4 COUNTABLE AND

UNCOUNTABLE SETS
4.1 INTRODUCTION

Inthischapter, we shallstudy same importanttopics

likeCantor'sDiagonalArgument
theorem,Cantor's Power Settheorem, CantorBernsteintheorem,etc.Thesetheoremn arewidely
used to solve problemson countabilityand uncountability
of infinite
sets.
Enumerableor Denumerable or CountablyInfinite
Set
A setX issaidto be enumerableif thereexistsa one-one and onto functionfrom the
setN (setof naturalnumbers)to the set X.An enumerable
set isalsoknown as denumerable
setor countablyinfinite set.
Countableset:A setX issaidto be countable ifit iseitherfinite or enumerable.
Uncountableset or uncountablyinfiite set:A set whichisnot countableissaidto
be uncountable. An uncountableset isalso known as uncountably
infinite set.
Forexamples:(i) iscountable.
(ü)The set (1,5,9,20;iscountableas it isa finite
set.
(ii)The sets N, Z and Q are countable.(See example 10,Theorem
(iv)The setR isuncountable.
Vand example ll)
(See theorem IV)
Theorem I.Euerysubsetofa countable set iscountable.
Proof.LetA be a countable set and B issubset of A.

Case I.
IfA isfinite,
then B beinga subsetofa finite
set,isfinite
and hencecountable.

.
(Everysubsetof a finite
set isfinite).
II.
Case
,
IfA isenumerable,then A can be writtenas A = la,,
IfB= then B iscountable.
IfB then inthesequenceof elementsof A,thereisfirst
a,,a,,......

elementinA is a e B.
Takeb,= a.The secondelementinA is a, B.Takeb,= ap,.Thisprocessdoes or does not
€

terminateaccordingas B isfinite
or not.SinceA containsallthe elementsof B,the possible
terminatingsequenceofelementsof B is b, b,,b,
Biseitherfiniteor enumerable.Hence B iscountable,
Theorem II.
If and B arecountable,then
A
AnBisalsocountableor intersection
of
two countablesets iscountable.
Proof.
GivenA and B arecountablesets.
AlsoAn BcA.ie.,
A
Since A iscountable,
AnBisasubset of and A
nBis alsocountable.(Everysubset of countablesetiscountable).
a

4.1
 MATHEMMATE
4.2 set is uncountable.
of an uncountable
c B. i.e., a superset
B is
of
Theorem III. Every superset
suchthat
A
A.We
and B is cB, A isalso countable,
a
Let A is uncountable shoy
then,since A
Proof. is
Forif B countable, contradictio
Bis uncountable. Hence B isuncountable.
as A is uncountable.
EXAMPLES
ILLUSTRATIVE
oftwo countablyinfinite
to show thatintersection
Example 1. Givean exomple sets can

be finite infinite.
or countably
sets.
countablyinfinite
Sol.LetA and B are two
naturalnumbers and B as a set of even naturalnumbers
Take as a set
A of odd

A1,
3,5,7,9, ...
and B= (2,4, 6,8, 10,

Then AnB=0.which is finite

nunbers,
natural

Then
take B =N, the set
Further,
AnB=
of

AnN=1,3,5, 7,9, ....

1, 2,3,4,5, 6,....
3, 5,7, 9,....,
={1, =A,which iscountablyinfinite.
Giveexamplestoshow thattheintersectiontwo uncountably
of
Example 2. infinite sets
can be:
()countablyinfinite uncountable.
(ii)
and are uncountably setsand
infinite N be the set of natural
Sol. Let A B
numbers.

()
Take A= 2NUN, B= (2N x 2N UN
Then,A o B=(2NUN) o (2Nx2M)UN) =N,which iscountablyinfinite.
(ii)Take A= 2N, B= 2N, then AB= 2N 2N= 2N, whichisuncountable.
n
(verify
it)
Example 3.Show that atthe most countably
infinite
number ofbooks can be writtmi
Punjabi.
number,say,Nof books in Puniabi
Sol.Assume thatupto thismoment, some finite am

The successorof N is + 1.
writteninPunjabi. N
eachnext book in Punjabi
i.e., willbe mapped withthesuccessorof N,and so on. This means
thereexists1-1correspondencebetween theelements inN and elementsinset of bookx Rt
N iscountably infinite
set,hence infinite isPuniabi
number ofbooks can be written
Example 4. Statewhether the followingsets arefinite,
countablyinfinite,
uncountady
infinite:
(i)Classofallprogramms thatcan everbe written inprogramming language
(iü)Allmoviesproducedby A.R.Rehman. (ii) Number offishin Hind Maha Sagar
(iv)Setofallprimes. (u)Set ofreal numbers in(0, }
Sol.(i)Countablyinfinite () Finite
Finite
(iii) (iv)Countablyinfinite
(u)Uncountably infinite.
(See theorem IV)
 COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE SETS
4.3

Theorem IV. Cantor'sDiagonalArgument: The set of reals

isuncountable
Lemma. The setof allrealsin[0, 1] is
uncountable.
Proof.
Suppose,ifpossible,
the setofallrealsin [0,1]
iscountable.
infiniteset,itisenumerableor denumerableor countably Since(0,1]1san
a,,
as fa,, ... infinite
and hence canbe expressed
, .,
Now, everyrealnumberin[0, 1]can be uniquelywrittenasa
ag

non-terminating
decimalfraction 0. x x 0Sx, s9
For example:
-0.1428571428571..
Therefore,
expressingeveryrealnumber a,,
a..a......
as a non-terminating
fraction
as decimal

a, 0.a,
=

a, = 0.a1
= 0.d1gg gg
= 0.4,1
a42 43 ****.

a, = 0. dn2 n3
a,1 ***)

where a, {0,1,2, 3, 4,5,6,7,8, 9} (Forexample,ifa,=

€
0.4389765..then a,,
=4, a,23,
a,,
= 8 and so on). We can form a new non-terminatingdecimalfractionas
b=0.b,b,b, ..,
where the decimaldigitsare determinedby the following
rule.

b, =
J1ifa,#1
2 if a =2
For example,ifa, = 0.2567984...,a,=0.2259014..., a,=
a, = 0.094453...,
and so on,thenb, =2since a,,
0.80224900..., =2, b,= 2 sincea,,=2,b, lsince
a33=4 *1,b,=2 since a =2and so on.Thus b = 0.2212 and the realnumber b is
notequal to any of a,
a,lg
Thus,we canobtaina realnumber b whichisnotinthelist a, ..,
(a,, a, a contradiction
to the assumptionthatallreal numbers in(0, 1]canbe expressedas {a,,
a,,
ag ....
Henceallreal
numbers in{0,1}isuncountable. We now proveour theorem.
SinceO, 1] c R and [0, 1]isuncountable, R must be uncountablebecausesupersetset
of an uncountable setisuncountable,Theorem III.
Cor.UsingCantor'sDiagonalArgumenttheorem,show thattheset ofallirrationals is
uncountable.
LetR = IUQwhere istheset of
Proof. I allirrationals
and Q
istheset of allrationals
Let, I
ifpossible,iscountable.
Since,Q iscountableand unionoftwo countablesetsiscountable.
thisimpliesR iscountablewhichcontradicts
(SeeQ.9.Assignment4.1), the Cantor's Diagonal
Argumenttheorem.Hence,thesetofallirrationals isuncountable.

4.1.1Cardinality
of Infinite
Sets
The most familiar setsareN,Z,Q,R,(0, 1]etc.
infinite We now discusstheir
cardinality.
The cardinal set N (theset of naturals)
number of theinfinite isdenotedby the symbol
(readas aleph-naught).
Thissymbol isdue to Cantor.
4.4

as
Let A set. We say
be an infinite
3 a one-one and onto map
N.i.e.,
from N
| A|=N, card
or (A)=,
iff has A
thesame
to A. A setA with cardinality
finite
or
DISCRETE

MATHEMATICA

iscardinality
which iseither
or denumerable set. set
countablyinfinite
A
denumerable said
is to
said
e
countableset. tobe
say has cardinality a Ciff
be an infinite
set. We A
Again,let one-oneand
to The
A

lable Cis due tothefactthattheset [0, is oftencalled Onto 1]

from [0,1] A. map
Discussthe continum,
Example 5. Let and Bare any arbitrary
sels.
A cardinalityof A
UB.
Sol.We discussthe followingcases
Case I.
When
then
A and B are bothfinite,
AUB will also be finite.
Therefore,
finite.
n(AU B) =

Case WhenII. isfinite

and A B is countably infinite.
Then
AUBwillbe
Therefore,the cardinality
ininite. A UB iscountably infinite. countahly

of
Case III.
When A is countablyinfiniteand B is then AUBis
fnite, countably
Therefore,the cardinalityof A UB is countably infinite. infinite.

Case IV, and B are both countablyinfinite,

When A
then will
be AUB
ininite. of AU Biscountably
Hence, the cardinality infinite. countably

Case When A and B are both uncountable,then A u B is also uncountable.

V.

cardinalityof Au
B isuncountablyinfinite. The

Example 6. Findthe cardinality

thatthesetsE,Cand B are countable.
(i) E=0,2, 4, 6,
(im) B=6, 7, 8, 9...
..
of each thefollowingsets. Hence or

(ii)F={10,20,30, 40, ...)

of
otherwise sho

Sol.(i)Define N
n, n,
E by
2n, 2n.,
f: f)
= 2n. Letn,,n,e Nsuch that
fn) f(n,).Thus fisone-one.
Also,letm e E such thatf(n)= m 2n = m n
n
2
Now foreach m e E we have n e fisonto. N.:.
Hence, the set E hassamne cardinality
as N. therefore,
card(E)= = |E| N

Sincecard(E)= |E|=, the set E isdenumerable and hence countable.

(i)
Defne N f: F
by f(n)= 10n.Proceedingsimilarly as inpart (),we can sho
card(F) =|F| N Hence,the set F isdenumerable and henec countable.
=

(ii)Leftas exerciseto the reader.Hint. Definef:N B by f (n)= n +5.

similarproblem:Show thatthe set of odd positiveintegers
A
is countable. Hint
Definef:NZ* (The set of oddtveintegers) by f(n) = 2n-1. Show fisone-one and ont
Theorem V.Findthe cardinality of the set Z, the set of integers.Hence or
others
show thatthe set Z of integersiscountable.

Sol.Defne f:N Z by fn)=

n-1), ...
ifn=1,3,5,
,ifn=
n
2 2, 4, ...
6,

We show f isone-oneand onto.

 COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE SETS

One-one:Let n, n,E 4.5

Nsuch thatf(n,)= fn,).
Thisimplies
1
-1)=(n,
-1) 5,...
2 ifn =1,3,
2 2 ifn =2,4,6, ...
=n,Vn,n,E N.Thus,fisone-one.
n,
Onto:etm e Z such that
f(n)= m. This implies.
1

5n-1)=m ifm =0,1,2,3,...

=m ifm=-1,-2,-3,...
2

n=2m+leN ifm =0,1,2,3,...

1 n=-2me N m=1,-2,-3,...
if
n =1,3,
5,...
n=2,4,6,
... ne N. Thus fisonto.
N and have same cardinality
Z

|Z|= card(Z)= N,
Since,| Z|=
Note:The following
,
Z isdenumerableand hence countable.
scheme shows one-one correspondencebetween the elements
ofN and Z.
N= 1 2 3 5 6 7 8

Z= 0 -1 -2 -3 4.
Example 7.LetS={a,, a,a,... }be an infinite
sequence of distinct
elements.Show that
|A|=NoHence or otherwisededuce that iscountable. S

Sol.Define f:..
N S by fn)= a,.Let n,,n,e N such that n,* n,and consider
ffn)= On ng = fn,). fisone-one.Also,f is
The setS has the same cardinality
Further, since |S |=
onto (why ?)

,
asN. S
itimpliesS isdenumerable and hence countable.
||=
Equipotent Sets:LetA andB areany sets.Then and Baresaidto be equipotentor A

have the same cardinality if a one-one and onto functionfrom A to B and we write

|A | = |B|.
relation.
Theorem VI.Equipotenceisan equivalence
Proof. Let and B areequipotent
A sets.Now any set satisfies A|because A |A|=|
r:
Let || |B|.
f=A A definedby f(a)=a isclearlya one-one and onto function.
=
A
f:A
then a function
Im ()A isone-one andonto. Sincefis
B which is one-one and onto. Also,
onto,Im ()=B. Therefore,fl:BA isa one-one

Finally,| |B|,|B|
and onto functionand hence |B|=|AI.
if A
Since |A|=| B |
=|CI, |= then ye need toprove
fA B which isone-one and onto.
||=|C
A

Also |B| =| C| :B C which isone and onto.

|A|=ICI
IIIChapter
of 3 gof:A C is one-oneandonto.Thus,
Using T'heorem
relation.
Hence,equipotenceisan equivalence
 DISCRETE
MATHEMATICS

4.6

Cardinality
and Bljective
Let A
saY |A|<I
and B are
B|if3
Functions
any sets, We say

a one-one,
but no
function
onto
from
function
to B.
|
ifanone-one function
from
A|s|B|
to
from
B.
toB.
Purther,
A
Also,
We say
A
A

we

LAL=1 one-oneand onto

B|iT3a
Theorenn VII.
Let A be a set,then
finite |A|<
N, <C, where thesymbols
hauetheir

usual meaning.
Proof Considerthe set
2, 0, 1,2, ...
m-1},the sett of integersmodule m,

isnls0 inite set and hence itsCardinality

isalso Cleatly.
of 2
thecaninality is m. Here A n
finite,
say
Thus 1 A|=12,
m.
Deine ZNby f) Clenrly/ one-one.But, we
is
Hence,
set and A isfinite),
Cannot have a onto

2 to N. (BecauseN isannfinite

Further,theset j0,1| isuncountableand hence therecannot be a one-one and

onto mag

from [0,1] we can havea one-one map g:N

to N. But, - [0,1]definedby gn)=
1

n+2 as follos
Let n,e N such thatn, n,
n,, n, + 2 n,+ 2

n,+2 ny +2 gn)gn)
Hence g:N 0, 1] isone-one.Therefore,

||=|B|| =| | |
|N|<I 0, 1]|=c or to <c
Combining (1)
and (2),we have A |<N,<c.
Example 8.If A and D|,
then |C| A xC| = BxD|. HencE af

otheruiseshow that ifC and D areeqjpotent

sets,then A x Cand B x Dare alsoequipolent
sets,

Sol.Since |A|=|B
1,thereexists
a
1C1=1D|implies3a one-oneand onto functiong:CD.
one-one and onto function
h:AxCBxDb
Define
f: AB Simlart.

h(a,c)= V(a),glc)
h isone-one: c,).
Let (a,, (a,,c,)e A x C such that(a,c,) (a,, C).Thisimphes
a, a, and c, C.
#

Sincefand g areone-one,thisgivesf(a)* fa,) and g(e,) g(e,)

(a,).
g(e)) z fa,),ge,) h(a,c,)# h(a, c)
h 1s One-one.

bE B3ae
h isonto.Let (b,d) e B x
A such that f (a)= b.
D,then be B and d e D.Sincef isonto, r
foreach de D, ce C such thatge)=d
Similarly,
AB
Hence, hla,c)= (a),
gc))= (b, d).Thisìmpliesh isonto
isone-oneand onto,we have |A x C|= |Bx D |.
Sinceh
Theorem VIlI. Cantor's Power Set Theorem: The pouerset P(S) f y S
strictly
larger
cardinalitythan theset S,ie,for any set S, we have
|S|<|PE
Proof.To prove IS|<|P
(i)To prove 8 ||sI
between S anda subsetsE of P(S).
(S) 1, we shallpove
) |Sis| PS) |and (i)|S| |P(S) I
PS) L,itis
By doing this,
toproduceta a One-one
eqvivalent and ontofuctiou
of
we willbe ableto saythatthe cardinahty
 AND UNCOUNTABLE SETS
COUNTABLE 4.7

is of same sizeas thatof the subset E which itself

S
thanthe
cannothave a biggercardinality
cardinality
P(S). DefineE= {lal
of S) :ae
where (a} c P{S). Ec P(S) i.e.
Clearly is
subset of P(S) as it does not
fSE
containtheempty set . E a proper

Define by f(x)= (x.

(singleton
set)
fisone-one:Letx,ye S such thatf()= f(y) x = y} x=y (equalityof two
sets).Thus fisone-one.
singletion
fisonto:LetbE E,thenJaeSsuch thatb=fa.Also , f(a) = fa= b which impliesfis
onto.
Thus,f:SE
(ii)
Toprove |
is one-oneand ontoandhence

ST*|P(S)1,we need to show

||
|S =|
E s|(S)|. P

thereisno ontomap from S to P(S).Let

SP(S) be any function.
We claim isnot onto.Suppose, isonto.
g
g

LetT =(r:re
S, x* g(x)}be the set of allthose elements S whose image under g does
of

not includex itself.

Then,clearly T S c Te P(S).Sinceg isonto,thereexistsa e S such
thatg(a)=T.Considerthefollowingcases.
Case I.If ae T,thenby definition, Butg(a)=T
a g(a). a shouldbe equaltog(a)
ifaeT,a contradiction.
Case II. T,then by definition,
a = gla).But =T a has tobe inT,a

|
Ifa e gla)
contraction.
Hence,g cannotbe an onto function. Thisimplies S | |P(S)1.
Combining(i)and (iü),we have | S|<| P(S) |
Cor.IfS isan infinite
set,then,
Example 9.UsingCantor's
N,= |S|<|
P(S)I< PP(S) < ||
Power Set theorem, show thatPN) isuncountable.
S))I<... PPP(
Sol.ApplyingCantor's Power Settheorem,on N,we have | N | < P(N).
To show PN) isuncountable, we show thatP(N)isnot finite. Let,ifpossible, P(N)is
Then,we can finda subsetT={{n},ne Nc PN). We know thatevery subset of finite
finite. a

set isfinite.Therefore,T isfiniteand hence a one-one and onto functiong: N showing T

thatN isalso finite, Hence,P(N) isnot finite

a contraction. and hence itisuncountable.
LetX be a givenset and PX) be the set ofallsubsets ofX.
Monotonic Set Function:
P(X) issaid to be monotonic iffor each X, c X, c X, we
have
A set function f :P(X)
fX,)c fX,).
Theorem IX.FixedPointTheorem:Iff: PX) PX)be a then3
monotonicfunction,

X,cXsuch thatfX) = X i.e. f hasa fixed point.

of allsubsetsofX definedby
LetC be the collection
Proof.
C= {AcX: fA) C A}
Let X,= NA Ae C

By definition, cA CfA)CA foreach Ae C.

X, and sincefismonotonic, we have f(X) ..(1)
Inparticular, A by Xy,we have f(X)c X
replacing
Again, monotonic,(1)gives
sincefis

whichimpliesX,c fK). ..2)

Combining (1)and (2),we have fX) = X
 DISCRETE

4.8 Theorem:
f:
Let X Y and g: Y
MATHEMM

X. Schroedor-Bernstein h:X Y where X, Y

areany Xbetuo
ontofunction
Theorem
Then 3a one-one
and
P(X)by
P(A) = X-g(Y -f(A))
VACX. sets. ong.

onefunctions.
Proof.Define P:PX)- Let A, Baretwo propersubsets of X such that

claim is monotonic. AcB.The

We
A)C B) |Theorem XV(vii)
Y-fB)cY-(A) Chapter
"Se
Y-B)) (Y-A)) C
|Theoremin
X-g(Y-fA))CX-g(Y-fB))
Hence F ismonotonic.
Chayteri

C F(B),
F(A) = X,.
3 X,c X such that
FX,)
theorem,
UsingFixedpoint
Now =
X,= F(X,) X-g(Y-fX))
X- X, =8(Y -X))
Thus,forenclrxeX- X,Bye
Y-fX)such thatg)=x showing gis
implies is
T'his invertible and hence g exists.
g
isgiventhat is one-one.
Also it g
y=g'(). Define a function h:. Ta
ye Y, 3xe such thatgo) =x
X XY by
foreach
f(x), ifxe Xo
h(x)=
g'(*), ifXe X- X

one-one and onto.

We show h iswell-define,
h is well-defined.Let xe
X.There aretwo possiblecases.
()Ifxe X,
then h(¢) =f)
iswell-definedsincef:X Yisa function.

iswell-defn
(ü)IfxeX-X then,sinceg() existsforeach x € X,hence h(z)
one-one.Let x,x,€ X such thatx,# x,.We need to show h(z,)hz).
h is

Considerthe followingpossibilities.
()x,,x, €Xo. Inthiscase,h(x) =fr)f(x,)
= h(r,) fsl
(:
..h isone-one
(i)x,€ X- X: X,e X- X Inthiscase,
= gg
g(hz,)) ()=x #x, =gg ())gh(x,)) =

.h
(üi)x,€
is one-one.
Xg
+ h()
h(r,)

h(r)
X,E X- Xg.Inthiscase,suppose,ifpossible, andeSr
= h(r,)
g(h(x)) = gg (x))
= glh(x,)) = x,
*,=gha,) = 8fr)) e X

Thus,we have
I,X-X,x, Xp
E E a since,
contraction X,nX-X,
Hence,we shouldhave h(x,) h(r,)
hisone-one.
x,e
(iv) X-*,E X Thiscase issimilarto(iii)
X afterinterchanging
h isonto.Lety e Y and considerthefollowingpossibilities
forgO
f)
()gy) e X.Inthiscase,g g ) = y= for some x e X, AXYand l:
y htx)provingthathisonto
(i)
go)e X- X Inthiscase,hlgo))=
isonto.Hence the theorem.
h
=y gg))
Remark,The above theorem isalsoknown as Cantor-l Theorem
-Bernstein
Sehroeder-Bernsteintheorem,
 AND UNCOUNTABLE
COUNTABLE SEETS

4.9
Example 10.Considerthe
f,g:
functions
and onto function NN
existsa one-one
h:N N? Hence
defined
or
by f(n) = g(n)=
otherwise provw
2n.Isthere

.
countable. thatthe set N is
Sol.Let n,,
n,E N and n,* Consider
f(n,) n.
= 2n, 2n,= f(n,).
Similarly,g:N -N isone-one, Using fNN isone-one.
onto functionh: NN.
Sincethereexists Schroeder-Bernsteintheorem, a one-one and
the set N iscountable. a one-oneand onto
h:
function N, N
therefore,
Example 11.Using
Cantor-Bernstein
theorem,prove thatthe set
ond Q, thesetofrationals
are equivalent
sets. Henceorotherwise
Nofnaturalnumbers
iscountable. show thattheset Qof rationals
Sol.The setsN and Q are
equivalentsets if a one-one and onto
Defne f N Qby f(n)= n. Clearly, f is
mapping from N to Q.
one-one.
Let 0 * q€ Qbe any non-zero
rational.
Then, we canwrite

q= a E,where b 0,e =+ 1,(a,b)= 1 and a,b e

N.

Define g:QN by g(g) = 2+13o 5b

Letq,,q,€ Q such thatq,=2+1g4 54 and q,=
2t+13^ 5 for a,,
b,,
a,,b, e N with
(a,,b,) b,)=1.Clearly
= 1,(a,, q,# q,.We show g isone-one.Consider
= 28+1
gla,) 3 54 28+1 gte 5° glg)
= g:Q N isone-one.
Using Cantor-Bernsteintheorem,3 a one-one and onto functionh: N Q.Hence,N
and Q areequivalentsets.Sincethereexistsa one-one and onto functionh:N Q,Therefore
theset Q iscountable.

ASSIGNEMENT 4.1

1.
2.
Let

If A
A

and
be an infinite
B
set and B

are any sets such that

be a finite
set.Show that
AcB.Then |A |s|B|.
||
A|> B|.
3. Show thatthe interval
(0,1) hasthesame cardinality
as the interval
(0, 7).

4.
Show thatthe interval ; as R (theset of reals).
has thesame cardinality

5. The set E ofeven integers

has thesame cardinality Prove it.
as the set Z of integers.
iscountable.Also,
6. Prove thattheset Qof rationals writetheone-onecorrespondencefromN to Q
7. Determinewhether thefollowing setsarecountable or uncountable. your caim.
Justify
(a)The set of negativeintegers. (6) The set of even integers.(c) The set of reals in (0,1).
(d)The set of integers
thataremultiple of 7.

6. Let A be an uncountableand B isa countable set.Show that A-B iscountable.

9. Show thatunion of two countablesetsis countable. (A.K.T.U.
2015)
 DISCRETE M

4.10 MATHEMATE

Answers

6. one-onecorrespondence:
5
3 A
1

2
4

3 3

4 5
4

Fig.
4.1
Uncountable.
7. (a)Countable (b)Countable.(c)Uncountable.(d)

||
Hintsto Selected Assignments
1. Let| B| set,it
=n.SinceA isinfinite has at leastn elments say, a,,a, D

Jb,, ifa =a,(i=1,

2, ..,
n)
f.A B by fa)= 1.
Clearlyf isonto. Hence
IA||B|. if
|
otherwise

Let, possible |
A
A
B |.
We
|=|B|.Then 3g:A
now show
B
which isone-one and onto.But A isinfinite, ithas atleast
(n + 1)distinct
one-one,gta,) ..
ga,), ga,),
a,
elements,say,a,, ag ...a a,+ Since g is
& (a,+)arealldifferent,so the
cardinalityof B must be at least n+1, acontradiction,
since
B|=n.Hrnce, IA|#|
B|.
2. Definef:A B by fa) =a
a e A. Since,f isone-one.
.. |A |s|B|.
3. Definef:(0,1) (0,7) by f)
=7x.Show f is and onto. 1-1
4. Definef:(- 2,
TU2) R by f)=
tan x. Usinggraph (Fig.
4.2),
Fig.
4.2 Graph of
fisone-one and onto (see GraphicalRepresentation of
functions,
Chapter 3)
5. Define Z f: 22 by fn)
= 2n. Show fisone-oneand onto,
9. Case I.If and B areboth finite,
A then so isAUB.
AU B iscountable.
Case IL.Ifone ofA and B isfinite
and the other isdenumerable,
Letus aASume thatA isfiniteand Bisdenumerable, Then we canwrite
Let C= B-A,then CcB
SinceA isfinite,
C is finite.

C being an infinite
subset of a
denumerable get is denumerable,so we
can exprs

Clearly, AUB=AC= and A nC=

 AND
COUNTABLE UNCOUNTABLE SETS

4.11
Definef. NAUC ifk=1,2,
=
by f(k) ......
C-m

m
ifkm+1
Then fis
one-one and onto.This
Coe AUB=AUCit verifies
that AUCis
countable.
followsthat A B is also
AUB isdenumerable countable.
Case II.
If andB areboth
A
AUB iscountable.
denumerable sets,we
Let C = B- A,then Cc
B and A UB= AUC. can writeA ={a,, a,,
aq,..};
B= b,b b,y
IECisfinite,
then Au C iscountable.
(By case II)

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Whichof thefollowing set iscountable?
(a) The setof primes (b) The set of rationals
(c) The setof even integers (d) Alltheabove.
2. Which one of the followingisa truestatement
(a) Everysupersetofan uncoundtable set isuncountable
(b) Intersection
of two countablesetsiscountable
(c) Unionof two countablesets iscountable
(d) Allabove.
3. Which one of the followingisa falsestatement?
(a) The set of realsisuncountable [0,1]isuncountable
(b)The closedinterval

(c) iscountable
The setof irrationals (d) None.
4. The statement R isuncountable"isknown as
(b)Cantor'sPower Settheorem
(a) Cantor'sDiagonalArgument
(d) None.
Cantor'sFixed Pointtheorem
(c)

The functionf:NZ (the set

of odd tve integers)defined
by f(n)=2n is -1
5.
(6) Ontobut not one-one
(a) One-one,but not onto onto.
(d) Both one-one and
(c) Neitherone-onenoronto
iff
and Y areany sets.Then X and Y are
equipotent
6. Let X

(b) | XI<|Y|
(a) | |>|Y|
X
(d) None.
(c) |X|s|Y| one isa true statement?
power set.Then,which
PP(A))I
and P(A)be its
LetA isany set (b) | A |<| P(A)|<|
(a) |A|
<|
P(A)
| <| PP(P(A)))
|
|
(d) Allabove. which is
(c) |A|<| P(A) there exists a function
Then,
injections.
8. Letf:. A B, g: B A be two
not one-one
(b) Onto but
onto.
(a) One-one,but notonto one-one nor
(d) Neither
(c) One-one and onto
= tanis
9. The function

(a) One-one
(
but notonto
R definedby f(x)
(6) Onto
butnot one-one
and onto.
(d)Bothone-one
(c) Neitherone-one nor onto
 DISCRETE
MATHEMATO
4.12
statement
10. Mark thecorrect
iscountable
(a)The empty set
(1,3,5,7,9,.....
iscountable
(6) The set B= 0} iscountable
(c) The setC = ...,
-5, - -3,-2,-1,
4,

(d) Allthe above.

Answers
4.(a)
3.(c)
1. () 2.(d)
7.(d)
8. (c)
5. () 6.(d)
9. () 10.(d)

TEAM PROJECTS
I:
Project Show thatthesetof realnumbers thatare
solutionsa
of + br+c=00
b,ce Z,arecountable.
II:
Project Provethatthe setZ* x Z iscountable.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
sets iscountablyinfinite.(AKTU MS
infinite
1. Provethatunionof two countably
setswith suitable
between equal and equivalent
2. Differentiate example.
AKTU 0S