PRÁCTICA GRAMATICAL DEL INGLÉS

UNIT 1
Time and tense

While the notion of time /past, present and future/ is universal and
independent of any language, tense is a purely grammatical idea that varies
from language to language . The tense of a verb tells us that it is present,
past or future. For example, a present tense does not necessarily means an
action is taking place in the present time.

OM
● “Fred will have dinner when his wife arrives home” the verb ``arrives is
in the simple present tense, but it is used to express future time
reference.
● “The children are playing football tomorrow” the verb play is used in the

.C
present progressive tense, but it expresses future time reference.
● “Christopher Colombus discovers America in 1492” the verb discover is
in the simple present tense, but it expresses past time reference.
DD
● “If I had money, I would travel around the world” the verb have is in the
simple past tense, but it is used to express a present/future situation
or wish.

Mood
LA

Mood has to do with the emotional attitude of the speaker towards the
action. Mood focuses on the relationship of the verb with reality and intent,
and it also refers to factual and non-factual status of events. These are:
FI

❖ Indicative: factual mood. It is by far the most frequent mood and it

involves all the choices available concerning person, tense, number,


etc.
➔ Sally usually watches TV at night.
➔ She hasn't left home yet.
➔ What a lovely dress you’re wearing.

❖ imperative: non-factual mood. It covers commands, o ers, requests,

invitations, instructions, and so on.
➔ Stop talking, please.
➔ Do sit down.
➔ Come here and give it to me.
➔ Daniel, you set the table.

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 ➔ Please, help yourself some food.

❖ Subjunctive: non-factual mood, and not so frequent. It refers to

wishes, desires, suggestions; and it is used after a limited number of
verbs (suggest, insist, demand, wish, imagine, suppose). There are
two forms:

Mandative subjunctive: it involves the base/plain form of the verb

with no inflections. It is used in a “that” clause after an expression of

OM
such notions as demands, recommendation, proposal, etc.

➔ They insisted that she consult a psychiatrist.

➔ The judge demanded that he give evidence despite his
relationship with the accused.

.C
➔ It is vital that you score a point.
➔ I suggested that you be careful.
➔ They ordered that he not leave. (negative form)
DD
Formulaic subjunctive: it is only used in certain set expressions. These
expressions are usually exclamations to express wish or hope.

➔ God bless you!

LA

➔ Come what may, we will go ahead!

➔ God save the Queen!
➔ Heaven forbid that something like that should happen.
➔ Peace be with you!
FI

The “were” subjunctive: hypothetical, unreal in meaning, it is only



used in adverbial clauses introduced by conjunctions such as if, if

only, as if, as though, and after verbs like wish, suppose, imagine.
➔ If I were you, I’d tell her the truth.
➔ If only I were taller.
➔ I wish she were more independent.
➔ Just suppose he were your father.

Aspect
The aspect adds information about the speaker’s perspective on time, the
completeness or incompleteness of an action. When talking about

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grammatical aspect in English we speak about four categories: simple,
progressive, perfect and perfect progressive.

❖ Simple/zero/non-progressive aspects: refers to the whole of a

situation and not just a part of it.
➔ Yesterday, I worked from 8 to 12.
➔ I usually go to the o ce by car.

❖ The progressive aspect describes an event at some point between its

OM
beginning and its end. It is used with dynamic verbs and it is the
activity itself what’s important rather than the end result.
➔ They´re working at the moment.
➔ I was reading when you phoned.
➔ By the end of the month, they will have been living here for 3

.C
years.

❖ The perfect aspect is formed with the auxiliary have and the -ed form
DD
of a lexical verb. It is concerned with the speaker's perspective on the
relationship between one time frame and an event that takes place in
another time frame.
➔ Have you ever traveled by train?
➔ The children had finished their homework when I let them out.
LA

➔ She will have lived in Australia for six months by the end of
October.

❖ The perfect progressive aspect expresses incomplete or ongoing

FI

actions or states that began in the past and continue to a specific time.
➔ I have been working really hard these days.
➔ John had been waiting all day long when his son finally arrived.


Aspectual meaning

❖ Imperfective: the action is considered to be incomplete.

➔ Anna lives in London.

lives: simple present tense, simple or non-progressive grammatical aspect,
imperfective aspectual meaning.

➔ When she was living in London, she lived in a college residence.

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was living: past progressive tense, progressive grammatical aspect,
imperfective aspectual meaning.

➔ Anna lived in London when I met her.

lived: simple past tense, simple or non´progressive grammatical aspect,
imperfective aspectual meaning.

❖ Perfective: the action is considered to be complete.

OM
➔ Julia has lost her glasses.
has lost: present perfect tense, perfect grammatical aspect, perfective
aspectual meaning.

➔ Anna lived in London when I met her.

.C
met: simple past tense, simple or non-progressive grammatical aspect,
perfective aspectual meaning.
DD
Voice: verb phrases also indicate voice. In English there are two main
voices: active and passive. The voice gives information about the roles of
di erent participants in an event.

The active voice is the one that is used most commonly. The sentence’s
LA

subject performs the action.

➔ Shira likes birdwatching.

➔ She loves twilight.
FI

The passive voice is a way of phrasing the sentence so that the subject does
not refer to the person or thing responsible for the action. The passive has
an additional auxiliary: a form of the auxiliary be + an -ed participle.


Classification of verbs
Verbs can be classified into:

❖ Lexical verbs: the biggest class and include most verbs. They denote
actions, states or events. They are an open class. Lexical verbs are
classified into action verbs (drink, walk, cry, love) and linking verbs
(be, become, feel, remain).

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 ❖ Auxiliary verbs: add information to the lexical verbs and help the
main verb to make up phrases. Primary auxiliaries (be, have, do) and
secondary or modal auxiliaries (can, could, must, etc)

Finite and non-finite verbs:

Finite verbs can show tense, mood, aspect and voice. They occur as the verb
element of a clause where there is person and number agreement between
the subject and finite verb.

OM
Non-finite verbs do not show tense or mood, but they are capable of
indicating aspect and voice. In a non-finite verb phrase all the verbs are
non-finite. The non-finite forms are the infinitive, the -ing forms (present
participle and gerund) and the past participle.

finite .C infinitive ing- form ed-participle

DD
she cooks cook / to cook / cooking cooked
to be cooking /
to have cooked /
to have been
LA

cooking

finite: base form, third person singular, past form

non-finite: infinitive form, ing form, past participle
FI

Uses and meaning of the verb tenses in English

The present progressive tense is used to:



❖ Indicate an activity in progress at the moment of speaking or around

the time of speaking. The three main characteristics of the
progressive aspect are present (incompleteness, temporariness, and
emphasis on duration). In these situations, the verb form conveys
progressive grammatical aspect and imperfective aspectual meaning.

➔ The bus has broken down. We are waiting for another bus to come and
take us to town,

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 ❖ To refer to an action that is habitual or repeated, but for over a limited
period of time. Adverbs of time, such as these days, this month, this
academic year are essential to denote this meaning. The verb form
conveys progressive grammatical aspect and imperfective aspectual
meaning.

➔ We are getting up earlier these days. / She is drinking tea without

sugar this month. / I’m attending classes in the morning this
semester.

OM
❖ To refer to an action that is repeated frequently and that usually
produces (not necessarily) annoyance or irritation on the part of the
speaker. This form conveys progressive grammatical aspect and
imperfective aspectual meaning.

.C
➔ She is always failing her exams. / He is constantly mocking his sister. /
A child is always learning.
DD
❖ To express changing situations or states developing into other states.
The verb indicates “increase” or “decrease” in the activity. It is
usually used with adverbials such as more and more, better and
LA

better, etc.

➔ He is studying harder and harder. / I’m forgetting my English little by

little.
FI

❖ To indicate an activity which has been arranged for the near future.
Beforehand. In this situation, both the grammatical aspect and aspectual
meaning are irrelevant.


➔ I’m coming back in a few minutes. / Sam is leaving at noon tomorrow.

/ After lunch, I’m meeting a friend of mine.

The simple present tense is used to:

❖ To express permanent actions, timeless actions or eternal truths.

Mostly used in mathematics, scientific, geographical, proverbial and
other statements made for all time. This case conveys simple
grammatical aspect and imperfective aspectual meaning.

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➔ Water freezes at 0’. / Two and two makes four. / The Nile is the
longest river in Africa. / He who looks, finds.

❖ To express actions or events which are considered as permanent. We

can express facts, abilities, and continuous states. This case conveys
simple grammatical aspect and imperfective meaning.

➔ 60% of robberies occur in big cities. / She plays the piano. / She works
as a nurse. / They live in America.

OM
❖ To express habitual actions. Represents a series of individual events
which as a whole represent a state stretching back into the past and
forward to the future. This form conveys simple grammatical and
imperfective aspectual meaning.

.C
➔ Sally usually gets up at four o’clock. She arrives at the film studio at
five and has a co ee. She prepares her room carefully. At six she does
DD
the make-up for the newsreaders and for the next five hours she
works with guests on morning TV shows.

❖ To express future time reference, this is called future as a fact, as the

possibility of changing this action is out of the question. Both the
LA

grammatical aspect and aspectual meaning are irrelevant.

➔ My birthday is tomorrow. / Next Christmas falls on a Monday. /

Classes begin next week.
FI

❖ Historic present. To express an event that happened in the past and is

characteristic of the narrative style. It describes the past as if it were
happening now, conveying dramatic immediacy. This form conveys


simple grammatical aspect and perfective aspectual meaning.

➔ At that moment a messenger comes from the Head o ce, telling me

the boss wants to see me in a hurry.

❖ We can also find it in newspaper headlines reporting recent events:

➔ BABY STARTS FIRE. / NATIONAL TEAM WINS WORLD CUP. /

COMPUTER VIRUS CAUSES BUSINESS CHAOS.

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The Present Perfect Tense is used to:

❖ To refer to an activity or state which begins in the past and continues

up to the moment of speaking. The verb form expresses perfect
grammatical aspect and imperfective aspectual meaning.

➔ Jane has lived in Scotland since 1980 / all her life / for five years / until
now / since she got married.

OM
❖ A habit or repeated event usually shown by the adverbs of frequency,
in a period of time leading up to the present. The action or event may
go on into the future. The grammatical aspect is perfect and the aspectual
meaning imperfective.

.C
➔ Jane has usually had lunch at the hospital so far. / She has often
worked at night until now. / We have always vacationed in New
Zealand, our son lives there.
DD
❖ To express an action that began and finished in the past. The time is
not specified at all, because it is not important or not known. We are
interested in the results of the action. The verb denotes perfect
grammatical aspect and perfective aspectual meaning.
LA

➔ I’ve finished my work, now I can sit and rest. / You’re very tanned,
have you been on a holiday? / She has lost her key, so she can’t open
the door.
FI

❖ To indicate an activity completed in the immediate, recent past time.

Used with the adverbials just, lately and recently. The grammatical
aspect of the verb for is perfect and the aspectual meaning is


perfective.

➔ I have just had lunch. / I have recently had lunch, / Have you been to
the cinema lately?

❖ To refer to an action that happened (or never happened) before now,

at an indefinite, unspecified time in the past. The exact time when the
action happened is not important. It shows perfect grammatical
aspect and perfective aspectual meaning.

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 ➔ Have you ever been to America? / I have never phoned my father. / I
have already had breakfast. / I haven’t had lunch yet.

❖ To denote an action that was completed during a present incomplete

period of time, the period of time is not over at the moment of
speaking. We generally use adverbs or adverbial phrases such as
today, this week, this year, etc. The grammatical aspect is perfect and
the aspectual meaning is perfective.

OM
➔ We’ve done very little today. / I haven’t seen John this week. / She has
received three emails this morning.

❖ To describe or talk about a specific number of times we have

completed or done something in the past. The exact time is not

.C
mentioned. The grammatical aspect is perfect and the aspectual
meaning is perfective.
DD
➔ I’ve read a hundred pages of this book. / I’ve smoked ten cigarettes. /
I’ve traveled by boat three times.

❖ To convey future time reference, especially in adverbial clauses of

time and condition. In such cases, the grammatical aspect is perfect
LA

and the aspectual meaning is perfective.

➔ Please, don’t leave until everybody has finished packing. / We’ll go

out if it has stopped raining. / I’ll be setting o before the sun has
FI

risen.

The Present Perfect Progressive is used to:



❖ To indicate an activity which started in the past and is still in progress

at the time of speaking. It put emphasis on the duration of the action
and on the imperfective meaning. Thus, the verb conveys perfect
progressive grammatical aspect and imperfective aspectual meaning.

➔ He has been studying French since he moved to France. / They have

been eating vegetables for the last five years. / You have been sleeping
for ten hours.

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 ❖ To indicate a temporary habit which started in the past and has
continued up to the present. In such cases, the verb form conveys
perfect progressive grammatical aspect and imperfective aspectual
meaning.

➔ He has been visiting mother on Mondays this month. / Lucy has been
walking to work this week. / Sue has been collecting stamps.

❖ If the verb is not followed by an adverbial of duration, the implication

OM
is often that the e ects of the happening are still visible, that is to say,
the action has e ects that are still apparent. The verb form shows
perfect progressive grammatical aspect and perfective aspectual
meaning.

.C
➔ You’ve been fighting again, you’ve got a black eye. / Have you been
crying? your eyes are red. / He has been washing his car. It looks
shiny.
DD
The Simple Past Tense is used to:

❖ Denote activities or states in the past without any connection with the
present. We are more interested in when the action took place, that’s
LA

why we usually use adverbial expressions that indicate the specific

point in time when the action was carried out. The form shows simple
grammatical aspect and perfective aspectual meaning.
FI

➔ Last night we ate dinner in that Italian restaurant you like so much. /
She sat for her last exam two days ago.

❖ To indicate a definite period of past time. Here, the verb form shows


simple grammatical aspect and perfective aspectual meaning.

➔ She studied music from 1998 to 2012. / The greens lived in Ireland
during the war.

❖ To express past habits or states that are now finished. It denotes

simple grammatical aspect and imperfective aspectual meaning.

➔ Paul practiced every day until he could hit his own mark. / He got
furious every time he got a parking ticket.

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The Past Progressive Tense is used to:

❖ When we are interested mainly in the past activity and in the duration
of it. It is used to express a single activity in progress in the past. We
do not mention when the action started or finished. Progressive
grammatical aspect and imperfective meaning.

➔ It was raining hard. / The children were playing football. / We were

studying English.

OM
❖ To indicate that an action was repeated (but not permanent) over a
limited period of time. The verb form conveys progressive
grammatical aspect and imperfective aspectual meaning.

.C
➔ I was walking to the o ce that week. / She was eating only a meal a
day those days. / It thought John was doing better. He was gaining
strength.
DD
❖ To indicate repeated and sporadic past actions that show annoyance,
irritation, disapproval, etc. Showing progressive grammatical aspect
and imperfective aspectual meaning.
LA

➔ She was always borrowing my books. / He was always catching colds

as a child.

The Past Perfect Tense is used to:

FI

❖ To refer to a past action previous to another past action or stated time

in the past. “Past in the past”. Perfect grammatical aspect and
perfective aspectual meaning.


➔ She had begun her studies when I met her. / He had already done all
his homework when he left.

❖ To denote an incomplete past action that had started before another

past action and had lasted for some time. Perfect grammatical aspect
and perfective aspectual meaning.

➔ He had been unconscious for several hours when we found him. / Her
body had laid over there since very early in the morning.

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 ❖ To express an action which had started and finished in the past and
whose results were visible in the past. Perfect grammatical aspect,
perfective aspectual meaning.

➔ Bill had injured his legs in the car accident, so he had to use a
wheelchair. / In her youth, my aunt had lived in Italy for five years,
that’s why she spoke Italian so well.

The Past Perfect Progressive Tense is used to:

OM
❖ To put emphasis on the duration of an action which started in the past
and finished in the past before another past action. Perfect
progressive grammatical aspect and imperfective meaning.

.C
➔ She had been practicing for a long time before she entered the
competition. / He had been waiting long before she arrived.
DD
❖ Resultative past in the past: to express an action which lasted for
some time in the past and whose duration caused visible results later
on in the past. Perfect progressive grammatical aspect and perfective
aspectual meaning.
LA

➔ Tommy had been playing in the mud all afternoon, so he dirtied his
clothes. / She had been shouting all day, so that night she couldn’t
speak.
FI

Di erent ways of expressing future time reference in English:

❖ Simple future tense:



A. We can use the auxiliary “will” to talk about an action or activity that
has been planned for the future.

➔ We will study the meanings and uses of verb tenses tomorrow.

B. To talk about an action that is definitely going to happen in the future.

➔ Aunt Catherine will be 90 next week.

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C. To express general predictions about the future based on opinion,
analysis, judgment or experience.

➔ He will get ill if he doesn't eat properly. / I imagine the stadium will be
full for the match on sunday.

D. To express “on-the-spot decisions”

➔ There is Sonia, I’ll go and talk to her.

OM
E. To express promises, threats, warnings, hopes, fears, invitations,
refusal, willingness.

➔ I swear I will never do it again. / I will find you and I will kill you.

.C
F. To express requests and o ers.
DD
➔ I’ll take you to the airport tomorrow.

❖ Future Progressive tense:

A. To indicate an action that will be taking place, in progress, at a stated

LA

time in the future. This conveys progressive grammatical aspect and

imperfective aspectual meaning.

➔ I will be traveling to London when you wake up tomorrow.

FI

B. In certain contexts, these is no di erence in meanings between this

use of the future progressive tense and the present progressive tense.


➔ I’m flying / I will be flying to Madrid tomorrow.

❖ Future Perfect Tense: is used to refer to an action that will have been
completed prior to or by a certain time in the future. The grammatical
aspect of this tense is perfect and the aspectual meaning is perfective,
since it puts emphasis on the completion of the activity.

➔ I will have finished grading the papers before 4:00 PM.

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 ❖ Future Perfect Progressive tense: it is used to refer to an action that
began before a certain time, but will not have been completed by then.
It conveys a perfect grammatical aspect and imperfective aspectual
meaning.

➔ We’ll have been living here for two years in July. / By midnight we will
have been flying for five hours.

❖ Future fulfillment of a present cause or evidence: the be going to form

OM
is used to show the future culmination of a present cause. Used in
predictions where there is evidence in the present time that
something will happen in the near future.

➔ She is going to have another baby. / Look at that tree! It’s going go fall
down.

.C STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS

DD
Stative verbs are not easily compatible with the use of the progressive. They
describe states and do not describe actions. Though, the progressive can
occur with stative verbs to achieve certain e ects, turning states into
events.
LA

verbs of existing or being be exist consist hold exist contain

FI

verbs of the senses taste smell hear feel see

non conclusive verbs (feelings, know realize understand believe

mental perceptions, states of prefer doubt remember expect


mind) think love feel like appreciate

forget imagine intend hate mind
care mean want dislike suppose
adore

verbs showing possession have possess own belong lack

include

verbs of appearance appear resemble seem

showing other existing states concern cost depend weigh

deserve fit

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 ❖ Dynamic uses with stative verbs:

➢ Be: is being / referring to behavior, expressing a temporary situation.

It is used with few adjectives, some of the most frequent are: foolish,
nice, kind, lazy, patient, rude, silly, careful, polite, impolite.

Robert is a fool → Robert is being a fool

➢ Verbs of the senses:

OM
VOLUNTARY INVOLUNTARY

I’m listening to you I hear you

I’m looking at you I see you

.C
I’m smelling this flower
I’m tasting this sauce
I’m feeling this cushion
I smell gas
I taste too much pepper in it
I feel a pin in it somewhere
DD
➢ Non conclusive verbs: these activities cannot be started or stopped at
will. However, some of them can also be used as progressive verbs
LA

with a di erence in meaning, for example:

I believe she’s a good teacher (stative) → She is always believing his lies! (present
progressive, showing annoyance)
FI

She considers him a good husband (stative, she finds him..) → I’m considering the
idea of traveling to Europe next year (I’m studying the idea of…)


I don’t mind (I don’t care) → She is minding the bay (taking care)

What does it mean? (what is the meaning of…) → She is meaning to get a new job
(intending to)

➢ Verbs showing possession:

They have a cottage in the mountain → “own”

They are having lunch → “eat”
They are having a good time → “experiences, undergo”

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 ➢ Verbs of appearance

She appears to be asleep → “she seems…”

She is appearing on the stage → “she is acting”

➢ Other existing verbs:

This box weighs a lot → “Its weight is…”

The grocer is weighing the fruit → “He is finding the weight of..”

OM
The dress fits you perfectly → the right size
We are fitting a new carpet in the o ce → laying

.C CLAUSE ELEMENTS
DD
A clause is a key structural unit of grammar, consisting of a verb phrase plus
other elements: subjects, objects (direct or indirect), predicatives (subject or
object complements) and adverbials.

The Subject: denotes the most important participant in the action or state
LA

denoted by the verb. A number of criteria can be used do define the subject:

➢ The subject is realized by the noun phrase

➢ It occurs with all types of verbs
FI

➢ It precedes the verb phrase

➢ Can be moved after the verb, if preceded by the preposition “by”

Forms of the subject:



1. Common noun: Birds fly. / Fruit makes a good dessert.

2. Nominal adjectives: The redired su ered a lot. / The elderly should be
respected by the young.
3. Proper noun: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
4. Temporal: July is a very cold month in this country.
5. Independent genitive: Martin´s was a clear example
6. Personal pronouns: You should see a doctor.
7. Indefinite pronoun: Nobody liked the film.
8. Demonstrative pronoun: This is my last word. / Those are my shoes.

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 9. Possessive pronoun: My daughter studies medicine.
10. Interrogative pronoun: Who is talking at the back?
11. Pronominal group: One of the students left the classroom.
12. Infinitive phrase: To see s to believe.
13. Gerundial phrase: Swimming is a good exercise.
14. Noun phrase: The man in blue has been following me since I left the
o ce.

Grammatical subjects:

OM
1. Existential/notional THERE (referential) : here, “there” fills the
subject position and does not refer to anything previously mentioned.
This form is often used to introduce new information.

.C
There is a unicorn in the garden. (a unicorn is in the garden)
There were some noisy children outside. (some noisy children were
outside)
DD
2. Introductory or anticipatory IT: this form is used when we want or
need to anticipate the subject, generally when the subject is long. “It”
has no meaning and merely performs a grammatical function. This
construction has two subjects: the anticipatory/introductory it and
LA

the postponed/real it.

It’s lovely not to worry about the weather.

It’s great eating in a di erent restaurant every night.
FI

It’s a miracle that we are alive.

3. Dummy/non-referential subject: “it” carries no information, it

appears to have no clearly definable antecedent. We can use “it” to


refer to:

➢ Weather/atmospheric conditions:

It’s too windy in Chicago.

It 's going to rain.
At that moment, it was getting dark.

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 ➢ Environment:
It’s too filthy there.
It was too cold in my room.

➢ Time:
It 's 11 o’clock.
It’s Tuesday 13th, today.

➢ Distance:

OM
It seems far from here to the mountains.
How far is it to Oxford?

Other clause elements:

.C
❖ The verb phrase: is the central element of the clause because it
expresses the action/state to which the other elements relate.
❖ The object: is a noun phrase, usually following the verb and it only
DD
occurs with transitive verbs.
❖ The predicative: can be an adjectival phrase or a noun phrase.
❖ Adverbials: some are obligatory when a verb needs them to complete
their meaning, usually to express place or direction although they can
also express time or manner meanings. They can also be optional, and
LA

they can be added to clauses with any type of verb.

BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS

FI

1.
SUBJECT + INTRANSITIVE VERB + OPTIONAL ADVERBIAL
S + Vi + Aopt


A verb is transitive when the action denoted by the action does not pass over
from the subject to anything else. The subject is the only one to su er from
the action. It does not take any objects.

All mortals die

S Vi

Andrea is studying in her bedroom right now.

S Vi Aopt Aopt

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Edward has phoned three times this morning.
S Vi Aopt Aopt

2.

SUBJECT + MONOTRANSITIVE VERB + DIRECT OBJECT

S + VMT + Od

If the main verb requires a direct object to complete the sentence, it is a

OM
transitive verb. The subject performs an action that a ects some person or
thing. A verb is called monotransitive when it takes only one object.

Paul bought a new car last month.

S VMT OD Aopt

.C
My mother is watering the plants in the garden.
S VMT OD Aopt
DD
I painted the door last week.
S VMT OD Aopt
LA

➔ The cognate object: allow us to make a verb that is usually

intransitive, transitive.

Steve smiled his thin, cruel smile.

FI

I once dreamed a very nice dream.

I can smell an appealing smell.

3.


SUBJECT + DITRANSITIVE VERB + DIRECT OBJECT + INDIRECT

OBJECT
S + VDT + OD + ID
S + VDT + OI + OD

A verb is ditransitive when it takes both a direct and indirect object. The
indirect object is a second object used with a transitive verb to indicate
“who” or “what” benefits from an action, or gets something as a result of
it.

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I gave him a present.
S VDT OI OD

I asked Bob a di cult question.

S VDT OI OD

My mother knitted a pretty pullover for Susan.

S VDT OD OI

OM
He announced his engagement to his parents.
S VDT OD OI

He designed a house for his friend.

S VDT OD OI

4.

.C
DD
SUBJECT + LINKING VERB + SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
S + Vl + Cs

If a verb requires a subject complement to complete the sentence, the verb is

LA

a linking verb. The subject complement completes the prediction by

specifying an attribute, its identity, or a circumstance inherent to the
predication. It links the subject and the complement to a clause. ONLY: be,
seem, become, look, stay, keep, remain, get, make, taste, smell.
FI

The plants seem dead.

S Vl Cs


My town gets very crowded in the summer.

S Vl CS Aopt

My dreams came true.

S Vl Cs

She will make a good mother.

S Vl Cs

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 5.
SUBJECT + COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERB + DIRECT OBJECT +
OBJECT COMPLEMENT
S + VCT + OD + Co

A complex transitive verb is a transitive verb that not only takes a direct
object but also an object complement that completes the predication by
giving some information about the object. An object complement provides
information about the object (what it is, called or thought to be)

OM
➔ Verbs expressing “causing to remain in a certain state” like leave,
hold, and keep.

She left me speechless.

S VCT Od Co

.C
➔ Verbs expressing “mental processes” such as believe, consider, think,
DD
find, imagine, judge, presume.

I find this book boring.

S VCT Od Co
LA

➔ Verbs expressing “a ection processes” such as want, like and prefer.

We want our car blue.

S VCT Od Co
FI

➔ Verbs of declaring which confer an o cial status like name, appoint,

declare, call, proclaim, report, certify.


We declared the man innocent.

S VCT Od Co

4.

SUBJECT + COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERB + DIRECT OBJECT +

OBLIGATORY ADVERBIAL
S + VCT + Od + Aobl

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There are a number of verbs such as keep, put, place, set, stick that need an
obligatory adverbial to complete their sense.

I stuck the wallet in the drawer.

S VCT OD Aobl

7.
SUBJECT + INTRANSITIVE VERB + OBLIGATORY ADVERBIAL

OM
S+ Vi + Aobl

There are a number of intransitive verbs that express movement or position

such as go, creep, lead, hang, live, stand which often require an obligatory
adverbial that names the direction or destination of the action.

S Vi .C
Daniel comes from a rich family.
Aobl
DD
My sister lives in New York.
S Vi Aobl
LA

The children kept home all day.

S Vi Aobl

Sarah stayed at the school yesterday.

FI

S Vi Aobl Aobl

THE NOUN PHRASE



Unit with structure that can range from very simple to very complex. It
can have di erent functions.

He slunk away.
The man slunk away.
The old man slunk away.
The old man in brown that was sitting at the front slunk away.
The old man in brown that was sitting at the front when I was teaching
slunk away.

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They are made up of obligatory and optional elements. The obligatory
element is the HEAD (typically a noun but it can also be a noun equivalent);
pronouns are usually noun equivalents that can be the head of the NP. NPs
can also have a determinative element.

Classification of nouns:

➢ Countable nouns: refer to individual people or things. They have both

singular and plural nouns. These nouns are preceded by “a/an”. When

OM
they are singular they are usually used with a determiner such as a,
an, each, his, or with a possessive such as John’s.

Cases where a singular countable noun is used without a determiner:

.C
➔ After nouns such as kind, sort or type followed by the preposition of:
There isn't any money to undertake this type of project.
➔ After noun groups indicating size or distance and the preposition of:
DD
She had two feet of intestine removed.
➔ After the noun change and the preposition in or of: His change in mood
was a consequence of several actions.
➔ After the nouns role and job followed by the preposition of/as: In his
role as judge, he tried to keep order at all times.
LA

➔ After the noun choice followed by the preposition of: He had been lucky
in his choice of career.
➔ When referring to a unique job: Why does he want to be president?
➔ In pairs and lists: Therapist and patient need to work together.
FI

Uncountable nouns: there are two types; mass nouns (cannot be easily
counted/divided) and abstract nouns (general concepts, feelings, ideas).
They are usually used without a determiner although, in some cases, they


can be preceded by one such as some, any, all, her or a possessive. Also, the
definite article the or demonstratives this/that when referring to a specific
thing.

Mass nouns:

category nouns example sentence

liquids water, wine, tea I’d like some tea

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 food flour, butter, bread I need little flour to
make a cake.

natural elements rain, snow, heat We haven’t had much

rain or snow this year.

material wood, paper, gold They use a lot of wood

for construction.

games/sports mumps, measles, She su ers from

arthritis, flu arthritis.

OM
languages French, German, She speaks French.
Italian

miscellaneous luggage, money, We should carry better

vocabulary, equipment.

.C equipment, furniture,
blood, advice, news,
information
DD
subjects of study physics, medicine, Betty studies medicine.
history
LA

Abstract nouns:

Nouns Sentence examples

FI

happiness, anger, freedom, love, I wish you all the happiness in the
beauty, friendship, comfort, peace, world.
warmth, strength, intelligence, These boots provide warmth and
faith comfort in the coldest


temperatures.

Some other abstract and mass nouns: rubbish, advice, dirt, information,
machinery, sunlight, anger, education, knowledge, money, moonlight,
length, fun, furniture, transport, underwear, harm, china, luck, poetry,
permission, photography,progress, weather, violence, thunder, leisure.

Nouns with dual class membership:

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 A. Some nouns are uncountable when we talk about the abstract concept,
but they are countable when we talk about one specific individual
instance of state, quality or concept.

uncountable countable
light a light
truth a truth
hair a hair
education an education

OM
crime a crime
sound a sound
beauty a beauty
iron an iron
understanding an understanding

.C strength strengths

B. Some uncountable nouns become countable when we a specific thing

DD
that has a particular meaning.

wood, paper, iron, cloth, rock

C. Many substances, drinks and food stu s are uncountable when they
LA

are thought of as a mass, but can be countable when they refer to a

unit, a piece of speciment or a particular variety.
FI

Uncountable Countable
wine an excellent wine
cheese a strong cheese
fruit a very sweet fruit


melon a water melon

D. Some mass nouns cannot be used to refer to a single item, so a

di erent word must be used.

clothing a garment
laughter a laugh
luggage a case, a bag
poetry a poem

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 E. Nouns for animals are countable nouns; nouns for meat are mass
nouns.

a cow/beef a deer/venison
a pig/pork a sheep/mutton

FORMATION OF NOUNS

Simple nouns:

OM
1. Nouns derived from verbs: arrive/arrival - attend/attendance -
educate/education - dedicate/dedication - depart/departure -
agree/agreement - marry/marriage - end/ending - bake/bakery -
drive/driver - beg/begging - act/actor - type/typist -

.C
employ/employee
2. Nouns derived from adjectives: happy/happiness - polite/politeness
- private/privacy - active/activity - ideal/idealism - dead/death -
DD
brave/bravery - active/activist
3. Personal nouns derived from another noun: vegetable/vegetarian -
address/addressee - farm/farmer - terror/terrorist - game/gamer
4. Abstract nouns derived from concrete nouns: brother/brotherhood -
censor/censorship - slave/slavery
LA

Compound nouns

They are made up of two or more words, they form a single noun.
FI

➔ A single word: playboy, policeman, bedroom, rainfall, downstairs,

drawback, haircut, motorcycle, software, input, website, shopkeeper,
blackberry, doorbell, football


➔ Separate words: flower pot, computer programme, washing machine,

blood bank, black list, lemon pie, swimming pool, printer cartridge,
car park, small talk
➔ A word with hyphen: dining-table, take-o , passer-by,
dry-cleaning, fire-fighter, grown-up, hanger-on, well-being

Compound nouns with more than two nouns: one-parent family,

black-seat driver, top-class model, one-way tra c, teaching-learning
process, old age pension, happy-go-lucky, self-confessed liar,
well-balanced diet, five-star hotel, soft-boiled eggs, nuclear-free zone,

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school-leaving age, red-blood cell, good luck charm, ice-cream cone,
mother-in-law

Grammatical gender: masculine, feminine, neuter and common. Nouns in

English have natural gender, meaning that natural sex distinction
determines English gender distinction. Therefore, we distinguish:

1. Masculine gender: for nouns referring to male beings (replaced by

“he”) boy, man, uncle

OM
2. Feminine gender: for nouns referring to female beings (replaced by
“her”) girl, woman, aunt
3. Neuter gender: for nouns referring to inanimate beings (replaced by
“it”) book, house, pencil, chair
4. Common or dual grammatical gender: they refer to either male or

.C
female beings: doctor, teacher, student, cousin, child, friend

➢ In some cases, the feminine is formed by adding “ess” to the

DD
masculine:
host/hostess waiter/waitress actor/actress prince/princess god/goddess
manager/manageress

➢ In some cases, the feminine is formed by adding “rix” to the

LA

masculine:
aviator/aviatrix administrator/administratrix legislator/legislatirx
executor/executrix
FI

➢ In two cases, the masculine derives from the feminine:

widow/widower bride/bridegroom

➢ In other cases, the gender is distinguished by di erent words:



boy/girl son/daughter bull/cow man/woman uncle/aunt cock/hen

man/woman king/queen nephew/niece gender/goose father/mother
lord/lady stallion/mare brother/sister wizard/witch gentleman/lady
ram/ewe lad/lass usher/usherette

➢ In words of common gender, the distinction may be shown by a

compound in which one element denotes sex:
manservant/maidservant boyfriend/girlfriend landlord/landlady

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Partitive constructions: both countable and uncountable nouns can enter
partitive constructions, denoting a part of a whole. Partitives can be used
with mass or count nouns:

a loaf of bread (mass)

a box of matches (count)

➔ They are useful when we refer to specific pieces of mass nouns

(uncountable substance)

OM
a piece/pieces/a bit/bits: chalk, cloth, info, meat, plastic, paper

➔ They also allow us to make noncount nouns countable:

.C
a bar/a slab of chocolate a cake of soap a cube of ice a cloud of/a speck of
dust a lump of sugar a flash/bolt of lighting a sheet paper a block of wood
DD
(estudiar del libro los ejemplos)

Proper nouns: some important categories of proper nouns are:

➢ Personal names: William; Sandra, Paul, etc

LA

➢ Names of animals: Fido, Polly, Felix

➢ Geographical names: the Pacific, the Andes, London University
➢ Public buildings and institutions: St Paul's Cathedral, The Ei el
Tower
FI

➢ Holidays, festivals of the years: Christmas, Independence Day,

Carnival
➢ Months and days of the week: Tuesday, Saturday, July
Names of people in fiction: Aladdin, Robin Hood, Santa Claus


➢
➢ Titles: The Times, The Buenos Aires Herald, Sense and Sensibility
➢ Languages: Japanese, French, Russian
➢ Beliefs and their followers: Buddhism, Christians, Judaism
➢ Business companies and other organizations: Learners Publishing,
Longman, Oxford University Press, Real Madrid

Proper nouns are not used with determiners (expect. some cases like the
Ei el Tower, the United States)

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Collective Nouns: they refer to groups of single entities (people, animals,
objects) and they behave like ordinary countable nouns, they vary in
number and definiteness.

➢ Specific collective nouns: committee, crew, family

➢ Generic collective nouns: the aristocracy, the clergy, the public
➢ Unique collective nouns: the Arab League, Parliament, the Vatican,
the Commons, the Olympic games, the BBC

OM
Of-collectives: one special class of collective nouns often comes before an
of- phrase describing the members of a group:

a set of characteristics - a herd of cows - a pack of lies - a swarm of bees - a

crowd of fans - a bunch of roses - a flock of sheep - a troupe of actors - a

.C
horde of tourists - a gang of thieves - a family of mice - a set of dishes - a
row of houses - a heap of stones - a flight of steps
DD
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL

➔ Most nouns form their plural by adding “s” to the base: chair/chairs,
table/tables, cup/cups, book/books, room/rooms
➔ Nouns ending in -s, -ss, -ch, -x, -z add “es”, forming another
LA

syllable: bus/buses, class/classes

➔ Nouns ending in ch pronounced “k” add only “s”:
stomach/stomachs, epoch/epochs
➔ Nouns ending in a vowel + -y take -s in the plural: toy/toys, key/keys,
FI

boy/boys, monkey/monkeys
➔ Noun ending in a consonant + y drop the y and take -ies in the plural:
baby/babies, party/parties, cherry/cherries, allergy/allergies (we only
add “s” in proper nouns, ie “Kennedys”


➔ Nouns ending in o take -es to form the plural form: tomato/tomatoes,

hero/heroes, potato/potatoes, echo/echoes
➔ Some nouns (abbreviations, musical items or italian words) take only
-s to form the plural: kilo/kilos, memo/memos, photo/photos,
piano/pianos, concerto/concertos, soprano/sopranos,
virtuoso/virtuosos, libretto/librettos, tempo/tempos
➔ Nouns ending in f, or fe add -s to form the plural: roof/roofs,
chief/chiefs, cli /cli s, gira e/gira es, sheri /sheri s, cu /cu s,
tari /tari s, ga e/ga es

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(there is a group of nouns ending in f that change it into “-ves” to form the
plural) calf/calves, self/selves, half/halves, shelf/shelves, knife/knives,
thief/thieves, life/lifes, wife/wives, loaf/loaves, wolf/wolves, leaf/leaves,
elf/elves

➔ Some nouns are irregular, forming their plural by changing the

middle vowels: man/men, ox/oxen, woman/women, louse/lice,
child/children, goose/geese, tooth/teeth, foot/feet, mouse/mice
➔ Zero plurals: these nouns do not change in the plural: series, trout,

OM
species, spacecraft, deer, salmon, reindeer, carp, aircraft, hovercraft,
o spring, elk
➔ Some nouns look singular but they are actually plural: cattle, police,
people, clergy
➔ Some look plural but they are actually singular: economics, news,

.C
ethics, mumps, darts, bends, measles, hives, shingles, hiccups, AIDS,
bowls, athletics
➔ A number of nouns only occur with plural su x and are known as the
DD
pluralia tantum (followed by plural verb form): belongings, proceeds,
condolences, remembrances, pants, shorts, surroundings, trousers,
glasses, stairs, binoculars, scales, riches, goods, lodgings, premises,
compasses, valuables, scissors, pajamas, clothes, earnings,
congratulations, looks, outskirts, ashes, barracks, shears, oats,
LA

customs, archives, minutes, wages, annals, munitions, bellows,

tights, tweezers, greens, troops, auspices, particulars, headphones,
brains, bifocals, aerobatics, abdominals, alms
➔ Foreign plurals: alumna/alumnae, alumnus/alumni, axis/axes,
FI

bacillus/bacilli, bacterium/bacteria, erratum/errata, larva/larvae,

medium/media, stratum/strata, datum/data, vértebra/vertebrae,
corpus/corpora, nucleus/nuclei, radius/radii
➔ Words of Greek origin: analysis/analyses, basis/bases, crisis/crises,


criterion/criteria, hypothesis/hypotheses, oasis/oases,

parenthesis/parentheses, phenomenon/phenomena,
synopsis/synopses, thesis/theses
➔ Some foreign words that have both foreign plural form and English
form: appendix/appendixes/appendices,
aquarium/aquaria/aquariums, cactus/cacti/cactuses,
fungus/fungi/funguses, syllabus/syllabi/syllabuses,
curriculum/curricula/curriculums, focus/foci/focuses,
formula/formulae, maximum/maxima/maximums,
memorandum/memoranda/memorandums,

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 minimum/minima/minimums, retina/retinae/retinas,
symposium/symposia/symposiums
➔ Some foreign words have become naturalized in English and always
take the English plural: album/albums, arena/arenas,
asylum/asylums, bonus/bonuses, campus/campuses,
chorus/choruses, circus/circuses, demon/demons, era/eras,
panacea/panaceas, peninsula/peninsulas, solo/solos, sonata/sonatas,
stadium/stadiums, villa/villas
➔ Nouns from French that end in eau and eaux usually take “s” in

OM
English plural: bureaux/bureaus, plateau/plateaus, tableau/tableaus

Plural of proper nouns: when proper nouns are re-classified as common

nouns, they may take the articles and form the plural:

.C
They consider themselves the Shakespeares.
There are two Martins in this class.
The Browns are not coming tonight.
DD
Plural of Compound Nouns: they can form the plural in di erent ways:

1. When compound nouns are written as one words, their plural is

formed in the regular way: railways, bookcases, toothbrushes
LA

When the compound noun is written as two words, or as words joined by a

hyphen, you add -s to the second word: information o ces - shopping
centers - book clubs - mobile phones
If the last element is a mass noun, it has no plural form: homework,
FI

moonlight

2. If the first element is a verb, the plural su x goes and the end: grown
ups - pullovers - breakdowns - forget-me-nots - sit-ins


3. Compound nouns consisting of a count noun + preposition or

prepositional phrase, take the plural on the first element (the noun):
sisters-in-law , lookers-on, passers-by, runners-up, hangers-on

4. In the compounds whose first element is “man” or “woman”, both

elements become plural: manservant/menservants, woman
doctor/women doctors, man student/men students, woman
student/women students

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 5. Compounds in “ful” tend to take the plural in the second element,
however, they may also take the first element:
mouthful/mouthfuls/mouthsful, spoonful/spoonfuls/spoonsful

The Genitive case

Genitive case is the grammatical case that marks a noun as modifying

another noun. It often marks a noun being the possessor of another noun;
however, it can also indicate various other relationships. The apostrophe s

OM
(‘s) is also called inflected genitive (pre-modifying genitive) and the -of
construction is also called periphrastic genitive (post-modifying genitive)

Di erent ways of making the possessive form of nouns:

.C
1. We add ‘s to singular nouns. This is called inflected genitive.

The girl 's toy. / Sam 's bedroom. / Kate’s poems

DD
2. With some proper names ending in “s”, we generally add only the
apostrophe, however the apostrophe ‘s can algo be used.

Hercules’ labors. / Hercules’s labor. Moses’ laws./Moses 's laws.

LA

3. For plural nouns ending in “s” we add apostrophe only.

The boys’ house. / The soldiers’ horses. / The babies’ toys

FI

4. For plural nouns not ending in “s” we add ‘s.

the men’s room / the women’s Society / the children’s house



5. The apostrophe “s” forms an additional syllable when the noun ends
in a sound in which the ‘s cannot be added in the same syllable (only
proper and monosyllabic words)

fox’s / horse’s / james’s / judge’s / witch’s

6. When two or more nouns possess the same object, we add ‘s to the
last noun. This is called the group genitive.
Celine and Susan’s sister went out last night.

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 7. When two or more nouns possess an object of the same kind, we add
‘s to each. This is called the coordinated genitive.

John’s and Arthur’s shoes need polishing. / Stella’s and Paul’s cars are band
new.

8. With compounds and names consisting of several words, the last

word takes the ‘s.

OM
My brother-in-law’s car. / Henry the Eighth's wives. / The Prince of
Whale’s helicopter.

Di erent uses and meaning of the Genitive Case:

.C
1. The genitive form with apostrophe ‘s is used with personal nouns and
personal indefinite pronouns to indicate possession, as in:
DD
my father’s name / John’s house / the girl’s toy / somebody’s opinion

2. The genitive case can be used as an adjective to qualify or describe a

noun. It denotes “connected with”
LA

a master’s degree / a boy’s college / women's clothes

3. The apostrophe form is also used in expressions of time, distance,

weight, value, volume, and other measurements.
FI

weight: a pound’s weight of sugar

time: a week’s holiday - a year’s absence - yesterday’s news
value: ten dollar’s worth of steak


volume: a twenty liter’s tank

However! there’s also the tendency of putting “a” before such expressions
and use them as adjectives: a three day job - a twenty minute walk (these
constructions are singular in form and take a singular verb)

4. The apostrophe form is used with dignified/unique objects, as in:

the sun’s rays - the moon’s light - Nature’s children - heaven’s door
the earth’s surface

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 5. The genitive with apostrophe is also used with some geographical or
institutional names:

Ireland’s beauty - The National Bank’s employees - Virginia’s senators

Oxford University’s history - London’s tra c - the world’s problems

6. The genitive is frequently used elliptically (without a headword) when

referring to business, buildings, etc. This is the independent genitive.

OM
We’ve been to St Paul’s. - I’ll be at my sister’s this afternoon - She bought it
at Hartidge’s - She was taken to St Mary’s

7. We also use the possessive ‘s in some expressions of time:

.C
yesterday’s paper - last week’s concert - next year’s plans - a fortnight’s
holidays - a moment’s rest
DD
8. Collective nouns may take the inflected genitive:

the committee’s decision - Parliament's power -

9. English has a few set expressions consisting of apostrophe form +

LA

noun, in which the genitive form has become a fixed idiom:

to have something at one finger’s end - to be a stone’s throw away - to be at

death’s door - to keep someone at arm’s length - for goodness’ sake - in my
FI

mind’s eye - in/out of harm’s way - for old time’s sake

10. If we want to describe something unusual and di erent about a

person, we can use the -of- form to indicate something special:


Pavarotti has the voice of an angel - Stephanie has the hands of an angel

11. The double genitive: also called double possessive, oblique genitive, and
post genitive. It’s a phrase in which possession is indicated by the
preposition of followed by the possessive form of a noun or pronoun.
(inflected genitive with of construction)

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He is a friend of John’s. - She is a cousin of my father’s. - She is a sister of
my mother’s - This is a play of Shakespeare’s. - This is an old dress of my
mother’s

➔ The double genitive is common in English when we want to

emphasize the person who possesses rather than the thing they
possess.
It was one of Daniel’s habits to get up early. - It was one of my father’s
favorite expressions.

OM
➔ The double genitive is also used to show contempt, arrogance, or a
desire to ridicule on the part of the speaker.
These shoes of Henry’s - That silly old hat of Mary’s - Those dirty hands of
yours

.C
➔ When we want to say that someone owns more than one thing:
Robin was reading a novel of Peter’s.
DD
12. The apostrophe form is not normally used with inanimate beings,
instead, we use the -of- construction. This is called the periphrastic
genitive.
LA

the leg of the chair - the bank of the river - the top of the hill - the top floor
of the building - the base of the statue

13. The apostrophe form is not used with a noun which is post modified
FI

by a phrase or a relative clause.

The son of the man who rents our apartment is a doctor. - The son of the
man visiting us tonight is a doctor.


SUBJECT AND VERB CONCORD

1. In grammatical concord, the general rule is that:

a. Singular subjects take singular verbs:

Alice lives in London. / The cat is drinking the milk.

b. Plural subjects take plural verbs:

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They live in france. / The children are outside.

2. The number of the subject is not changed by a phrase following ot

modifying the head of the subject:

The performance was very funny. - The performance of the three clowns
was very funny.

3. Compound indefinite pronouns take a singular verb when they are

OM
working as head of the subject:

Everybody was paying attention. / Nobody was paying attention.

4. “Either”, “neither” and “none” can take both a plural or a singular verb:

.C
Neither is/are to blame. - None of us is/are speaking. - Either of the books is
useful (formal English) - Either of the books are useful (in a conversation)
DD
5. The following words take plural: several, few, both, many:

Several members are absent today. - Both of your mistakes were silly. -
Many of them were surprised at the final score.
LA

6. The words some, any, all, enough and most depend on the meaning of the
sentence (can be both.)
FI

Some of the money was missing. / Some of the coins were missing.

All the fruit looks ripe. / All those apples look ripe.


Most of the book was interesting. / Most of the books were interesting.

7. A collective noun takes a plural verb when the speaker is thinking of each
individual member of the group; and it takes a singular verb when the
speaker is thinking of the group as a unit.

The crowd were fighting for their lives. / The crowd was amazing last night.

The family have agreed among themselves. / The family is the basic unit of
our family.

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 ➔ When a collective has a singular word such as a, an, this, that in front
of it, a singular verb is required.

An orchestra needs a good conductor. / That class has the best teacher.

➔ When the collective noun follows a word such as each, every, either or
neither, the verb is always singular.

Each class was given a di erent task to do. / Neither army is prepared to

OM
surrender. / Every family has an interesting story to tell.

8. The title of a book, a film or the name or an organization or country, even

when plural in form, takes a singular noun:

.C
Gulliver's Travel is a satire. / Star Wars is my favorite film . / The United
States remains the leader of the Western world.
DD
9. There are some words (abstract or mass nouns) that are used only in the
singular with a singular verb: advice, health, progress, information,
luggage, etc.

Your advice has been quite useful. / There hasn’t been much progress in this
LA

city since I was a child. / The information she gave me is confidential.

10. Some nouns singular in form are only used in the plural sense with the
verb in the plural form: police, cattle, clergy.
FI

The police are investigating this case. / The cattle are grazing in the field. /
Some people are trying to move to the countryside nowadays. / The clergy
have decided to talk to the president.


11. Nouns ending in -ics:

➔ Some nouns plural in form are used only in singular sense with the
verb in the singular sense: news - aeronautics - acoustics - billiards

The news about the accident has shocked her. - Billiards is played by most
of my friends.

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 ➔ The names of many sciences and diseases ending in “ics” take
singular verbs: mathematics, phonetics, physics, politics, economics,
measles, mumps, arthritis.

Mathematics was my favorite subject when I was in High School. - Measles

is a contagious disease.

However, some of them have other meanings that are used with plural
verbs. For example:

OM
● The noun “economics” is used with a plural verb when it means
“economic or financial aspects” : The economics of this operation have
to be taken into consideration.
● The noun “politics” is used with a plural verb when it refers to

.C
somebody’s political beliefs: Her politics are less extreme than those of
her husband.
● The noun “gymnastics” is used with a plural verb in phrases such as
DD
“mental gymnastics”: The mental gymnastics required to solve this
problem are exhausting.
● The noun “ethics” is used with a plural verb when it means “morals”
or “moral principles that guide behavior”: The ethics of the decision
were called into questions.
LA

12. In the case of correlatives “either… or”, “neither… or” and “not only…
but also”, we apply the rule of proximity, the verb agrees with the head
noun after or, nor, or but also: Either Mary or I am going to do it. / Neither
FI

she nor you are ill. / Not only my sons but also my husband is tired.

13. If the head of the subject is singular and it is followed by a modifier with
“along with…”, “accompanied by…”, “together with”, “including”, “in


addition to”, “as well as” the verb remains singular (bc the nouns that
follow them do not form part of the subject):

Mary, accompanied by her mother on the piano, was very well received. - Jim, as
well as his children, works in a factory.

14. When two subjects are connected by “both… and”, we use a plural verb:

Both Sarah and Boris were thought dead.

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15. When the verb refers to the same object, it remains singular:

The author and lecturer is arriving tonight. / His father and friend usually
gives him great advice.

16. Although the phrases “a number of…” and “the number of…” are
followed by plural nouns, they have di erent rules of agreement:

● A number of students are complaining about the results of the exam.

OM
● The number of jobless people has increased in the last two months.

When “a number” is followed by us or them, or it stands alone with this

meaning, it is followed by a plural verb:

.C
A number of us/them are going to the cinema today. - The injured
passengers were taken to the hospital, and a number of them were kept
overnight.
DD
17. When an “of phrase” follows a percentage or fraction, the verb agrees
with the noun closest to the verb.

Twenty percent is working hard.

LA

Twenty percent of the students are working hard.

18. Plural units words of distance, time and money are followed by a
singular verb:
FI

Four hundred miles is too far to go on foot.

Two weeks goes fast when you are on holiday.
Twenty dollars is a good price for this picture.


On the other hand, words for numbers that are singular in form are used
with a plural verb:

Forty people were killed and more than a hundred were injured.
There are many species, but only about a dozen are dangerous.

19. When the subject of a sentence is a clause, the verb goes in the singular
even if the nouns referred to are plural:

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What we need is better employees. / That many people want a change is
obvious.

20. When the infinitive and gerund are heads of the subject, the verb goes in
the singular:

To succeed in all my exams is my objective. / Reading novels is my favorite

pastime.

OM
But! : To succeed in all my exams and become a lawyer are my main
objectives.

21. Compound nouns joined by -and- are followed by singular verbs:

.C
Peaches and cream is my favorite dessert. / Fish and chips costs $2. / Rock
and Roll was popular in the 1950’s.
DD
22.

A. The case of “one of…” and “not one of” + followed by a plural noun
are always followed by a singular verb:
LA

One of the proposals in this memo is absolutely insane.

Not one of his friends has o ered help during the crisis.

B. The phrase “one or two” means “a few” and thus it is used with a
FI

plural verb:

One or two of the books are slightly damaged.



C. The phrase “one or more” is usually followed by a plural verb agrees

with the part that is closest to it:

If one or more of the books are damaged, the whole consignment will be
returned.

However! if a singular noun comes between -one- and -or-, a singular verb
is the best option:

If one person or more votes against the proposal, it’ll be rejected.

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 D. After any of the expressions “one in three, four, etc” the verb can go
in the singular or plural:

One in three of the women works/work full time.

23. When nouns of nationality are preceded by the definite article “the”, the
words refer to the people who speak the language, so a plural verb follows:

The Vietnamese are no longer living in a divided nation.

OM
24. Certain adjectives preceded by “the” can be used as nouns that refer to
groups of people, so a plural verb follows:

The rich are getting richer and the poor have been forgotten.

.C
25. Some proper nouns standing for geographical names ending in -s take a
singular verb:
DD
The Philippines consists of more than 7.000 islands.

26. “Every” and “each” are always followed by singular nouns, even if there
are two or more nouns connected by “and”
LA

Every man, woman, and child needs love.

27. The case of the phrases “the majority of” and “the minority of” :
FI

● “the majority of” is followed by a plural noun and is used with a plural
verb: The majority of the students are from Spain.
● The word “majority” alone is used with a plural verb if it refers to a


previously mentioned plural noun: There were more than twenty

candidates, and the majority were under thirty.
● If treated as a collective noun, the word “majority” follows the rule
for collective nouns: The vociferous majority has/have the power to
change the law.
● Similar rules apply for the word “minority”

28. There are some cases in which a singular subject has a plural
complement or vice versa:
Our main problem is noisy neighbors.

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Noisy neighbors are our main problem.

29. When two gerunds are linked by -and- the verb that follows is usually
plural:

Swimming and jogging are good forms of exercise.

However! if the two gerunds are used before a single noun, the verb is
singular:

OM
Cutting and styling hair takes great skill.

30. When the subject consists of two or more nouns or pronouns linked by
-or-, there are two rules of agreement:

.C
➔ If the verb comes before the subject (as in most questions) it agrees
with the first noun or pronoun:
DD
Was Mary, Tom or the twins here?

➔ If the verb comes after the subject, it agrees with the part of the
subject that follows “or”
LA

One large box or two small ones are required

DETERMINERS
FI

Determiners are words that are used before a noun.

Di erent meanings and uses of “some” and “any”:



1. “Some” can be used in questions when we are not seeking

information and the speaker usually expects a positive answer.

➔ Would you like some co ee?

2. “Some” can be used to mean “certain” but “not all”.

➔ Some people believe everything they read in the papers.

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 3. “Some” can also be used to refer to:

considerable quantity: I haven’t seen my father in some years.

approximately: There were some 2oo tourists.
extraordinary: That’s some computer you’ve bought.
an unknown: There must be some book which could help.

4. With abstract nouns “some” can be used to mean “an amount of” :

OM
➔ We’ve given some thought to your idea and find it quite interesting.

5. “Any” is normally used in negative statements containing “not”:

➔ We haven’t got any shirts in your size.

.C
(!) “No” can replace (any), it is slightly more formal and can be combined
with countable or uncountable nouns:
DD
➔ There is no letter for you.
➔ No department stores open on Sundays.

6. “Any” can be used in questions when we are not sure about the
LA

answer:

➔ Have you got any paper clips in the box?

FI

7. “Any” can be used in sentences containing a negative word other than

not such as “hardly”, “never”, “seldom”, or “without”, or when
there is any suggestion of doubt.


➔ There is hardly any petrol in the tank.

➔ We got to Paris without any problems.

8. “Any” is generally used with “at all” and “whatever” for special
emphasis:

➔ I haven’t got any idea at all/whatever about what hapenned yesterday.

9. “Any” can also occur in a rmative statements to mean the

minimum/maximum:

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 ➔ He’ll need any help he can get.

I don’t care which:

➔ Any book will be of help.

Di erent meanings and uses of “much” and “many”:

1. “Much” and “many” are generally used in questions:

OM
➔ Is there much milk in the carton?
➔ Have you had many inquiries?

2. “Many” and “much” can be modified by “far too”:

.C
➔ There are far too many accidents at this crossroads.
➔ You can get far too much information about the topic in this book.
DD
3. “Many” in combination with “a”: (two kinds of complex
determiners)

(i) many a + noun in the singular form + verb in the singular:

LA

➔ Many a student has been absent today.

➔ Many a problem has been resolved recently.
FI

(ii) a good/great many + noun in the plural form + verb in the plural:

➔ A good/great many complaints have been received.

➔ A good/great many suggestions were made.


Meanings and uses of “a lot of” - “lots of” - “plenty of” - “several”:

1. In the a rmative in everyday speech. Mainly as objects:

➔ I’ve got a lot of/lots of time.

➔ We’ve got plenty of time before the train leaves.

2. “A lot of” and “lots of” also occur in the negative when we are
emphasizing a negative or denying:

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 ➔ I haven’t got a lot of practice with chess.

3. “A lot of” cab be modified by quite/rather:

➔ Jimmy caused quite a lot of trouble at his new school.

➔ This new law has a ected rather a lot of people.

4. “Plenty of”, “a lot of” and “lots of” can be used with singular or
plural verbs depending on the noun that follows them:

OM
➔ There has been a lot of/lots of/plenty of gossip about her.
➔ There have been a lot of/lots of/plenty of questions about the issue.

(notice that a lot/lots of means “a great quantity or number” and plenty

.C
means “ more than enough”

5. “Several” can be used with plural countable nouns in the a rmative:

DD
We’ve already had several o ers for our flat.

It can also be combined with “dozen”, “hundred”, “thousand”, million”,

etc: Several hundred workers took part in the new project.
LA

6. “A lot of/lots of” are often considered informal, so in formal style, “a

great deal of” and “a great amount of” are usually used:
FI

➔ A great deal of/a great amount of money is spent on research.

➔ A large number of/a great number of our students are American.

Meanings and uses of “few” and “a few”:



1. “Few” and “a few” are used with plural countable nouns: “Few” is
negative suggesting “hardly any at all” and is quite formal. In
everyday speech, we prefer the expressions “not many”, “hardly
any”, “only a few”:

➔ The exam was extremely di cult, so few students passed it.

➔ There are only a few students present today.
➔ Mona has had hardly any opportunities to practice her English.

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 2. “A few” is positive suggesting “some”, “a small number” or even
“quite a lot”:

➔ The police would like to ask him a few questions.

➔ I don’t know how much he’s got but it must be a few millions.

3. “A few” can also be combined with other words:

➔ Give me just a few sweets, please. (not many)

OM
➔ There are only a few seats left.
➔ Give me quite a few pieces of paper, please. (quite a lot)
➔ Her few friends were present when her father died.

Meanings and uses of “little and “a little”:

.C
1. “Little” and “a little” are used with uncountable nouns, “little'' is
negative suggesting “hardly any at all ``,''little” is rather formal.
DD
➔ He has little hope of winning this race.

In everyday speech, we prefer “not much”, “hardly any”, “only a little”:

LA

➔ He hasn’t much hope of winning this race. / We climbed all day but
made only a little progress.

2. “Little” occurs in idiomatic negative phrases such as “little point”,

FI

“little sense”, “little use”:

➔ There is little point/little sense/little use in trying to mend it.



3. “A little” is positive suggesting “some”, “a small quantity”:

➔ I’d like a little time to think about it, please.

➔ There is only a little soup left.

“little” has a negative connotation, while “a little” has a positive one .

Meanings and uses of “enough”, “both”, “all”, “half”, “either” and

“neither”:

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 1. “Enough” means “adequate in quantity and number”. It can be used
with countable or uncountable nouns.

➔ Have we got enough good in the house for the next few days?
➔ Have we got enough books to read while we’re on a holiday?

2. “Both” refers to two people, things, etc. It is followed by plural nouns.

➔ Both books were quite expensive.

OM
3. “Half” + plural countable nouns refers to “more than two”; it is
always used with another determiner (the, my, this, etc)

➔ She broke half the eggs in the basket.

.C
➔ She spent half her salary on clothes.
➔ Half the books were useful.
DD
“Half a” can be followed by singular countable nouns as in: half a loaf - half
a minute

4. “All” refers to the whole number of people, things, etc.

LA

➔ All the books were quite expensive.

When we refer to a specific thing we must use “the” or “of the”; however,
“all” and “half” can be used directly in front of many proper nouns.
FI

➔ All London..
➔ Half New York…


5. The negatives of “both” and “all”:

➔ Not all the girls left early.

➔ All the girls didn’t leave early.

➢ These sentences are ambiguous, to avoid this, we should use “none

of” to make the negative of “all” and “neither of” to make the
negative of “both”:

➔ All the girls left early. (positive)

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 ➔ None of the girls left early. (negative)

➔ Both the girls left early. (positive)

➔ Neither of the girls left early. (negative)

6. The determiner “either” has two meanings:

➢ In positive sentences, it means “one of the other, it doesn’t matter

which”

OM
➔ You can use either eye to look through the telescope.

➢ It is used sometimes to mean “each or both of the two”:

.C
➔ Trees were planted along either side of the road.

7. “Neither” means not this one nor the other of two people or things
DD
involved:

➔ Neither side of the brain is dominant.

➔ Neither lawyer prepares his own beliefs.
LA

Meanings and uses of “every”, “each” and “both”:

1. “every” and “each” refer to particular people or things. They can

point to more than two; “each” is more individual and suggests one
FI

by one or separately:

➔ Each child in the school was questioned.

➔ Every child enjoys Christmas.


In some cases, they can be used interchangeably:

Every/each time I wash the car it rains.

“Each” cannot be modified; “every” can be modified by “almost”,

“nearly”, “practically”

➔ Almost every construction was destroyed by the earthquake.

➔ I answer practically every letter I receive.

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Each and every can be coordinated for emphatic e ect.

“Each” versus “both”:

“both” usually means “two items considered together”; “each” considers

two things separately.

➔ I spoke to both twins this morning.

➔ I spoke to each twin this morning.

OM
“All” versus “every”:

“all” refers to a collection of things seen as one or to an amount; “every” is

always used with a noun, emphasizing single units within a group.

.C
I’ve read all these books.
I’ve read every book in this library.
DD
Meanings and uses of “another” and “other(s)”:

1. “another” and “others” are indefinite and “the other/the others” are
definite; “others” and “the others” can work as pronouns.
LA

➔ I need another three driving lessons before my test.

➔ I need another few days before I can make up my mind.
FI

2. “the other” can be followed by a singular or plural noun and means

“the rest”:

➔ This seat is free, the other seats are taken.



3. “Another” is followed by a singular countable noun while “other” is

followed by a plural noun:

➔ There must be another way of solving the problem.

➔ There must be other ways of solving the problem.

4. “Others” neans “several more apart from the ones already

mentioned”, it can only be used a pronoun.
➔ Some students arrived in time, but others quite late.

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 5. “The other one(s)” meands “not this, but something else”.

➔ I don’t like this weather, but the other one.

6. “Every other” means “alternate”:

➔ I take piano lessons every other day.

➔ He visits me every other week.

OM
Meanings and uses of “what”, “which” and “whose”:

“What”, “which” and “whose” are interrogative determiners. They are

used with both singular and plural nouns. They are used for people and
things to be identified.

➔
➔
.C
What time suits you best?
Which hat matches my dress?
DD
➔ Whose work is the neatest?
➔ What colors are in the national flag?

“What” vs “which”
LA

While “what” asks for a choice from the whole range or class of things,
“which” asks for a choice to be made from a known group of things.

A. What time suits you best?

FI

B. I can make you an appointment for 9:15, 11:40 or 12:30. Which one
suits you best?

Meanings and uses of “this”, “that”, “these”, “those” and “such”:



this/these are used:

1. for people or things near us:

➔ This box is yours.
➔ Is this box yours? Can I take it?
➔ Those exams are quite good; the others are not so good.

2. For present/future situations:

➔ I’m going out with my friends this week.

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 ➔ This weekend I’m staying at home.

3. When the speaker is in or near the place they’re referring to:

➔ This house was built in 1857.
➔ I have worked in this o ce for about twenty years.

that/those are used:

1. For people/things not near us:

OM
➔ That boy over there is my son.
➔ Could you give me that book? I cannot reach it.

2. To refer to past situations:

➔ That day was the worst of his life.

.C
➔ I would like to forget that moment, don’t remind me.

Such might work as a demonstrative determiner or intensifier:

DD
➔ I never believed such tales. (demonstrative)
➔ He was punished for such behavior. (demonstrative)
➔ It’s such a nuisance! (intensifier)
➔ We had such fun. (intensifier)
LA

Such can also be combined with another determiner, as in:

➔ I don’t remember any such undertaking.

FI

➔ There is no such thing.

➔ Any more such rudeness and you’ll be fired.
➔ I couldn’t read another such encounter.
They deal in carpets, furnishing and other such commodities.


“Whole” means “complete”, “entire”; it goes between a determiner and a

singular countable noun.

➔ She spent the whole evening watching TV.

➔ They ate the whole pie.
➔ The whole performance was disappointing.

“whole” can also be used with “a/an”, as in:

➔ I spent a whole day looking for that book.

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The articles

Articles have two functions, first, to show the di erence between definite
and indefinite reference. The second, to indicate generic reference (to refer
to all members of a group in general)

The uses and meanings of the article “a/an”:

➢ A/an is used with singular countable nouns to talk about indefinite

OM
things: There is a girl waiting for you outside.
➢ A/an can be used before countable singular nouns to refer to a group
of people, animals or things; A cat is a domestic animal.
➢ A/an is never used before a noun in the plural when it represents a
group: Dogs are domestic animals.

.C
➢ A/an can be used meaning “per”: She goes to school twice a/per week.
➢ A/an can be used with:
money: a dollar
DD
fractions: a quarter
measures: a inch
weight: a kilo
whole numbers: a million
distance/speed: 60 km a hour
LA

illnesses: a cold, a toothache

frequency: a day/a month
➢ We use a/an to say what a person’s job is, was or will be: She is a
teacher. She will become a lawyer.
FI

The uses and meanings of the article “the”:

1. The definite article is used with a singular countable noun to talk



about something in general.

➔ The dog is a loveable pet.
➔ The rose is a beautiful flower.
➔ The chicken is an animal that lays eggs.

2. We use it before some nationality words when we mean “the people of

that country”.
➔ The English like going to the theater.
➔ The French are an ethnic group located in Western Europe.

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3. We usually use the definite article with the names of:

● rivers: the River Nile, the Thames, the Rhine

● oceans and seas: the Athlantic, the Black Sea, the Read Sea
● canals: the Suez Canal, the Gobi, the Panama Canal
● island groups: the West Indies, the Canaries, the Isle of Man
● most hotels, cinemas, restaurants, pubs: the Odeon Cinema, the Hard
Rock Café
● museums: the Louvre Museum, the Prado Museum

OM
● mountain ranges: the Alps, the Himalayas, the Rockies
● most geographical regions: the Far East, the Midwest
● important/famous buildings: the Ei el tower, the Taj Mahal

4. The definite article is used before:

●
●
.C
musical instruments, dances: the flute, the piano, the clarinet
titles: the President, the Princess of Wales, the Queen
DD
● adjectives used as plural nouns: the rich, the poor, the elderly
● historical references, events: the French Revolution, the First World
War
● the words only, last, first when they are used as determiner, pronoun
or adjective: he was the first to come, you will be the last to come in.
LA

● nouns which are unique: the sun, the world, the North Pole, the
international market, the earth, the devil.
FI

5. We usually use the definite article with nouns before a phrase

beginning with -of- :

➔ Could you tell me the meaning of this word?



6. The definite article is used to show, with the comparative degree, that
two things increase or decrease in the same proportion.

➔ The more I think about it, the less I understand it.

7. We use the definite article with plural nouns when we are referring to
definite things, and people know which things we mean.

➔ Let’s open all the windows. / I’ve just made the beds.

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 8. We use the definite article when it has the meaning “enough” or
“su cient”:

➔ I thought I didn’t have the brains for an academic career.

➔ You don’t have the guts.
➔ Do you think she has the talent to become a singer?

Omission of the definite article:

OM
1. Some nouns can be used without an article when we think about the
main purpose of the place (school, hospital, university, church, bed)

➔ I go to school by bus every day.

➔ My sister has gone into hospital last week.

.C
➔ Are you going to church tomorrow?

2. We do not normally use an article with the name of meals; except

DD
when we want to specify.

➔ I had breakfast at 8:30 this morning.

➔ Would you like to have dinner with us?
LA

➔ The breakfast I had today was quite big.

3. We do not normally use the definite article with the names of:
FI

● continents: Europe, Asia, America

● countries: France, Italy, Brazil
● cities: Paris, Italy, New York
● lakes: Lake Geneva


● individual mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Etna

● streets: Oxford Street
● most stations and airports: Waterloo Station, Orly Airport

We use -the- with plural place names: the Alps, the Netherlands

4. We do not normally use the article the with means of

transport/communication with the preposition -by-:
➔ go by bus/plane/sea/taxi/train
➔ contact radio/telephone

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 5. The definite article can be omitted in prepositional phrases
containing words for season:

➔ In winter, the restaurant opens a bit later than usual.

➔ I like to walk around the park in autumn.
➔ Most trees blossom in spring.

6. Parallel structures: omitted in combinations of identical or

semantically related nouns in structures containing two nouns linked

OM
by a preposition or coordinator, for instance:

➔ He traveled from country to country.

➔ Thankfully, it turned out all right for mother and baby.

.C
7. Block language: noun phrases in block language (found in headlines
labels, notices) omit the definite article:
DD
➔ Fire kills teenanger after hoax.
➔ President to attend meeting with European Monarchs

8. The definite article is omitted before:

LA

➔ most people's names: Michael is my friend, Paris is a beautiful city.

➔ names of sports, activities, days, months, colors, seasons and
languages: I love football, I hate winter, I like red, Today is monday.
➔ two-word names whose first word is the name of a person or a place:
FI

Glasgow Airport, Edinburgh Castle

➔ titles with proper names: the Queen Elizabeth II, King Edward I
➔ abstract nouns used in general sense: Life is very hard for some
people.


➔ names of materials used in general sense: Butter is made from cream.

➔ plural nouns used in general sense: Books are my best friends.

Expressing generic and specific reference:

➢ We express generic reference when we refer to a person, thing or idea

in a general way, the whole class: Books are very expensive nowadays.
➢ We express specific reference when we refer to one or more members
of a limited, restricted group: The book I bought yesterday us quite
interesting.

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To express generic reference we can use:

➔ a countable noun in the plural form: Computers are quite useful at

present.
➔ an uncountable noun: Freedom is an essential human right.

To express specific reference we can use:

➔ a singular countable noun preceded by the indefinite article or the

OM
definite article: I bought a new computer last month.
➔ a plural countable noun preceded by the definite article: The
computers they sell are very expensive.
➔ An uncountable noun preceded by the definite article: The money I
have is enough to buy a new computer.

.C ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS/ADVERBIALS

DD
Adjectives: we use them to describe words which tell us about the quality of
a noun or a pronoun. It is a describing word; it tells us about the size, color,
age, material or quality of a person/thing.

Characteristics, position and formation of adjectives in English:

LA

They are invariable, meaning that they don’t change their form whether the
noun they qualify is singular or plural.
FI

talkative: boy, girl, boys, girls

The position of adjectives: adjectives may be used:



1. Attributively: they come before a noun.

She is an intelligent girl.

She prepared some delicious food.
It was a slow journey.

2. Predicatively: separated from the noun, usually following a verb, like:

be, seem, appear, look or after the direct object in the pattern V + VCT
+ direct object + object complement.
You look tired.

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She is quite responsible.
I consider Martin very responsible.
I find his story unbelievable.

(some adjectives, especially those with the su x -a like alive, ablaze,

afloat, alone, aloof, alert, alive- are generally used as predicative adjectives:

She was so tired she fell asleep very early last night.
The twins are alike.

OM
His mother left him alone.

3. Postpositively: they can immediately follow the noun or pronoun they

modify.

.C
I need something hot; it’s very cold outside.
Anyone clever enough can do it.
He is looking for someone intelligent.
DD
He is ready to do something dangerous.
She did nothing wrong.

➢ Compound indefinite pronouns and adverbs ending in “-bodym

-one, - thing, -where” can be modified only postpositively:
LA

Have you been anywhere interesting?

I’d like to go anywhere relaxing.
FI

➢ With several institutionalized expressions, the adjective is used

postpositively:
chancellor elect - attorney General - court martial - mission accomplished
- God almighty - body politic - heir apparent


➢ There are many set phrases in English which feature postpositive

adjectives:
time immemorial - words unspoken - spaghetti Bolognese - persona non
grata - Alexander The Great - Athlete extraordinaire

➢ Nouns like -matters- and -things- usually take postpositive

adjectives:
matters unknown - things immemorable

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 ➢ Some adjectives, such as concerned, involved, available, opposite,
present, proper, responsible, have a di erent meaning when they are
used in attributive and postpositive function:

attributive: I was asked for my present address. (my address now)

postpositive: All the people present. (who are there)

OM
attributive: Concerned parents held a meeting to discuss the issue. (worried)
postpositive: The parents concerned held a meeting to discuss the issue-
(involved)

attributive: Every visible star is named after a famous astronomer. (u can

.C
always see, general)
postpositive: Every star visible is named after a famous astronomer. (u see at
the moment)
DD
➢ Certain adjectives are used commonly in postpositive position:

all those entering should…, one of the men executed was….

LA

➢ A similar behavior is displayed by many adjectives with the su x

-able, -ible:
the best room available - the only decision possible - the worst choice
imaginable - the only place suitable
FI

Formation of adjectives in English:



Simple adjectives:

➢ Many common adjectives don’t have a distinctive “adjectival” ending

at all; good - kind - sweet - tall - small - fast

➢ Other adjectives have recoignisable adjectival endings, called su x,

these typical endings include:

able, ible (understandable, capable, readable, incredible)

-al: functional, influential, chemical, situational

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-ic: syntactic, artistic, terrific
-ful: beautiful, helpful, harmful
-ive: attractive, intuitive, inventive
-less: helpless. hopeless, restless
-ous: generous, adventurous, dangerous
-ary: customary, complementary. dietary
-ical: magical, logical, historical
-ant/ent: pleasant, ignorant, excellent
-ish: foolish, childish, selfish

OM
-like: childlike, ladylike, springlike
-ly: friendly, mostly, monthly
-y: dirty, rainy, funny
-some: handsome, awesome, quarrelsome, troublesome
-ar: lunar, circular, popular

.C
-id: rapid, humid, valid, stupid

Adjectives can be formed from di erent words:

DD
1. From nouns: accident/accidental - length/long - wind/windy
2. From verbs: enjoy/enjoyable - help/helpful - talk/talkative
3. From other adjectives: comic/comical - economic/economical -
red/reddish - correct/corrective
LA

Participles used as adjectives:

-ing: interesting, exciting, amusing, boring

FI

-ed: interested, excited, amused, bored

-en: broken, hidden, frozen, written

Compound adjectives:


1. number - noun: a two week holiday, a ten page report

2. noun - adjective: air-tight seal, sugar-free drink
3. noun - noun: a bully-proof vest, the air-tra c control
4. adjective - noun: a heavy metal detector, a part-time job
5. adverb - past participle: a quick-witted lady, a well-known actor, a
poorly-paid worker, a well-kept house, a brightly-lit room
6. noun - past participle: handmade toy, chocolate-flavored ice cream
7. word - past participle: time-consuming task, never-ending story
8. past participle - preposition: worn-out shoes, broken-down car

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 9. adjective + past participle: a good-natured professor, a
narrow-minded person, a curly-haired baby
10. Long hyphenated adjectives: the about-to-be senior students, my
always-annoying-but-sometimes-cute sister

➢ Nouns describing materials, substances, purpose and use can be used

as adjectives, but don’t have comparative or superlative forms and
can’t be modified by “many”: a cotton shirt, a silver ring, a stone
wall, a summer dress, a chopping board

OM
➢ There are certain adverbs such as above, upstairs, downstairs, inside
which can be used as adjectives: the upstairs room, the downstairs
bathroom, the above rule, the inside page

.C
Comparison of adjectives:

There are three forms or “degrees”: the positive, the comparative and the
DD
superlative.

The positive is the normal base form of the adjective:

➔ This house has been dirty for years.

LA

➔ My question is quite simple.

The comparative is used to compare two things/people/groups/etc to

express the idea of one deserving the adjective more than the other.
FI

Those apples are sweeter than those ones.

Which is the more exciting of the two films you saw yesterday?
The experience has made me a humbler person than I used to be.


The superlative form is used when comparing three or more things, to

express the idea that one is more deserving of the adjective than the others.

Recyclable materials are the most desirable from the ecological point of
view.
Sally is the prettiest of the three girls.
That’s the silliest idea I’ve ever heard.

● We often use -of- and -in- after a superlative, we use -in with places:

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 I’m the tallest of all.
I’m the tallest in the class.

● We can use -the- before the comparative only when comparing

two things of the same kind:

Of the two cars, this is the fastest.

RULE FORMS

OM
positive comparative superlative

one syllable short shorter the shortest

adjectives: add long longer the longest
-er and -est safe safer the safest

two syllable
adjectives:

.C
1. if the adj
ends in
simple

humble
simpler

humbler
the simplest

the humblest
DD
-ple or
-ble, we
add -er,
-est
LA

2. If it ends
in busy busier the busiest
consonant
-y, change silly sillier the silliest
FI

the -y into
-i and add funny funnier the funniest
-er or -est

3. If it ends the


in -ly, friendly friendlier/more friendliest/the

-ow, friendly most friendly
-some, we clever cleverer/more the cleverest/the
add -er, clever most clever
-est or handsome handsomer/mor the
more and e handsome handsomest/the
most most handsome

4. Words polite politer/more the politest/the

without polite most polite
su x can

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 use quiet quieter/more the quietest/the
-er,-est, quiet most quiet
more and common commoner/more the
most common commonest/the
most common
5. for other grateful more grateful the most
two grateful
syllable
adjs we serious more serious the most serious
use more

OM
and most
modern more modern the most
modern

adjectives of interesting more interesting the most

three or more interesting
syllables

.C expensive more expensive the most

expensive
DD
irregular forms: good better the best
their superlative
and comparative bad worse the worst
forms are
LA

di erent words far farther/further the farthest

ill worse the worst

FI

much/many more the most

little less the least



Two forms of comparison: (besides the typical one, this is better than this)

1. Comparison of equality:

This apple is as sweet as that one.

This book is as interesting as yours.

2. Comparison of inferiority:
This apple is not as sweet as that one.
This book is less interesting than yours.

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 ❖ Comparative and superlative forms often confused:

1. further/furthest and farther/farthest refer to distance:

New York is then miles farther/further.

But! further/furthest means “in addition/extra”:

Let me know if you have further questions.

OM
2. We can use elder/eldest (instead of older and oldest) before a noun to
talk about people’s ages, “elder” is only used attributively.

The eldest/oldest son went to Hardvard.

.C
Mary is the eldest/oldest.

But we cannot use: He is elder than me. / He is the eldest child.

DD
3. We use the latest to refer to the most recent or newer:

I’ve read the latest edition.

The latest figures show steady growth.
LA

We use “the last” to refer to the final.

I’ve read the last edition.

FI

That was the last time I met her.

Some special meanings and uses of comparative forms:



● Gradual increase: we use comparative + and + comparative to show

that something increases or decreases:

The ozone layer is becoming thinner and thinner.

She is getting older and older as time goes by.
The weather is getting hotter and hotter.

● Parallel or proportional increase: we use the + comparative … ´the +

comparative to show that two things changed together or that one
depends on the other:

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The noisier the children are, the angrier the neighbors get.
The warmer the place is, the more comfortable you feel.
The more confident you feel, the better results.

Classification of adjectives

A. Emphasizing, classifying and qualifying adjectives:

➢ Emphasizing/intensifying adjectives: used to emphasize our feelings,

OM
to describe strong feelings about a person, feeling or thing we are
talking about. (seldom after a linking verb)

I felt a fool. = I felt a complete fool.

I’ve wasted a day. = I’ve wasted an entire day.

.C
He’s a scholar. = He’s a true scholar.

Other emphasizing adjectives: absolute, mere, pure, outright, total, clear,

DD
true, plain, perfect, sheer, total, utter, dead, own, very, whole, single:

It was sheer luck that brought us here.

This is the perfect gift for her.
This is the very first book I’ve read.
LA

➢ Classifying adjectives: used to say that something is of a particular

type.
FI

Democratic decisions. (democratic distinguishes them from other types of

decisions)

other classifying adjectives: atomic, chemical, cubic, digital, environmental,



medical, annual, general, occasional, northern, maximum, minimum:

environmental problems, chemical substance, medical treatment, annual

schedule, northern countries, atomic bomb

Classifying adjectives are seldom used after linking verbs:

There was a nuclear explosion.

NOT: the explosion was nuclear.

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 ➢ Qualifying adjectives: used to give the quality that a thing or a person
has. They’re used directly before a noun or after a linking verb:

A beautiful sunset/The sunset is beautiful.

● Some classifying adjectives can be used with di erent meanings as

qualifying adjectives and placed after a linking verb:

The country’s economic reforms have proved to be beneficial. (relating to

OM
economics, business)
The process isn’t economic. (not profitable)

Other adjectives like these include: academic, conscious, educational, legal,

illegal, scientific.

.C
B. Gradable and nongradable adjectives:
DD
The prototypical adjective is gradable, it denotes a property that can be
possessed in varying degrees. Gradable adjectives can be used in the
comparative form.

small, smaller, the smallest

LA

intelligent, more intelligent, the most intelligent

If an adjective is gradable, it can be used with intensifiers such as very,

extremely, dreadfully, hugely, rather, intensely, slightly:
FI

intensely popular - rather boring - very rich - slightly better - hugely

disappointing - extremely hot


Thus, the adjectives that describe absolute qualities such as left, right,
single, correct, equal, absent, universal, scientific, round, square, excellent,
impossible are nongradable. They imply: to a large degree.

They are not generally used with adverbs like “very”, “extremely” because
we do not imagine degrees of the quality referred to. We can however use
adverbs which emphasize their extreme or absolute nature, such as
absolutely, completely, purely, totally, utterly, quite, etc.

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absolutely awful scene - completely impossible task - almost superb
performance - practically unknown answers - quite dead body - totally
automatic system - purely political a airs - utterly unreasonable

➔ Some adjectives have both gradable and nongradable uses or senses:

Johnny is a very common name. (gradable, frequently found)

We have a lot of common interests. (nongradable, shared)

OM
This house is very old. (gradable, existed for many years)
I met an old friend of mine. (nongradable, former)

We had a very public quarrel. (everybody could see it, gradable)

He took the public highway. (the opposite of private, nongradable)

.C
Participial adjectives: one way to change a verb into an adjective is to use
the present participle -ing or the past participle -ed ending.
DD
➔ verb + ing usually has an active meaning, it describes the quality of a
noun:
Daniel is a boring person.
It was an interesting film.
LA

I played an exciting game of football.

➔ verb + ed has a passive meaning, describes how the person feels:

Daniel is bored.
FI

I was interested in the film.

I was excited when I played the game of chess with my friends.

ADVERBS AND ADVERBIALS



Adverb refers to a word class which uses words like: slowly, here, there,
very, quite.
Adverbials is a functional label, covering all the syntactic units performing
the same function as single-words adverbials, units which describe the
action denoted by the verb.

Adverbs are class of words that can:

1. act as an adverbial: She´ll come late today.

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 2. form the headword of an adverb phrase: luckily for us.
3. be used to modify an adjective in an adjective phrase: very late.
4. be used to modify an adverb in an adverb phrase: rather di cult.
5. be formed from many qualitative adjectives by the addition of the
su x -ly: slow/slowly, easy/easily, simple/simply

An adverbial can be:

1. An adverb: a single word, such as well, happily, soon, certainly,

OM
probably.
2. An adverb phrase: very happily, really well, quite soon.
3. A prepositional phrase: a group of words beginning with a preposition
such as on the table, in my opinion, with a hammer.
4. A noun phrase: last night, tomorrow morning, yesterday.

.C
Adverbials are classified into:
DD
a. Circumstantial adverbials (adjuncts) they provide information about
how, where, when, how often, why, how much, to what extent an
action is done:

She sings sweetly. She gets up at six o’clock. She left home in a hurry. He
LA

worked hard all day. She came back home last night. She didn’t go to
school yesterday because of the rain.

b. Linking adverbials or conjuncts help a text hold together, giving it

FI

cohesion. They help you connect ideas and sentences. We use them to
give examples, add information, summarize, sequence information,
give reason or result, or to contrast ideas. (moreover, nevertheless,
therefore, to sum up)


The company are expanding. Therefore, they are taking on extra sta .
He works hard. However, he doesn’t earn much.
Taxes have gone down, whereas social security contributions have gone
down.

c. Stance adverbials provide comments towards the content or style of

what is said.

Logically, this cannot be the solution to this problem.

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Biologically, such a phenomenon is not natural.
Sadly, all the plants died.
Actually, I don’t watch television.

➔ Stance adverbials can also convey the speaker’s assessment of the

preposition in the clause in relation to probability or certainty of it.
(how sure we are of something)

He probably knows your telephone number.

OM
He is probably at home now.
He obviously did it on his own.
No doubt, this is the best choice.

Adverbs as modifiers: degree adverbs can function as intensifying or

.C
moderating adverbials. They can intensify or moderate the force or an
adjective or an adverb.
DD
You did extremely well in the exam.
That game was particularly important for me.
She is really interested in our project.
Not too fast, please.
This dress is rather old.
LA

Classification of circumstantial adverbials:

1. Manner: how an action is done.

FI

The tired traveler slept soundly.

He is working hard this week.
They greeted us warmly.


2. Time: the time, the moment an action is or was done.

Day will break soon.

She is traveling to France next month.
The fire was extinguished afterwards.

3. Frequency: answer the question “how often”

I often saw him formerly, but he seldom comes now.

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The child usually plays football with his friends.
She traveled abroad from time to time.

4. Place: where an action is done.

They looked everywhere for the little girl.

At home, he feels safe.
They must be going to Paris at this time.

OM
5. Degree (intensifying and moderating adverbials) to what extent or
degree an action is done.
She was severely punished. (intensifying)
I’m absolutely certain that she will come. (intensifying)
They are completely exhausted from the trip. (intensifying)

.C
He is walking too slowly. (intensifying)
He arrived a bit late. (moderating)
She practically didn’t notice what he was doing. (moderating)
DD
The film was rather disappointing. (moderating)

6. Quantity: amount and number

I met him twice in London.

LA

I love her very much.

She has worked the most on this project.
She told us very little about her new boyfriend.
FI

7. A rmation and negation: the words yes, surely, evidently, obviously,

not, n’t, never.

Do you like fish? Yes./certainly/naturally/obviously/of course



Did you tell him the truth? No/of course not/never/certainly not
He’ll never settle down.
This is hardly any food.

8. Instrument: answer the question “what… with”

She cut herself with a knife.

She spoke from notes.
Victoria hit Anna with her bag.

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 9. Cause:

She died of cancer.

She spoke that way out of desperation.
They couldn’t come due to bad weather conditions.

10. Accompaniment:

She travels with her mother every year.

OM
I work together with my father.
Senator Gray never travels without a secretarial sta .

11. Focusing: we can change their position in a sentence depending on

where we want to focus our attention.

.C
Only I listened to his lecture on Friday.
I only listened to his lecture on Friday.
DD
I listened only to his lecture on Friday.
I listen to his lecture only on Friday.

Comparative forms of adverbs:

LA

RULE FORMS

positive comparative superlative

FI

one syllable
adverbs: a few
one-syllable hard harder the hardest
adverbs whose fast faster the fastest


comparative and soon sooner the soonest

superlative
forms are
formed by -er
-est

other verbs: quickly more quickly the most quickly

more and most quietly more quietly the most quietly
are used to form smartly more smartly the most smartly
of two or more beautifully more beautifully the most
syllable adverbs beautifully

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 irregular forms: well better the best
completely badly worse the worst
di erent words

➔ Martin runs as quickly as his teammates.

➔ Martin runs more quickly than his teammates.
➔ Martin runs the most quickly of his teammates.

Adjectives and adverbs compared and contrasted: there are several

OM
adjectives that can be used as adverbs.

● There is an early train to Liverpool. (adjective)

● I will leave very early tomorrow. (adverb)

.C
● She turned the wrong way. (adjective)
● She turned wrong. (adverb)
DD
● He spoke in a low voice. (adjective)
● He spoke low but clearly. (adverb)

● Take a clean sheet of paper. (adjective)

LA

● The prisoner got clean away. (adverb)

● I saw a dead bird in the garden. (adjective)

● The man was dead drunk. (adverb)
FI

● There is a bright moon tonight. (adjective)

● The moon is shining bright. (adverb)


● The goods were very cheap. (adjective)

● I bought them cheap. (adverb)

● I went by a direct route. (adjective)

● The goods will be send direct to you. (adverb)

● He has gone to the Far East. (adjective)

● He didn’t walk very far. (adverb)

● There is a very high building. (adjective)

● The birds are flying high. (adverb)

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● He is not a very near relationship. (adjective)
● The time is drawing near for my visit to France.

● She is a very pretty girl. (adjective)

● This is a pretty good picture. (adverb) (meaning -muy-)

● There is a short way home through the woods. (adjective)

● The car stopped short only a few inches away from where I stood.
(adverb)

OM
● I didn’t want to wake him; he was in a sound sleep. (adjective)
● He was sleeping sound. (adverb)

● It was a fair fight. (adjective)

.C
● You must play fair. (adverb)

● He is a firm friend of the family. (adjective)

DD
● If you stand firm, I’m sure you’ll succeed. (adverb)

● He was wearing very tight shoes. (adjectives)

● Hold tight, the plane is going to take o . (adverb)
LA

● There is a good wide road. (adjective)

● The sleepwalker’s eyes were wide open. (adverb)

● She is an only child. (adjective)

FI

● She was only four years old when she learned to read. (adverb)

➢ There is a small group of adjectives formed by adding “ly” to nouns to



denote a period of time. (hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, etc)

● There is an hourly bus service to Liverpool. (adjective)

● The buses to Liverpool run hourly. (adverb)

● This is a weekly magazine. (adjective)

● The magazine is published weekly. (adverb)

● He has a very active daily routine. (adjective)

● She visits us daily. (adverb)

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 ➢ Adjectives ending in -ly such as “cowardly, fatherly, lively, friendly,
orderly, womanly, likely, silly, lovely, ugly, costly, lonely” can be used
in an adverbial phrase through the expression “in a …
way/manner/fashion/mode”

● He is a cowardly person. (adjective)

● He behaved in a cowardly way. (adverbial phrase)

● She is a friendly woman. (adjective)

OM
● She spoke to me in a friendly manner. (adverbial phrase)

● Susan is an extremely orderly woman. (adjective)

● People are not used to crossing the street in an orderly mode.
(adverbial phrase)

.C
Adverbs with two forms and di erences in meaning:
DD
➢ There are some words such as hard, near, high, late, free, easy, last,
short, wrong that have two forms and di erence in meaning:

➔ hard/hardly
She works hard. (with great e ort, force)
LA

She hardly works. (almost not)

➔ near/nearly
The time is drawing near to my visit to France. (close) se acerca
FI

It’s nearly two o’clock. (almost) casi

➔ late/lately
She came back very late. (not early)


What have you been up to lately? (recently)

➔ high/highly
The plane flew high. (to a high level)
He is highly qualified for this job. (very much, to a great extent)

➔ free/freely
Children under five travel free. (without paying)
You can move freely. (without restrictions)

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 ➔ deep/deeply
He went deep into the valley. (to a great depth)
She is deeply in love. (greatly, to a great extent)

➔ fine/finely
You’re managing fine. (well, perfectly)
Chop the vegetables finely. (into thin pieces)

➔ last/lately

OM
Susan came last. (after all the others)
Lastly, she’s referred to a new project. (finally)

➔ short/shortly
She made her decisions short. (suddenly)

.C
She is coming back shortly. (soon)

➔ wrong/wrongly
DD
You understood this wrong. (incorrectly)
He was wrongly accused. (unjustly)

➔ right/rightly
I liked him right from the start. (straight away)
LA

It’s worrying news and you're rightly concerned about what it means for
you. (with good reason)

➔ Just/justly
FI

He has just arrived. (recently)

Was he treated justly? (fairly)

➔ direct/directly


You can travel direct from Singapore to Honolulu. (without stopping)

I’ll deal with that matter directly. (immediately)

➔ most/mostly
Susan is the most capable woman in the team. (the best)
He mostly travels by bus. (usually)

➢ There are some adverbs (cheap, clean and loud) that can be
found with -ly without having a di erent meaning, just being
more formal.

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I bought it cheap.
I bought it cheaply.

I can see it quite clear.

I can see it quite clearly.

You are speaking too loud.

You are speaking too loudly.

OM
PRONOUNS

Determiners and pronouns are determined based on their relationships with

nouns, determiners accompany them and pronouns replace them.

.C
(recall of the classification of determiners)

➔ the definite article: the (the book) specifies what the referent is
DD
➔ the indefinite article: a (a book)a single member of a class
➔ demonstrative determiners this, that, those, etc. (that book) establish
reference by proximity.
➔ possessive determiners: my, your, her (my book) establish a
connection with the participants in the speech situation.
LA

➔ quantifiers: some, many etc. (some books) specify number or amount

of the entities referred to.
➔ determiner uses of wh-words and numerals
FI

Pronouns: are used instead of full noun phrases in two situations:

1. When the entities referred to are identifiable through the speech

situation or the surrounding text.


2. When the reference is unknown or general.

Personal pronouns: they can be divided into three groups

● first person: the speaker or the group to which the speaker belongs
● second person: referring to the person or persons spoken
to/addressed
● third person: referring to all other persons or things spoken about.

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 subject object subject object possessive
pronoun pronoun pronoun pronoun pronoun

first i me we us mine ours

person

second you you you you yours

person yours

third he him they them his

OM
person she her hers theirs
it it its

➔ Object pronouns are used as:

.C
➢ Direct object:
I bought them yesterday.
She met him while she was going back home.
DD
I can’t understand him.
John loves you.

➢ Indirect object:
LA

Show it to me.
My grandma is giving us the curtains as a wedding present.
Let’s give it to him.
She brought them for you.
FI

Paul threw the ball to me.

➢ Object of a preposition:
I can’t live without you.


I haven’t heard any news about him for ages.

She put the blame on us.

➢ Possessive pronouns: they are closely connected in meaning with

personal pronouns. They are of three persons:

first person second person third person

mine - ours yours his hers its theirs

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My flowers are dying, yours are lovely.
All the essays were good but his was the best.
Here is your car, ours is over there.
John and Mary don’t like your car; do you like theirs?

➢ Reflexive pronouns: indicates that an action expressed by the verb

passes from the subject back to the subject and not to any other
person or thing. The subject and the object stand for the same person.

OM
John sees himself in the mirror.
Susan cut herself last night.
The children enjoyed themselves at the party.

Reflexive pronouns can work as:

a)
b)
.C
direct object
indirect object
DD
c) object of a preposition
d) subject complement

Bob is enjoying himself at the party. (direct object)

She made herself some tea. (indirect object)
LA

He made me talk about myself. (object of a preposition)

She doesn’t seem to be herself. (subject complement)

➢ When a reflexive pronoun has the preposition “by” it means “alone”

FI

or “without help” as in:

This is a machine that works by itself.

I study by myself.


The little baby answered the phone by herself,

I don’t live by myself, I share a flat with two friends.

➢ Emphatic reflexive pronouns have exactly the same form as reflexive

pronouns, but their function is di erent. They are used for the sake of
emphasis to mean “that person, nobody else”

The teacher himself gave her the prize.

I didn’t take the car to the garage, I repaired it myself.
I myself fax the report to him.

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I didn’t see the accident itself, but I heard the crash.

➢ Indefinite pronouns: they indicate people or things in a vague or

general way.

some, any, all, enough, none, a lot, the other, another, one, few, little, much

I gave up on my job and I am looking for another.

None was left aside.

OM
Enough has been said about it.
All that glitters is not gold.
Not much is being done at the moment.

➢ Compound indefinite pronouns: they are compounds of one, body,

.C
thing or with determiners every, any, some, no.
DD
anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, everybody, everything, someone,
somebody, something, no one, nobody, nothing

Nobody has come today.

LA

Somebody has just arrived.

Everything has been taken into account.
Have you seen anybody outside?
FI

➢ Relative pronouns: refers to an antecedent and joins the clause it

introduces to some other clause. The most common are: who, whom,
which, that, and what.


Who/whom are used for personal antecedents:

The man who interviewed Peter was Mr Wilson.

The man who spoke to me just now is an architect.

That may be used to refer to persons, animals or things:

The man that was speaking to you is your uncle.

This is the book that I need.
Interr

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Which is used when the antecedent is a thing, idea or animal.

He took two rooms, for which he paid a lot.

The milk which you bought was sour.

➢ Interrogative pronouns: they are used in forming questions and

always precede the verb

With whom did you go to the meeting?

OM
Who did you go to the meeting with?

➢ Demonstrative pronouns: they give the idea of position with regard

to the speaker.

.C
this - these being nearer in space or time
DD
that - those being more distant

The former and the latter may also be considered as demonstrative

pronouns. Latter means “the second of two people or things” and it is
contrasted with the former, which means “the first of two people or
LA

things”.

Virtue and vice o er themselves for our choice; the latter leads to misery,
the former to happiness.
FI

➢ Distributive pronouns: show that the persons or things are taken

singly or in separate lots.


each - either - neither - both

Each has been asked to do his best to overcome this terrible economic
situation.
Either will do, it doesn’t matter which.
Neither of her parents approve of her staying out late night after night.
Both of them wanted to win the game.

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 ➢ Reciprocal pronouns: used to indicate that two or more people are
carrying out or have carried out an action of some type, with both
receiving the benefits or consequences of that action simultaneously.
“Each”and “one another” are used.

Do Cathy and Steve see each other every day?

The two sisters love each other.
Mary and Juan gave each other golden rings on their wedding day.
We gift each other things during the holidays.

OM
Anaphoric and cataphoric reference:

A pronoun may refer to an antecedent (anaphoric reference) or to a noun or

idea that comes after it (cataphoric reference.

.C
➔ anaphoric reference: I met George’s brother on my way home last
night. He was going to the cinema with his girlfriend. She is a very
DD
pretty girl.

➔ cataphoric reference: It is di cult to study English grammar.

PHRASES
LA

A phrase consists of one or more words; a word consists of one or more

morphemes. A phrase is a sequence of words that serve a particular function
in a clause.
FI

Main characteristics of phrases:

● A phrase may consist of a single word or group of words:



{Alex] [bought] [a bottle of wine.]

NP VP NP
● Phrases can be identified by substitution and movement tests. A
phrase can be moved as a unit to a di erent position.

{Alex] [bought] [a bottle of wine.]

NP VP NP = he did something

[A bottle of wine] [was bought] [by Alex.]

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 ● Di erences in phrase structure show up di erences of meaning:

1. (They) (passed) (the table)(with) (the two men.)

2. They passed (the table) (with the two men.)

Noun phrases [NP]

A Noun phrase is a structural unit composed of a noun (the head element) or

a noun equivalent (pronoun, nominal adjective) either alone or modifying

OM
the meaning of the noun in some way. These elements may be determiners,
or modifiers (describe or classify the entity denoted by the head noun.)

● [My mother] made [my sisters] [a delicious cake] [last night.]

.C
my mother: subject [NP]
my sister: indirect object [NP]
a delicious cake: direct object [NP]
DD
last night: adverbial [NP]

● [Most of my classmates] consider [our school] [a prestigious

institution.]
LA

most of my classmates: subject [NP]

our school: direct object [NP]
a prestigious institution: object complement [NP]
FI

● [Walter] is [my best friend.]

Walter: subject [NP]



my best friend: subject complement [NP]

● [The children] are playing in [the garden.]

the children: subject [NP]

the garden : complement of the preposition [NP]

Adjective phrases: it contains an adjective as head, optionally accompanied

by modifiers; eg: rather poor, very intelligent, quite di cult.

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 ● Your composition is [rather poor.]

rather poor: subject complement [ADJ P]

● This boy is [very intelligent.]

very intelligent: subject complement [ADJ P]

● The students consider the topic [quite di cult.]

OM
quite di cult: object complement [ADJ P]

Adverb phrases: a word group containing an adverb as head, which may

optionally be modified. Most modifiers are premodifiers, except “enough”

.C
and “indeed”, which are postmodifiers.

● Susan talked to the child [really slowly.]

DD
really slowly: adverbial [ADV P]

● Alexander spoke [clearly enough.]

LA

clearly enough: adverbial [ADV P]

Verb phrase: it contains a head or main verb, either alone or accompanied

by one or more auxiliaries. A lexical verb which can also be accompanied by
FI

auxiliaries or particles associated with it.

Charles [went] to the theater last weekend.



The gardener [is cutting] the grass.

You [should have told] me about it.

Prepositional phrases: it consists of a preposition or a prepositional group

followed by an N´that functions as the prepositional complement or object
of a preposition.

● He cut himself [with a knife.]

with a knife: adverbial [PREP P]

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 ● The little girl was crying [in her bedroom.]
in her bedroom: adverbial [PREP P]

● The idea [of The General Committee] is to close the company.

of the General Committee: postmodifier [PREP P]

● My mother is a teacher [of English.]

of english: postmodifier [PREP P]

OM
● We have been living [in this house] [for seven years.]
in this house: adverbial [PREP P]
for seven years: adverbial [PREP P]

There are a number of prepositional phrases that are introduced by complex

.C
prepositions. These prepositions generally introduce prepositional phrases
that function as adverbials.
DD
We stayed indoors because of the rain.
According to the weather forecast, it will rain tomorrow.
Due to your egotism, quite a few people don’t like you.

Other common complex prepositions: according to, due to, apart from, in
LA

favor of, apart from, except for, in reference to, in terms of, on account of,
in addition to, in case of, regardless of, in connection with, contrary to, etc.

Infinitive phrases: contains an infinitive as head, optimally accompanied by

FI

complements.

● I love [to go shopping.]

to go shopping: direct object [INF P]


● I phoned Miriam [to congratulate] her.

to congratulate: adverbial [INF P]

● [To stay at home] was a great idea.

to stay at home: subject [INF P]

● The last person [to leave] was Freud.

to leave: postmodifier [INF P]

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 ● I’m glad [to be here.]
to be here: complement of the adjective [INF P]

Gerundial phrases: contain a gerund as head, optionally accompanied by

complements. It fulfills the functions of a noun.

● [Working in these conditions] is unfair.

[working in these conditions] : subject [GER P]

OM
● I hate [living in such a cold place.]
living in such a cold place: direct object [GER P]

● Susan´s hobby is [writing poems.]

writing poems: subject complement [GER P]

.C
● I’m fond of [playing golf.]
playing golf: prep. complement [GER P]
DD
Participial phrase: contains a participle as head, optionally accompanied by
complements. It fulfills the function of an adjective or an adverb.

● The man [painting that beautiful picture] is a very famous artist}.

LA

painting that beautiful picture: postmodifier [PART P]

● The reasons [mentioned above] are the most important ones.

mentioned above: postmodifier [PART P]
FI

● [Practicing daily], she could pass the exam.

practicing daily: adverbial [PART P]


● [Disappointed by his best friend], Roger refused to speak to him.

disappointed by his best friend: adverbial [PART P]

SENTENCE/CLAUSE ANALYSIS:

● Paul has gone to his farmhouse to breathe some air.

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● Playing tennis and handball keeps these girls fit and slim.

● Going to the theater is a popular activity in Britain.

OM
● The aim of the course is practicing writing skills.

.C
DD
● To participate in this championship was a good idea.
LA

● We stayed at home due to the heavy rain.

FI

● Sheila loves eating fruits and vegetables.



● He should have written his parents a message.

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● Under the bed needs cleaning.

● There are several dance clubs in this small town.

OM
● Bobs does think he is a good musician.

.C
DD
● Nobody is getting into trouble for that.
LA
FI


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