awareness and
internal narrative and dialogue would seem to be desirable, and whether
that results in, or can enable, some form of true sentience is probably a key
philosophical and research question for our times.

DEMONSTRATING INTELLIGENCE?
It should be noted that in the 10 traits above, ‘intelligence’ has been delibera-
tely omitted. There is no real agreement as to what an ‘intelligent’ system
is, just as there is no agreement about what counts as human intelligence.
 What Are Virtual Humans? ◾ 13

Intelligence has been defined as everything from logic to leadership, and

from emotional knowledge to problem solving. Indeed Legg and Hutter
(2007) list 71 definitions for ‘intelligence’ and ‘artificial intelligence’. What
are taken as indicators of intelligence are considered to be well enough
covered by a combination of the other traits, particularly learning and
reasoning.

A VIRTUAL HUMAN PROFILE

In Figure 1.3, the 10 traits that have been described above are represented
graphically. A high rating for a trait would be marked by a point towards the
outer edge of the decagon, and a low rating towards the centre. Joining each
point by a line (as shown in Figures 1.4 and 1.5) then provides a radar-plot
or spider-diagram style profile for a particular instance or type of virtual
human. It should be noted, though, that some traits need to be far more
developed than others to be treated as some form of virtual human. For
instance, an entity with even a relatively low level of personality, natural-
language or emotion is more likely to be taken as a virtual human than one
with a very high degree of reasoning or learning ability but which does not
show any of the other traits. Almost any level of self-awareness would also
put an entity well on the way to being thought of as a virtual human.
It should also be noted that the ‘digital or physical’ trait described ear-
lier has not been added to the chart as: (a) it is a very binary trait – the

Self-Aware vs Not Self-Aware Embodied vs Disembodied

Imaginative vs Humanoid vs Non-Humanoid

Unimaginative

Natural-Language vs
Learning vs
Command Driven
Unlearning

Reasoning vs Autonomous vs Controlled

Unreasoning

Personality vs Apersonal Emotional vs Unemotional

FIGURE 1.3 Traits of virtual humans.

14 ◾ Virtual Humans

entity is either presenting as pixels on a screen or as a lump of metal or

organic material, (b) in defining virtual humans, their digital nature has
already been asserted, and (c) any developed virtual human would be able
to move in and out of (or rather commandeer) a physical representation,
as required.
Just from the examples discussed so far, it is clear that the term ‘virtual
human’ could represent a wide spectrum of capabilities. In its most typical
manifestation, a virtual human:

• Manifests itself in a visual, auditory, textual or similar form,

• May have some embodiment within a virtual world,
• Presents itself as primarily humanoid in manifestation and behaviour,
• Will have a natural language capability,
• May exhibit a degree of autonomy,
• May have an ability to express, recognise and respond to emotions,
• May exhibit some aspects of a personality,
• May have some ability to reason in a human-like way,
• May, possibly, exhibit some elements of imagination, and
• May even have a self-narrative, but is unlikely to have any indications
of sentience.

VIRTUAL HUMANOIDS AND VIRTUAL SAPIENS

To aid later analysis, it is perhaps useful to define terms for virtual humans
which are biased to the simpler or more complex ends of the spectrum, so
that there is a clearer understanding of what is being discussed. Two new
terms are proposed.
At the lower, less functional, end of the spectrum is the ‘virtual
humanoid’. This could be defined as a digital entity which:

• Can manifest itself in a visual, auditory, textual or similar form,

• Need not have any sense of embodiment within a virtual or physical
world,
• Is primarily humanoid in manifestation and behaviour,
 What Are Virtual Humans? ◾ 15

Self-Aware Embodied

Imaginative Humanoid

Learning Natural-Language

Reasoning Autonomous

Personality Emotional

FIGURE 1.4 Profiles of virtual humanoids (dashed line), virtual sapiens (solid
line – effectively the complete edge of the decagon) and virtual humans (the
shaded space in between).

• Can respond to commands, but does not have to exhibit a developed

natural language capability,
• Does not need to exhibit any autonomy,
• Does not need to express or recognise emotion,
• Does not need to exhibit a (unique) personality – most of its person-
ality being implied by anthropomorphism,
• Does not need to show any significant ability to reason,
• Does not need to show any imagination, and
• Does not need to have any indications of internal narrative or
sentience.

At the upper (most developed) end is the ‘virtual sapien’, a digital entity
which:

• Can manifest itself in a visual, auditory, textual or similar form,

• Will have embodiment within a virtual or physical world,
• Is primarily humanoid in manifestation and behaviour,
16 ◾ Virtual Humans

• Has a highly developed natural language capability,

• Exhibits a high degree of autonomy and intrinsic motivation,
• Can express, recognize and respond to emotions,
• Exhibits a unique personality,
• Can reason in a human-like way,
• Exhibits elements of the use of imagination, and
• Has self-awareness and may have some indications of sentience.

The two new definitions are shown as profiles in Figure 1.4, with virtual
human as the more overarching term.
It should be noted that the lines between a virtual humanoid, virtual
humans (the all-embracing term), and virtual sapiens are significantly
blurred, and on many measures, it is a matter of degree rather than of
absolutes.

TOWARDS A WORKING DEFINITION

Whilst such graphics as Figures 1.3 and 1.4 can be valuable tools, it is also
useful to have a simple working definition of what a virtual human is. The
consideration of personality above – thinking, feeling, and behaving in
an individual way – certainly goes some way to providing a more concise
working definition:

A virtual human is a digital entity (or perhaps, more generally, a

program, algorithm or even a process) which (looks) thinks, feels
and behaves like a human.

On this basis, a virtual humanoid could be considered as a digital entity

which just looks and, to a certain extent, behaves like a human, whilst
virtual sapiens is a digital entity which could pass for a human in an
extended unrestricted evaluation.
There is indeed a very strong temptation to choose a behaviouristic
definition of a virtual human, typified, perhaps, by Turing’s original
‘imitation game’ (Turing, 1950). Behaviourist definitions have, though,
been frequently challenged (for example, Searle, 2014), and Chalmer’s
arguments about philosophical zombies (Chalmers, 1996) explore similar
issues.
 What Are Virtual Humans? ◾ 17

So, perhaps, more useful working definitions are:

• Virtual Humanoids – Simple virtual humans which present, to a

limited degree, as human and which may reflect, in a limited way,
some of the behaviour, emotion, thinking, autonomy and interaction
of a physical human.
• Virtual Humans – Software programs which present as human,
and which may have behaviour, emotion, thinking, autonomy and
interaction modelled on physical human capabilities.
• Virtual Sapiens – Sophisticated virtual humans which achieve similar
levels of presentation, behaviour, emotion, thinking, autonomy,
interaction, self-awareness and internal narrative to a physical
human.

Note: The term digital entity has been used above, but perhaps a stricter and
more general definition would be an informational entity, as it then avoids the
limitation on form that ‘digital’ (and also program) could imply—for example,
ruling out some biological possibilities and even intelligent windows, as in
Permutation City (Egan, 1994). The term ‘infomorph’ (Muzyka, 2013) has
been used for such an informational entity. The term ‘artilect’, introduced
earlier, would then represent a relatively well developed infomorph.

EXAMPLES OF VIRTUAL HUMANS

Having set the scope for what represents a virtual human, it is useful
to look at some examples of virtual humans placed more at the virtual
humanoid end of the spectrum, which can be encountered in today’s world.
It is also helpful to consider how the terms used for them, such as chatbots,
autonomous agents, conversational agents and pedagogical agents, should
be understood against the definitions and profiles developed above. Further
examples will be considered in Chapter 8.

Chatbots
Chatbots is a generic term for describing a piece of software that mimics
human conversation. It emphasises the conversational capability
but says nothing about any other elements of the virtual human. A
system like Siri or Alexa that does not really engage in conversation
is probably not even a chatbot, rather being a question-answering or
18 ◾ Virtual Humans

Self-Aware Embodied

Imaginative Humanoid

Learning Natural-Language

Reasoning Autonomous

Personality Emotional

FIGURE 1.5 Mapping current virtual human types: chatbots (dashed), conversa-
tional agents (dotted), and pedagogical agents (solid).

command-taking system, but would fit within the virtual humanoid

definition. Importantly, the term chatbot does not imply anything about
sentience or intelligence, it is just a system attempting to mimic human
conversation.
Chatbots can be thought of as rudimentary pieces of software that
aim to create the illusion of a human. They rely on a pre-existing corpus
of information that is used to respond to human questions and stimuli.
Basic chatbots do not have the ability to identify the progressions of a
conversation, nor to adapt responses based on previous answers given
by the chatbot or as input by the human user, and nor may they aim to
assist in the completion in any particular task. A simple chatbot aims
to identify each human input (through pattern matching or keyword
searching) and respond with the appropriate answer retrieved from a
store of responses with little processing of context. Examples of this kind
of chatbot can be found incorporated into toys, such as ‘Hello Barbie’
(Rhodan, 2015), which allows children to have pseudo conversations
with a doll.

Autonomous Agents
Autonomous agent is a very broad term that has been used for well-
developed chatbots, with elements of the virtual human (Bogdanovych,
2005), for massively replicated software entities running in a crowd
 What Are Virtual Humans? ◾ 19

simulation (Pelechano et al., 2007), and for software programs carrying

out very specific but autonomous tasks—for example, stock trading
(Subramanian et al., 2006). As such, the use of the term in relation to
virtual humans is perhaps best avoided.

Conversational Agents
Conversational agents (Cassell, 2000) are virtual humans whose task is
to provide a conversational interface to a particular application, rather
than through command line instructions or the clicking of icons or menu
items, for tasks ranging from making travel bookings and buying furni-
ture to interrogating sales and marketing data.
These ‘agents’ can be represented textually, orally or in conjunction
with an avatar (or all three), and, like chatbots, may also exhibit some
of the behaviours and characteristics of humans, such as speech,
locomotion, gestures and movements of the head, eye or other parts of
the body (Dehn and Van Mulken, 2000). However, their role goes beyond
simply maintaining a conversation with no particular goal. The level of
sophistication of these types of agent can thus determine their utility
within differing contexts.
Across the services, manufacturing and raw materials sectors of
industry, conversational agents have been used to increase the usability of
devices and as methods to assist the retrieval of information. For example,
numerous websites have utilised agents as virtual online assistants to
improve access to information, such as ‘Anna’ on the Ikea website or the
shopping assistants from H&M or Sephora accessed through the KiK
service (KiK Interactive Inc., 2016).
Similarly, smartphone and tablet interfaces now include options to
use personal assistant applications such as ‘Siri’, ‘Cortana’ or ‘Google
Now’ to assist users in searching for information, starting applications
and performing routine tasks, such as sending messages. Other software,
such as Amazon’s ‘Alexa’, incorporated into their ‘Echo’ device, allow
the control of various household smart devices such as fridges and
heating systems. These agents, while being helpful, do not necessarily
have a high level of contextual awareness, and so, whilst being effective
at assisting with simple tasks, such as information retrieval or acting on
simple commands (for example, Alexa), agents are not always positioned
to provide guidance.
Conversational agents are likely to possess a defined goal and set
of capabilities. Granting them additional open-ended conversational
20 ◾ Virtual Humans

capabilities, emotions or motivations could be counterproductive for such

agents in achieving their goal, and, therefore, damaging to their owner.
Most conversational agents are towards the lower end of the virtual humans’
spectrum, although they may have well-developed natural language
capabilities; they are invariably, but not exclusively, more task orientated
than chatbots.
Pedagogical Agents
Virtual humans used in education are more commonly referred to as
pedagogical agents, or sometimes more narrowly, as virtual tutors. The
function of pedagogical agents is to aid learners during the learning
process. These agents aim to support learners by providing easier access to
relevant information and to improve motivation (for example, Bowman,
2012; Schroeder and Adesope, 2014). As will be discussed later in this book,
the sophistication of an agent dictates its role and the types of interactions
achievable with humans.
The literature presents a number of examples of pedagogical agents that
have been used successfully in learning and educational contexts. However,
these have been predominantly focused on agents that may not have an
understanding of dialogue or of the progression of conversations between
the individual and the agent. Hasler, Touchman and Friedman (2013) found
that in a comparison of human interviewees with virtual world pedagogical
agents (in non-learning situations), pedagogical agents and human inter-
viewees were equally successful in collecting information about their par-
ticipants’ real-life backgrounds. Pedagogical agents, being neither human
interviewees nor text-based surveys, therefore pose an interesting opportu-
nity for the educator seeking to facilitate student discussion.
Virtual Mentors
Virtual Humans can have varying levels of perceived understanding of any
topic, which can be adequate for low level tasks, such as helping to access
databases of knowledge. However, a deeper understanding of the content of
any discussion between user and virtual human, combined with increased
personalisation options, can allow the virtual human to act as a mentor and
provide guidance, rather than merely simple access to information. There
are many examples of such virtual mentors, particularly in the mobile
space (where the interaction can seem particularly intimate and personal)
including Wysa (https://www.wysa.io/) and Woebot (https://woebot.io/).
Figure 1.5 shows how some of these examples map onto the virtual
human profile.
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