Engineering

Mechanics

Text Book: Engineering Mechanics–Statics

and Dynamics, I. H. Shames, Fourth Edition,
Prentice Hall of India.

Mohammed Ameen, Ph.D

Professor of Civil Engineering

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 Introduction
• Mechanics is the branch of engineering
dealing with bodies and their dynamical
behaviour
• Oldest of physical sciences (writings of
Archimedes covering buoyancy and lever
were recorded as early as 200 B.C)
• Newtonian mechanics – Isaac Newton
(1642–1727)
• Einstein’s limitations (1905)
- valid when the speed of a body
approaches that of light (300,000 km/s)
— “relativistic mechanics”;
- Small scale phenomena involving
subatomic particles — “quantum
mechanics”.
• Such speeds are encountered in the large-
scale phenomena of astronomical bodies
and small-scale phenomena like subatomic
particles.
• Yet, in the great bulk of engineering
applications, Newtonian mechanics is valid.

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Mechanics has several branches:

Mechanics

~ of solids ~ of fluids

~ of liquids ~ of gases
~ of rigid bodies

~ of deformable bodies

Another classification is based on whether the

body is at rest (or moving with a uniform velocity)
or in motion. Thus,

Mechanics

Statics Dynamics

Kinematics Kinetics

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 Basic Dimensions and
Units of Mechanics
•Dimensions: are the abstractions used to describe the
characteristics of a body that interest us.
•Dimensions which are independent of all other
dimensions “Basic or Primary Dimensions”
•Dimensions which are developed in terms of the basic
dimensions “Secondary Dimensions”
•Length: A concept for describing size quantitatively–
the metre bar kept at Sévres, France acts as the
standard.
•Other aspects of size such as area and volume can
be represented in terms of the standard by employing
principles of geometry.
•Time: used to describe the ordering of the flow of
events
•The rotation of earth gives rise to a standard to
measure time—the day, which is further divided into
hour, minute, second and so on.

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•Mass: a property of matter that can be
determined based on the amount of
gravitational attraction of the body under
consideration. The unit in SI system is
kilogram.
•Can be determined from the actions of a
body
•If both A and B produce the same amount
of extension when attached to identical
springs
•If we pull each body by the same amount
and release, and if both move in an
identical manner

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Table 1 Basic dimensions and their units
Basic Units
Dimens Symbol
ion
SI cgs

Mass M Kilogram, Gram, g

kg
Length L Metre, m Centimetre,
cm
Time T Second, s Second, s

Secondary Dimensional Quantities

For example:
Velocity º [L][T]-1
Acceleration º [L][T] -2
Force º mass ´ acceleration
º [M][L][T]-2
Density º [M][L]-3
Note: There is another system of basic
dimensions consisting of [F], [L] and [T],
instead of [M], [L] and [T].

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• Law of Dimensional Homogeneity: Basic
equations representing physical
phenomenon should be valid for all
systems of units
• For this to occur, every term in an equation
should have the same dimensional
representation.
• For example: x = u t + ½ a t 2 has the same
dimensional representation of [L] for each
of the three terms.
Usual confusion between force and mass
• All confusions regarding the units of mass
and force can be easily avoided by sticking
to Newton second law of motion:
F = m a.
• The SI unit of mass is kg (kilogram) and
that of force is N (Newton).
• Hence, 1 N is that force which causes 1 kg
of mass to accelerate with 1 m/s2.
• In terms of kilogram force (kgf), 1 kgf =
9.81 N, and is the weight of 1 kilogram
mass at the earth’s surface, where the
acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s2.

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 Idealisations of Mechanics
•Often, it is necessary to replace the actual
physical actions and the participating bodies
with hypothetical and simplified substitutions
so as to arrive at solutions that are easier
and yet are close to the physical reality.
•Considerable amount of imaginations,
ingenuity and insight are needed to arrive at
such idealisations.
•The fundamental idealisations of mechanics
are the following:
(i) Continuum: Bodies are assumed to be
made up of a hypothetical continuous
distribution of matter, instead of the actual
picture consisting of a conglomeration of
discrete, tiny particles such as molecules,
atoms, electrons, etc. (in contrast to the
“corpuscular theory” which takes into account
the atomic/subatomic structure of matter).

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(ii) Rigid body: When the deformation of
the body is not of interest, we are
justified to make use of the rigid body
idealisation in which the continuum is
assumed not to undergo any
deformation whatsoever.
For example, in the calculation of the forces
transmitted to the supports by a beam,
the considerations of the deflection of
beam is unimportant.
The error that is caused by the rigid body
assumption in this instance is negligible.

P
P¢

Figure Rigid body and deformable body

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(iii) Point force: A finite force exerted on
one body by another is always
associated with a finite area of
contact between the bodies.
• A point force is that idealisation in
which we assume that a force is
being applied through a single point
(of area zero).
(iv) Particle: An object that has a mass
but no size is called a particle.
• This is useful in dealing with the
translatory motion of rigid bodies that
could have the size of a car or even a
planet.
• This assumption ceases to be valid
when rotation of the rigid body is also
involved.
• Many other simplifications pervade
mechanics.

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Vector and Scalar Quantities
Many physical quantities could be described
by means of their magnitude alone.
For example, the temperature at a point in a
body or the mass of a particle.
Such quantities are called scalars.
On the other hand, there are certain
quantities of interest, which need in addition
to the magnitude the specification of a
direction.
Vectors: have magnitude and direction, and
add according to the parallelogram law
For example, the velocity of a car is a vector
quantity as its description is complete with
the specification of both the speed of the
vehicle and its direction of motion.
Other examples are the force, the
displacement of a point etc. (We shall see
more about vectors later).
However, finite rotations are not vectors as
they do not add as per the parallelogram law!

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Equality and equivalence of
vectors
•Two vectors are equal if they have the
same magnitudes (including the units)
and direction
•Two vectors are said to be equivalent in
a certain capacity if each produces the
same effect in that capacity
F1 = 10 kN F2 = 5 kN

1m 1m

•the forces F1 and F2 in Fig. are not equal

(as their magnitudes are different
although the directions are the same),
they are equivalent in terms of producing
moments about the fixed end of the
beam.

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Equivalent Vectors
(i) Free vectors: vectors that can be
positioned anywhere in space keeping
their magnitude and directions intact.
(ii) Transmissible vectors: are vectors
that can be moved along their lines of
action without change of magnitude
and direction. For example, while
towing a box, we may apply the force
anywhere along a rope AB or push at
C.

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(iii) Bound vectors: are those which
are applied to a fixed point; they can
neither be moved parallel in space nor
along the same line.
•As an example, if we are interested in
the deformation of an elastic body due
to a point force, the point of
application of the force does matter
(see Fig.).

P P

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Laws of Mechanics
The fundamental laws of mechanics
are:
(i) Newton’s first and second laws of
motion
(ii) Newton’s third law
(iii) The gravitational law of attraction
(iv) The parallelogram law
Newton’s first law: Every particle
continues in a state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line
unless it is compelled to change that
state by forces imposed on it.
Newton’s second law: The change of
motion is proportional to the natural
force impressed and is made in a
direction of the straight line in which
the force is impressed.

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• It is essential to consider a frame of
reference while discussing the above
two laws.
• It has been experimentally observed
that the first and second laws of Newton
are highly accurate with respect to the
fixed stars as a reference.
• It is sufficient to consider any reference
that moves uniformly and without
rotation relative to the fixed stars as a
reference with equal accuracy.
• All such references are called inertial
references.
• The earth’s surface is usually employed
as a reference in most of the
engineering works though it is not,
strictly speaking, an inertial one (since it
rotates).
• The error incurred in this is very small
except when one deals with the motion
of a guided missile or a spacecraft.
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• Equilibrium is defined as that state of
a body in which all its constituent
particles are at rest or moving
uniformly along a straight line relative
to an inertial frame of reference.
• The converse of N’s first law, then,
stipulates that there must be no force
acting on the body.
• Statics: The study of bodies in
equilibrium Einstein set the limitations
for the validity of Newton’s law.
• However, these limitations are
applicable only when the speeds
approach that of light.
• Newton’s third law: To every action
there is always an equal reaction, or
the mutual actions of two bodies upon
each other are always equal and
directed to contrary points.

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 A
F1
-F1

A B

B F2
-F2

Figure: The action and reaction

between two bodies in contact

•Law of gravitational attraction: Two

particles will be attracted to each other
along their connecting line with a force
whose magnitude is directly
proportional to the distance squared
between the particles.
That is, mm
F =G 1 2

r2
where G is called the universal
gravitational constant.
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Parallelogram Law: Stevinius (1548-
1620) showed that forces could be
combined by representing them by the
sides of a parallelogram; the diagonal
then represents the sum.

F1 + F2
F2

F1

All vectors combine this way.

NOTE: Answer the questions on p22 of

“Shames”

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Elements of Vector Algebra
•As we have seen before, a vector
quantity needs the specification of
direction in addition to its magnitude for
its complete description.
•A directed line segment is often used
to denote a vector quantity.

F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

Fz
y
Fy Fx
x

•For example, a point-force acting on a

body at a point can be described using
a vector F.

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•With respect to a coordinate system,
such a vector could have components Fx,
Fy and Fz, along the x, y and z directions
respectively.
•Indicating the unit vectors along the
axes by i, j and k, we can write the force
vector as

F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

•We can also write this as

ì Fx ü
ï ï
F = {F} = í Fy ý
ïF ï
î zþ

•Hence, a column matrix is often called a

vector, too.

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•In print, a boldface letter (e.g. F)
indicates a vector.
•In writing we could use one of the
following symbols to indicate vectors:
 ~
F, F , F, F
~

•The vector quantities add as per the

parallelogram law of vector addition

F1 + F2
F2

F1

•All quantities that have magnitude and

direction and that add according to the
parallelogram law are called vector
quantities
•Infinitesimal rotation is a vector; finite
rotation is not.
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Magnitude & multiplication of a vector
by a scalar
Magnitude of A = A = |A|
mA is a vector of magnitude mA and
direction that of A (if m is +ve; else
opposite)
Addition and subtraction of vectors
Based on parallelogram law

A+B+C

B A+B

A
Also
A + B + C = (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

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 a b c
Sine Rule: = =
sin A sin B sin C

Cosine Rule:
2 2 2
c = a + b - 2 a b cos C
C

b
a
A
c
B

Subtraction: A – B = A + (–B)

B –B

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Resolution of vectors: Scalar
components
Given two directions, we can resolve a
vector A into components A1 and A2
along the two such that
A = A1 + A2
We could resolve into two components
in the same plane, or three non-
coplanar components.
Resolving a vector along orthogonal
directions is convenient very often
Unit vectors: A vector of unit
magnitude and a specified direction
A given vector F can be written as
F=Ff
where f is a unit vector along F;
Or F
f=
|F|

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Unit vectors along the coordinate
directions—i, j and k—are very useful
Thus F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
The magnitude of F is given by

| F |= Fx 2 + Fy 2 + Fz 2
z

F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

Fz
y
Fy Fx
x

The direction cosines of the line of

action of F are
Fx Fy Fz
l= ; m= ; n= ;
F F F

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 Useful Ways of Representing Vectors
The displacement vector from A to B is
ρ AB = ( x B - x A )i + ( y B - y A ) j + ( z B - z A )k
z
B

A
y

x
ρ AB
ρˆ AB =
Unit vector along AB is | ρ AB |

Any vector passing through two points

can be represented likewise

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Scalar (Dot) Product of Two Vectors
B
A.B = A B cos a
•Dot product
may involve a A
vectors of
different dimensional
representation
•May be positive or negative
•Physically A is projected onto the
direction of B (to get A cos a) and then
multiplied by B
•Work done by a force F on a particle
moving along a path s is given by
ò
W = F • ds F

ds

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 mA.nB = mn (A.B)
A.B = B.A
A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C
If A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k
And B = Bx i + By j + Bz k
A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

ì Ax ü ì Bx ü
ï ï ï ï
A = í Ay ý B = íB y ý
ï ï ï ï
î Az þ î Bz þ

ì Ax + Bx ü
ï ï
A + B = í Ay + B y ý
ï ï
A
î z + B z þ

A.B = ATB = BTA

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The scalar component of a vector C
along a given direction s is
Cs = C.s C

Hence,
Cs s
Cs = Cs s = (C.s) s
Let r be a unit vector along a direction:
Then,
r.i = |r| |i| cos(r, x) = l
Or
r= l i + m j + n k
l, m, n are the direction cosines
z
P
r
y
O
x

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Cross Product of Two Vectors

C=A´B
C
|C| = |A| |B| sin a
C is directed normal B
to the plane a
containing A and B A
and the sense is
governed by the right hand screw rule

A ´ B = – (B ´ A)
(violates commutative law)

C ´ (A + B) = C ´ A + C ´ B
(distributive law)
i ´ j = k etc.;
i j k
A ´ B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

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Given the coordinates of the vertices of A,
B, C of a triangle, determine a unit normal
vector to the plane of the triangle.
Determine rAB n C
and rAC. Then,

ρ AB ´ ρ AC
n= A
ρ AB ´ ρ AC B

Scalar Triple Product is defined as

(A ´ B).C
and represents the volume of a
parallelepiped

C B

A
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 Ax Ay Az
A ´ B • C = Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz

(A ´ B).C = –(A ´ C).B = –(C ´ B).A

Vector Triple Product
A ´ (B ´ C) = B (A.C) – C(A.B)

Exercise: Given point A (2, 2, 0) m,

B (0, 3, 0) m and C (3, –2, 1). Represent
a force of 1 kN which passes through A
and B. Also represent the displacement
vector rOC connecting the origin O and
C. What is the angle between the
vectors?

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Important Vector Quantities
Position Vector: is the directed line
segment from origin O of a coordinate
system to the point P in space.

r=xi+yj+zk

z P (x, y, z)

O y
x

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Moment of a Force About a Point: is a
vector M with magnitude equal to
product of force magnitude and
perpendicular distance d from O to line
of action of the force F, and sense
determined from right-hand screw rule.
M=r´F
r is the position vector of any point P on
the line of action of F with respect to O.

r ´ F = r F sin a = F d
M

r F
O
P
d a

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Consider a system of forces
Fi, i = 1 to n
Moment of all the forces about the origin
O is:
M = M1 + M2 + … + Mn
= r ´ F1 + r ´ F2 + … + r ´ Fn
= r ´(F1 + F2 + … + Fn)
This is called the Varignon’s Theorem
“The sum of moments about a point of a
system of concurrent forces equals the
moment about the same point of the
sum of the forces”
Fn F2
z

r F1
O y
x
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Moment of a Force About an Axis
Consider the disc mounted on the shaft.
A force F inclined to the plane of the
disc acts on the disc.
Decompose F into FB (normal to plane
of disc) and FA (tangential to plane).
The rotational moment = FA ´ d, and is
the moment of F about the axis BB.

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 b
B

d r FA
O
FB
F
B

General case:
Moment of F about axis BB
= moment of FA about O = FA d
It is a scalar. It is given by
Mb = (r ´ F).b
where r is the position vector of any
point on the line of action of F w.r.t
any point O on the axis BB
b is the unit vector along BB.

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 Fz F
z Fy
Fx
r z
O y
x
y
x
Moment of F about O:
i j k
M = r´F = x y z
Fx Fy Fz
= ( yFz - zFy )i + ( zFx - xFz ) j + ( xFy - yFx )k

= M xi + M y j + M zk
where Mx is the moment of F about x-
axis etc.
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Example
Find moment of F about points A and
B, and about the line AB.

500
F= (2i + 1j + 1k ) N
(2 2 + 12 + 12

rAC = (4 i + 3 j + 1k ) m
i j k
500
MA = r´F = 4 3 1 Nm
6
2 1 1

M AB = M A • i Nm

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The Couple and the Couple Moment
Any two equal parallel forces with
opposite senses constitute a couple
On a rigid body, couple has a “turning”
action only; and no “pushing” or
“pulling” actions
The turning action is quantitatively
given by the “moment of the couple”

M = r1 ´ F - r2 ´ F = (r1 - r2 ) ´ F = e ´ F

F
z
e = r1- r2
r1
F
r2
O y

x
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 e
F

M = e F sin a = F d

M is oriented normal to the plane of

the couple
The moment of a couple is a vector
with magnitude = F.d, directed normal
to the plane of the couple; the sense is
given by the right hand screw rule

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 z¢

O¢ y¢
r1¢
x¢
F r2¢
z
e
r1
F
r2
O y

The couple moment is a free vector

Irrespective of the location of point O,
moment of the couple remains the same
and is given by M = e ´ F
The couple has the same moment about
any point in space—hence, it is a free
vector.

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We could change the distance
between the two forces, and
simultaneously change the force
magnitude to retain same moment.
A couple can be represented by

C1

C2
C3

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Addition and Subtraction of Couples
100 Nm 100 Nm
103.078 Nm

25 Nm
25 Nm

Moment of a Couple About a Line

Moment of C about any point P on AA is
C itself; hence, moment about AA is:
MAA = C.n
C

A
P
n
A

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