Discrete Mathematics for Computer Sciences

Remudin Reshid Mekuria

September 9, 2020

Remudin Reshid Mekuria Discrete Mathematics for Computer Sciences

Discrete Mathematics

I Much of discrete mathematics is devoted to the study of

discrete structures, which are used to represent discrete
objects.
I Many important discrete structures are built using sets, which
are collections of objects.
I Among the discrete structures built from sets are
I Combinations, which are unordered collections of objects used
extensively in counting.
I relations, which are sets of ordered pairs that represent
relationships between objects.
I graphs, which consist of sets of vertices and of edges that
connect vertices.

Remudin Reshid Mekuria Discrete Mathematics for Computer Sciences

Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logic and Proof,
Sets, and Functions

I Part I: Logic, Prepositional Equivalences, Predicates and

Quantifiers, Nested Quantifiers, Methods of Proof.
I Part II: Sets, Set Operations, Functions. (Reading
Assignment.)

Remudin Reshid Mekuria Discrete Mathematics for Computer Sciences

Logic

I To understand mathematics, we must

understand what makes up a correct
mathematical argument, that is,a proof.
I We will explain what makes up a correct
mathematical argument and introduce tools to
construct these arguments.
I Proofs are important not only in mathematics,
but also in many parts of computer science,
including program verification, algorithm
correctness, and system security.

Remudin Reshid Mekuria Discrete Mathematics for Computer Sciences

Logic and its Applications
I The rules of logic give precise meaning to
mathematical statements. These rules are used
to distinguish between valid and invalid
mathematical arguments.
I Logic has numerous applications in computer
science in addition to helping us in
understanding mathematical reasonings, i.e.,
their rules are used in the:
I design of computer circuits,
I construction of computer programs,
I verification of the correctness of programs
and so on which will be discussed in this
course.
Remudin Reshid Mekuria Discrete Mathematics for Computer Sciences
Propositions
I Propositions are the basic building blocks of
logic.
I It is a declarative sentence that is either true or
false, but not both.
I EXAMPLE 1: All the following declarative
sentences are propositions.
I Washington, D.C., is the capital city of the United States of
America.
I Bishkek is the capital city of Iraq.
I 1 +1 =2
I 2 +2 =5

Propositions 1 and 3 are true, whereas 2 and 4

are false.
Remudin Reshid Mekuria Discrete Mathematics for Computer Sciences
Propositions

I EXAMPLE 2: Consider the following sentences.

I What time is it?
I Read this carefully.
I x +1 =2
I x +y =z
I Sentences 1 and 2 are not propositions because they are not
declarative sentences.
I Sentences 3 and 4 are not propositions because they are
neither true nor false, since the variables in these sentences
have not been assigned values

Remudin Reshid Mekuria Discrete Mathematics for Computer Sciences

 1.1: Compound propositions

● Many mathematical statements are constructed

by combining one or more propositions.
● New propositions, called compound
propositions, are formed from existing
propositions using logical operators.
 Negation
● Let p be a proposition. The statement
"It is not the case that p"
is another proposition, called the negation of p.

● The negation of p is denoted by ¬p. The proposition p is read "not p."

[see Example 3 on the next slide].

● We will now introduce the logical operators that are used to form new
propositions from two or more existing propositions.

● These logical operators are also called connectives.

Example 3
 Conjunction
● Let p and q be propositions. The proposition "p
and q" denoted p Λ q, is the
● proposition that is true when both p and q are
true and is false otherwise. The
● proposition p Λ q is called the conjunction of p
and q.
 Disjunction
● Let p and q be propositions. The proposition "p
or q" denoted p v q, is the
● proposition that is false when p and q are both
false and true otherwise. The proposition
● p v q is called the disjunction of p and q.
 Exclusive
Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p
and q, denoted by , is the proposition that is
true when exactly one of p and q is true and is
false otherwise.
 Implication
● Let p and q be propositions. The implication
p→q is the proposition that is false when p is
true and q is false, and true otherwise.
● In this implication p is called the hypothesis (or
antecedent or premise) and q is called the
conclusion (or consequence).
 Converse, Contrapositive and
inverse
● There are some related implications that can be formed from
p→q.
●
The proposition q→p is called the converse of p→q.
● The contrapositive of p → q is the proposition ¬q → ¬p.
● The proposition ¬p → ¬q is called the inverse of p → q.
● The contrapositive, ¬q → ¬p, of an implication p → q has the
same truth value as p → q.
● To see this, note that the contrapositive is false only when ¬p is
false and ¬q is true, that is, only when p is true and q is false.
[see example 7 text book]
 Biconditional
● Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional
p↔q is the proposition that is true, when p and
q have the same truth values, and is false
otherwise.
● It is also read as "p if and only if q".
Precedence levels of the logical
operators
 BOOLEAN SEARCHES
● Logical connectives are used extensively in searches of
large collections of information, such as indexes of Web
pages. Because these searches employ techniques from
prepositional logic, they are called Boolean searches.
● In Boolean searches, the connective AND is used to
match records that contain both of two search terms
● The connective OR is used to match one or both of two
search terms.
● And the connective NOT (sometimes written as AND
NOT) is used to exclude a particular search term.
 LOGIC AND BIT OPERATIONS
● Computers represent information using bits. A bit has
two possible values, namely, 0 (zero) and 1 (one).
● This meaning of the word bit comes from binary digit,
since zeros and ones are the digits used in binary
representations of numbers.
● Computer bit operations correspond to the logical
connectives. By replacing true by a one and false by
a zero in the truth tables for the operators shown in
the Table 8 for the corresponding bit operations are
obtained.
 Example
● Find the bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR
of the bit strings 01 1011 0110 and 11 0001 1101.

Solution: 01 1011 0110

11 0001 1101
11 1011 1111 bitwise OR
01 0001 0100 bitwise AND
10 1010 1011 bitwise XOR
 Exercises
Will be loaded on the OCS system
 1.2: Propositional Equivalences
● A compound proposition that is always true, no
matter what the truth values of the propositions
that occur in it, is called a tautology.

● A compound proposition that is always false is

called a contradiction.

● Finally, a proposition that is neither a tautology

nor a contradiction is called a contingency.
 Example 1
● We can construct examples of tautologies and
contradictions using just one proposition.
● Consider the truth tables of p V ¬p and p Λ ¬p,
shown in Table 1 below.
● Since p V ¬p is always true, it is a tautology.
Since p Λ ¬p is always false, it is a
contradiction.
 Logically Equivalent
● The propositions p and q are called logically
equivalent if p↔q is a tautology.
● The notation p ≡ q denotes that p and q are
logically equivalent.
● See that is a tautology and
that these propositions are logically equivalent.
 Example 2
●
Show that the propositions p→q and ¬p V q
are logically equivalent.
● Solution: We construct the truth table for these
propositions in Table 3. Since the truth values of
p→q and ¬p V q agree, these propositions are
logically equivalent.
 Example 3
● Show that the propositions p V (q Λ r) and
(p V q) Λ (p V r) are logically equivalent.
● This is the distributive law of disjunction over
conjunction.
Some important equivalences
Example 4
Logical Equivalence Involving
Implications
Logical Equivalence Involving
Biconditionals
1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

Remudin Reshid Mekuria

September 21, 2020

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

Predicates and Quantifiers
I Statements involving variables, such as
“x > 3, ” “x = y + 3, ” and “x + y = z, ” are often found
in mathematical assertions and in computer programs.
I These statements are neither true nor false when the values of
the variables are not specified.
I The statement “x is greater than 3” has two parts.
I The first part, the variable x, is the subject of the statement.
I The second part, the predicate, “is greater than 3”, refers to a
property that the subject of the statement can have.
I We can denote the statement “x is greater than 3” by P(x),
where P denotes the predicate “is greater than 3” and x is the
variable.
I Once a value has been assigned to the variable x, the
statement P(x) becomes a proposition and has a truth value.

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

Statement involving the n variables
I Example Let Q(x, y) denote the statement “x = y + 3.” What
are the truth values of the propositions Q(1, 2) and Q(3, 0)?
I Solution: To obtain Q(1, 2), set x = 1 and y = 2 in the
statement Q(x, y).
I Hence, Q(1, 2) is the statement “1 = 2 + 3, ” which is false.
I The statement Q(3, 0) is the proposition “3 = 0 + 3, ”
which is true.
I Similarly, we can let R(x, y, z) denote the statement
“x + y = z.” When values are assigned to the variables x, y,
and z, this statement has a truth value.
I In general, a statement involving the n variables
x1 , x2 , ..., xn can be denoted by P (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ).
I A statement of the form P (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) is the value of the
propositional function P at the n-tuple (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ), and
P is also called a predicate.
Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers
Quantifiers
I Now we will see another way of creating a proposition from a
propositional function called Quantification.
I There are two types of quantification, namely, universal
quantification and existential quantification.
I The area of logic that deals with predicates and quantifiers is
called the predicate calculus.
THE UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER
I Many mathematical statements assert that a property is true
for all values of a variable in a particular domain, called the
universe of discourse or the domain.
I The universal quantification of P(x) is the proposition “P(x) is
true for all values of x in the universe of discourse.”
I The notation
∀xP (x)
denotes the universal quantification of P(x). Here ∀ is called
the universal quantifier.
Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers
The Universal Quantifiers
I The proposition
∀xP (x)
is read as “for all x P(x)” or “for every x P(x).”
I Example: Let Q(x) be the statement “x < 2.” What is the
truth value of the quantification

∀xQ(x),

where the universe of discourse consists of all real numbers?

I Solution: Q(x) is not true for every real number x, since, for
instance, Q(3) is false. Thus

∀xQ(x)

is false.

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

Domain of interpretation

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

Example

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

Solution

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

The Universal Quantifiers

I When all the elements in the universe of discourse can be

listed - say, x1 , x2 , ..., xn - it follows that the universal
quantification
∀xP (x)
is the same as the conjunction

P (x1 ) ∧ P (x2 ) ∧ ... ∧ P (xn )

since this conjunction is true if and only if P (x1 ), P (x2 ), ...,
P (xn ) are all true.

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

Example: For ∀xP (x)

I Example: What is the truth value of ∀xP (x), where P(x) is

the statement “x2 < 10” and the universe of discourse
consists of the positive integers not exceeding 4?
I Solution: The statement ∀xP (x) is the same as the
conjunction
P (1) ∧ P (2) ∧ P (3) ∧ P (4),
since the universe of discourse consists of the integers 1, 2, 3,
and 4.
I Since P(4), which is the statement “42 < 10, ” is false, it
follows that ∀xP (x) is false.

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

THE EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER
I The existential quantification of P(x) is the proposition
“There exists an element x in the universe of discourse such
that P(x) is true.”
I We use the notation
∃xP (x)
for the existential quantification of P(x).
I Here ∃ is called the existential quantifier.
I The existential quantification

∃xP (x)

is read as
I “There is an x such that P(x),”
I “There is at least one x such that P(x),” or
I “For some x P(x).”

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

Example: For ∃xP (x)
I Example: Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 3.” What is
the truth value of the quantification ∃xP (x), where the
universe of discourse consists of all real numbers?
I Solution: Since “x > 3.” is true -for instance, when x = 4 -the
existential quantification of P(x), which is ∃xP (x), is true.
I When all elements in the universe of discourse can be listed -
say, x1 , x2 , ..., xn - it follows that the existential
quantification
∃xP (x)
is the same as the disjunction

P (x1 ) ∨ P (x2 ) ∨ ... ∨ P (xn )

since this disjunction is true if at least one of P (x1 ), P (x2 ),
..., P (xn ) are all true.

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers
Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers
Binding Variables
I When a quantifier is used on the variable x or when we assign
a value to this variable, we say that this occurrence of the
variable is bound.
I An occurrence of a variable that is not bound by a quantifier
or set equal to a particular value is said to be free.
I All the variables that occur in a propositional function must
be bound to turn it into a proposition.
I This can be done using a combination of universal quantifiers,
existential quantifiers, and value assignments.
I For example: In the statement ∃xQ(x, y), the variable x is
bound by the existential quantification ∃x, but the variable y
is free because it is not bound by a quantifier and no value is
assigned to this variable.

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

Binding Variables- Example

I In the statement ∃x(P (x) ∧ Q(x)) ∨ ∀xR(x), all variables are

bound.
I The scope of the first quantifier, ∃x, is the expression
P (x) ∧ Q(x) because ∃x is applied only to P (x) ∧ Q(x) , and
not to the rest of the statement.
I Similarly, the scope of the second quantifier, ∀x, is the
expression R(x).
I That is, the existential quantifier binds the variable x in
P (x) ∧ Q(x) and the universal quantifier ∀x binds the variable
x in R(x).

Remudin Reshid Mekuria 1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

 Proof methods
• We will discuss ten proof methods:
1. Direct proofs
2. Indirect proofs
3. Vacuous proofs
4. Trivial proofs
5. Proof by contradiction
6. Proof by cases
7. Proofs of equivalence
8. Existence proofs
9. Uniqueness proofs
10. Counterexamples
2
 Direct proofs
• Consider an implication: p→q
– If p is false, then the implication is always true
– Thus, show that if p is true, then q is true

• To perform a direct proof, assume that p is

true, and show that q must therefore be
true

3
 Direct proof example
• Rosen, section 1.5, question 20
– Show that the square of an even number is an
even number
– Rephrased: if n is even, then n2 is even

• Assume n is even
– Thus, n = 2k, for some k (definition of even
numbers)
– n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2)
– As n2 is 2 times an integer, n2 is thus even
4
 Indirect proofs
• Consider an implication: p→q
– It’s contrapositive is ¬q→¬p
• Is logically equivalent to the original implication!
– If the antecedent (¬q) is false, then the
contrapositive is always true
– Thus, show that if ¬q is true, then ¬p is true

• To perform an indirect proof, do a direct

proof on the contrapositive
5
 Indirect proof example
• If n2 is an odd integer then n is an odd integer

• Prove the contrapositive: If n is an even integer,

then n2 is an even integer

• Proof: n=2k for some integer k (definition of even

numbers)
• n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2)
• Since n2 is 2 times an integer, it is even
6
 Which to use
• When do you use a direct proof versus an
indirect proof?

• If it’s not clear from the problem, try direct

first, then indirect second
– If indirect fails, try the other proofs

7
 Example of which to use
• Rosen, section 1.5, question 21
– Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is
even

• Via direct proof

– n3+5 = 2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd
numbers)
– n3 = 2k-4
– n  3 2k  4
– Umm…

• So direct proof didn’t work out. Next up: indirect

proof
8
 Example of which to use
• Rosen, section 1.5, question 21 (a)
– Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is
even

• Via indirect proof

– Contrapositive: If n is odd, then n3+5 is even
– Assume n is odd, and show that n3+5 is even
– n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
– n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
– As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it is even
9
 Proof by contradiction
• Given a statement p, assume it is false
– Assume ¬p

• Prove that ¬p cannot occur

– A contradiction exists

• Given a statement of the form p→q

– To assume it’s false, you only have to consider the
case where p is true and q is false

10
 Proof by contradiction example 1
• Theorem (by Euclid): There are infinitely many
prime numbers.

• Proof. Assume there are a finite number of primes

• List them as follows: p1, p2 …, pn.
• Consider the number q = p1p2 … pn + 1
– This number is not divisible by any of the listed primes
• If we divided pi into q, there would result a remainder of 1
– We must conclude that q is a prime number, not among
the primes listed above
• This contradicts our assumption that all primes are in the list
p1, p2 …, pn. 11
 Proof by contradiction example 2
• Rosen, section 1.5, question 21 (b)
– Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is even
– Rephrased: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even
• Thus, p is “n3+5” is odd, q is “n is even”
• Assume p and q
– Assume that n3+5 is odd, and n is odd
• Since n is odd:
– n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
– n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
– As n = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, n must be even
– Thus, we have concluded q
• Contradiction!
– We assumed q was false, and showed that this assumption implies that q must
be true
– As q cannot be both true and false, we have reached our contradiction 12
 A note on that problem…
• Rosen, section 1.5, question 21
– Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is even
– Here, our implication is: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even

• The indirect proof proved the contrapositive: ¬q → ¬p

– I.e., If n is odd, then n3+5 is even
• The proof by contradiction assumed that the implication
was false, and showed that led to a contradiction
– If we assume p and ¬q, we can show that implies q
– The contradiction is q and ¬q

• Note that both used similar steps, but are different

means of proving the implication
14
 How others explain
proof by contradiction
• A very poor explanation, IMHO

• Suppose q is a contradiction (i.e. is always false)

• Show that ¬p→q is true
– Since the consequence is false, the antecedent must be
false
– Thus, p must be true
• Find a contradiction, such as (r¬r), to represent q
• Thus, you are showing that ¬p→(r¬r)
– Or that assuming p is false leads to a contradiction
15
 Vacuous proofs
• Consider an implication: p→q

• If it can be shown that p is false, then the

implication is always true
– By definition of an implication

• Note that you are showing that the

antecedent is false
16
 Vacuous proof example
• Consider the statement:
– All criminology majors in CS 202 are female
– Rephrased: If you are a criminology major and
you are in CS 202, then you are female
• Could also use quantifiers!

• Since there are no criminology majors in

this class, the antecedent is false, and the
implication is true
17
 Trivial proofs
• Consider an implication: p→q

• If it can be shown that q is true, then the

implication is always true
– By definition of an implication

• Note that you are showing that the

conclusion is true
18
 Trivial proof example
• Consider the statement:
– If you are tall and are in CS 202 then you are
a student

• Since all people in CS 202 are students,

the implication is true regardless

19
 Proof by cases
• Show a statement is true by showing all
possible cases are true

• Thus, you are showing a statement of the

form:  p  p  ...  p   q
1 2 n

is true by showing that:

  p1  p2  ...  pn   q     p1  q    p2  q   ...   pn  q  
20
 Proof by cases example
a a
• Prove that 
b b
– Note that b ≠ 0
• Cases:
– Case 1: a ≥ 0 and b > 0 a a a
 
• Then |a| = a, |b| = b, and b b b
– Case 2: a ≥ 0 and b < 0 a
a a a
• Then |a| = a, |b| = -b, and b
  
b b b
– Case 3: a < 0 and b > 0
a a a a
• Then |a| = -a, |b| = b, and   
b b b b
– Case 4: a < 0 and b < 0
a a a a
• Then |a| = -a, |b| = -b, and   
b b b b
21
 The thing about proof by cases
• Make sure you get ALL the cases
– The biggest mistake is to leave out some of the cases

• Don’t have extra cases

– We could have 9 cases in the last example
• Positive numbers
• Negative numbers
• Zero
– Those additional cases wouldn’t have added anything
to the proof

22
 Proofs of equivalences
• This is showing the definition of a bi-
conditional

• Given a statement of the form “p if and

only if q”
– Show it is true by showing (p→q)(q→p) is
true

24
 Proofs of equivalence example
• Rosen, section 1.5, question 40
– Show that m2=n2 if and only if m=n or m=-n
– Rephrased: (m2=n2) ↔ [(m=n)(m=-n)]
• Need to prove two parts:
– [(m=n)(m=-n)] → (m2=n2)
• Proof by cases!
• Case 1: (m=n) → (m2=n2)
– (m)2 = m2, and (n)2 = n2, so this case is proven
• Case 2: (m=-n) → (m2=n2)
– (m)2 = m2, and (-n)2 = n2, so this case is proven
– (m2=n2) → [(m=n)(m=-n)]
• Subtract n2 from both sides to get m2-n2=0
• Factor to get (m+n)(m-n) = 0
• Since that equals zero, one of the factors must be zero
• Thus, either m+n=0 (which means m=n) or m-n=0 (which
means m=-n) 25
 Existence proofs
• Given a statement: x P(x)
• We only have to show that a P(c) exists for
some value of c

• Two types:
– Constructive: Find a specific value of c for
which P(c) exists
– Nonconstructive: Show that such a c exists,
but don’t actually find it
• Assume it does not exist, and show a contradiction
26
 Constructive existence proof
example
• Show that a square exists that is the sum
of two other squares
– Proof: 32 + 42 = 52

• Show that a cube exists that is the sum of

three other cubes
– Proof: 33 + 43 + 53 = 63

27
 Non-constructive existence proof
example
• Rosen, section 1.5, question 50
• Prove that either 2*10500+15 or 2*10500+16 is not a
perfect square
– A perfect square is a square of an integer
– Rephrased: Show that a non-perfect square exists in the set
{2*10500+15, 2*10500+16}

• Proof: The only two perfect squares that differ by 1 are 0

and 1
– Thus, any other numbers that differ by 1 cannot both be perfect
squares
– Thus, a non-perfect square must exist in any set that contains
two numbers that differ by 1
– Note that we didn’t specify which one it was!
28
 Uniqueness proofs
• A theorem may state that only one such
value exists

• To prove this, you need to show:

– Existence: that such a value does indeed
exist
• Either via a constructive or non-constructive
existence proof
– Uniqueness: that there is only one such value
29
 Uniqueness proof example
• If the real number equation 5x+3=a has a
solution then it is unique

• Existence
– We can manipulate 5x+3=a to yield x=(a-3)/5
– Is this constructive or non-constructive?

• Uniqueness
– If there are two such numbers, then they would fulfill
the following: a = 5x+3 = 5y+3
– We can manipulate this to yield that x = y
• Thus, the one solution is unique! 30
 Counterexamples
• Given a universally quantified statement, find a single
example which it is not true

• Note that this is DISPROVING a UNIVERSAL statement

by a counterexample

 x ¬R(x), where R(x) means “x has red hair”

– Find one person (in the domain) who has red hair

• Every positive integer is the square of another integer

– The square root of 5 is 2.236, which is not an integer

31
 A note on counterexamples
• You can DISPROVE something by showing a
single counter example
– You are finding an example to show that something is
not true

• You cannot PROVE something by example

• Example: prove or disprove that all numbers are

even
– Proof by contradiction: 1 is not even
– (Invalid) proof by example: 2 is even

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 Mistakes in proofs
• Modus Badus
– Fallacy of denying the hypothesis
– Fallacy of affirming the conclusion
• Proving a universal by example
– You can only prove an existential by example!
• Disproving an existential by example
– You can only disprove a universal by
example!

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