HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Chemical Engineering

____________________________________________________________________

B49CF2

Process Modelling and Control

Semester 2 – 2012-2013
____________________________________________________________________

Monday, 13 May 2013

Time: 09.30 – 11.30

Duration: 2 hours

Information Section

Answer THREE out of the following FIVE questions.

Candidates are expected to make reasonable assumptions

where necessary

Where a distribution of marks within a question is shown, this should not be taken
to be definitive but is for guidance only
 B49CF2

2
 B49CF2

1.

a) Using the tables given, determine the Laplace transforms of the following
functions:

i. f (t ) = 3t + 3 exp(−4t + 2)
(2)
ii. f (t ) = 4 exp(−4t ) cos(4t )
(2)
1
b) Demonstrate that if f (τ ) = 1 − exp(−τ / τ) then [ f (τ )] =
s (τs + 1)
(3)

c) Determine the transfer functions for the following differential equations. Do not
attempt to solve the functions.

dy (t )
i. 2 + 2 y (t ) = 3 x(t ) − 2
dt
(2)
3 2
d ( y (t )) d ( y (t )) d ( y (t ))
ii. 4 3
+4 + = x(t ) + 6
dt dt 2 dt
(2)

d) Determine the inverse Laplace transforms of the following functions:

2
i. F (s) =
( s + 2) 3
(2)
1
ii. F (s) =
( s − 1) s
2

(4)

Cont’d..

3
 B49CF2

e) Determine for the following transfer functions whether their response is stable or
unstable, monotonic or oscillatory:

Y (s) 3 2
= +
X (s) s + 1 s − 1
i.
(2)
Y (s) 2
= 2
ii. X ( s) s + 2s + 1
(2)

f) Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure 1.1. Clearly show each intermediate
step taken.
(4)

G1(s)
Y(s)
G3(s)

X(s)
G2(s)

G4(s)

Figure 1.1. A block diagram

Cont’d..

4
 B49CF2

2.

In an ethylene glycol production process a stream of cold ethylene oxide is put through a
heat exchanger to warm it up to a specified temperature before it is fed to the reactor. To
prevent premature decomposition of the ethylene oxide in the reactor it is important to
ensure that the stream temperature going into the reactor never becomes substantially
higher than its setpoint value.

Three different ways of controlling the heat exchanger are given in Figures 2.1, 2.2 and
2.3

TC

TT

To reactor

Cold (ethylene oxide)

stream

Hot (oil) stream

Figure 2.1 Basic cold stream temperature control strategy

a) Sketch a block diagram for the feedback control scheme shown in Figure 2.1.
(5)
b) Determine for the system shown in Figure 2.1:

i. Whether the valve used should be fail open or fail close. Explain why.
(2)
ii. Whether the action of the controller has to be set to increase-increase or
increase-decrease. Explain why.
(2)

Cont’d..

5
 B49CF2

Hot by-pass
TC

TT

To reactor

Cold (ethylene oxide)

stream

Hot (oil) stream

Figure 2.2 Temperature control using a hot stream bypass strategy

c) Determine for the system shown in Figure 2.2:

i. Whether the valve used should be fail open or fail close. Explain why.
(2)
ii. Whether the action of the controller has to be set to increase-increase or
increase-decrease. Explain why.
(2)

Cont’d..

6
 B49CF2

TC

TT

To reactor

Cold (ethylene
oxide) stream

Hot (oil) stream

Cold by-pass

Figure 2.3. Temperature control using a cold stream bypass strategy

d) Determine for the system shown in Figure 2.3:

i. Whether the valve used should be fail open or fail close. Explain why.
(2)

ii. Whether the action of the controller has to be set to increase-increase or

increase-decrease. Explain why.
(2)

e) Which strategy (Fig 2.1, 2.2, 2.3) will have the fastest dynamic behaviour?
Explain why.
(3)

Cont’d..

7
 B49CF2

f) The PID controller used for controlling the temperature is described by the
equation:

Kc de(t )
m(t ) = m + K c e(t ) +
tI ∫ e(t )dt +K c t D
dt

With the corresponding transfer function:

1
M ( s ) = K c (1 + + τ D s) E (s)
τI

Sketch a graphic representation of the transfer function of the controller in the

form of a block diagram,

(5)

Cont’d..

8
 B49CF2

3.

The reactions in an isothermal continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) are described by
the equations:

d x1
= −2 x1 + 8u
dt

d x2
= 0.5 x1 − 2.5 x2 − u
dt

In which x 1 and x 2 are the concentrations of the two compounds that are involved in the
reactions.

x1 (0) = x2 (0) = 0 ; u = u(t)

a) If y = x 2 , show that the two equations can be rearranged to a second order

differential equation of the type:

d 2 y (t ) dy (t ) du (t )
+ a1 + a 2 y (t ) = b1 + b2u (t )
dt 2 dt dt
(6)

b) Determine the transfer function of the second order ODE derived in a)

1
[ y (t )] = Y ( s ) ; [u (t )] = U ( s ) = ;
s
(4)

c) Expand the transfer function by partial fractions. (5)

d) Invert each element back into the time domain. (5)

e) Make a sketch showing how y(t) changes as a function of time.

(5)

Cont’d..

9
 B49CF2

4.

The production of cyclopentenol from cyclopentadiene proceeds according to the

following set of reactions:

k1 k2
A→ B →C

k3
2A→ D

With A = cyclopentadiene; B = cyclopentenol; C = cyclopentanediol;

D = dicyclopentadiene

The molar rates of formation (per unit volume) of each component are:

r A = − k1C A − k3C A2

r B = k1C A − k 2C B

r C = k 2C B

r D = 12 k3C A2

The product concentration is measured and controlled by manipulating the feed flow rate
F (see Figure 4.1). The reactor volume V is kept constant. The concentration of
compound A at the inlet C Af varies, and can be considered as the disturbance variable .

CC
Feed F Tset

CT

V Products

Figure 4.1. Isothermal reactor for the production of cyclopentenol from cyclopentadiene.

Cont’d..

10
 B49CF2

a) Perform mass balances for compounds A, B, C, and D. This should give you 4
equations.
(4)
b) Using the balances for compounds A and B, show that the steady-state
concentration of compound A C A and compound B C B are described by:

2
 F   F  F
−  k1 +   k1 +  + 4k 3 C Af
 
CA =  +
V V V
2k 3 2k 3

k1 C A
CB =
F
+ k2
V

In which F is the steady-state flow rate, and C Af the steady state concentration
of compound A in the inflow.
(4)

c) The mass balance for compound A should contain a number of non-linear terms.
Linearise these non-linear terms.
(6)

d) Derive the transfer function for compound A.

(5)

e) The mass balance for compound B should contain a non-linear term. Linearise
this term.
(3)

f) Derive the transfer function for compound B.

(3)

Cont’d..

11
 B49CF2

5.

A fermenter has control systems for temperature, oxygen concentration in the water
phase, and pH.

Figure 5.1 shows the temperature control system. It consists of a simple feedback
control system.

TC
Tset

TT1

TT2

Cooling
water

Figure 5.1 System for temperature control of a fermenter.

a) Determine the fail position of the control valve. Explain why.

(2)

b) Is the controller set for direct or reverse action? Explain why.

(2)

c) The nominal cooling water flow f c (t) is 10 US gallon per minute. The pressure
drop across the control valve is 9 psi. The control valve has linear characteristics.
Size the valve for 100 % overcapacity, and choose a suitable valve from Table
5.1.
(5)

Cont’d..
12
 B49CF2

Table 5.1. Valve sizing table for Masoneilan valves.

Masoneilan 20000 series. C v values (in gallons per minute / (psi)1/2)

Orifice ¼ 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1.5 2 3 4 6 8 10

diameter
(in.)

Valve
size (in.)
¾ 1.7 3.7 6.4 11
1 1.7 3.7 6.4 11 10.3
1.5 1.7 3.8 6.6 12 11 25
2 1.7 3.8 6.7 13 16 26 46
3 14 31 47 110
4 32 49 113 195
6 53 126 208 400
8 133 224 415 640
10 233 442 848 1000

The range of the temperature sensor/transmitter is -10 to 140 oC. It has an output of
4 to 20mA. Its response to changes in temperature is very fast.

d) Why is a transmitter with a current output often preferable over one with a voltage
output?
(2)

e) Why is an output of 4-20mA used, and not one of 0-20 mA?

(2)

f) What is the gain of the temperature sensor and transmitter? Don’t forget to define
the units!
(2)

g) The oxygen concentration in the liquid can be measured during the fermentation
with an oxygen probe. A nitrogen and an air stream are available. Describe how
one would:

i. Calibrate the oxygen sensor

ii. Control the oxygen concentration during the fermentation.
(3)

13
 B49CF2

Cont’d..

h) The oxygen probe has a response time of 2 minutes. The transmitter has an
output of 4-20 mA. What is the transfer function that described the response of
the oxygen sensor and transmitter to a change in oxygen concentration?
(3)

i) Two bottles and two pumps are available for pH control. One of the bottles
contains a strong acid, the other a strong base. We want the pH during the
fermentation to remain at pH 6. The organism that we grow is a bacterium which
produces acid when fermenting the sugars in the medium. The pH of the medium
at the start of the fermentation, after sterilisation and inoculation, is 8. Describe a
control scheme that could be used for controlling the pH in the fermenter at its
setpoint during the fermentation.
(4)

14
 B49CF2

Cont’d..

B49CF2 Datasheets – Laplace transforms

The Laplace transform of an equation f (t ) is defined as:

∞
0[ f (t )] = F ( s ) = ∫ f (t ) exp(− st )dt
0

Table 1. Laplace transforms of

common functions.
Function f (t ) Laplace
transform Table 3. Second order system
F ( s ) = [ f (t )] Transfer  K 
function Y (s) =  2 2  X (s)
τ s + 2ζτ s + 1
Dirac function 1
δ (t )
Unit step u (t ) 1
Roots − ζ − ζ 2 −1
s r1 = ;
a a τ
s − ζ + ζ 2 −1
t 1 r2 =
τ
s2
tn n!
Damping Response
s n +1 ratio value
exp(−at ) 1 ζ ≥1 Overdamped= monotonic
s+a and stable
t exp(−at ) 1 ζ =1 Critically damped;
(s + a ) 2
monotonic and stable
t exp(−at )
n
n! 0 ≤ ζ ≤1 Underdamped=oscillatory
and stable
(s + a )n+1 ζ=0 Undamped=sustained
sin(ωt ) ω oscillations
s2 + ω 2 −1 ≤ ζ ≤ 0 Unstable; growing
cos(ωt ) s oscillations
s +ω2
2
ζ ≤ −1 Runaway; monotonic
exp(−at ) sin(ωt ) ω unstable
( s + a) 2 + ω 2
exp(−at ) cos(ωt ) s+a Underdamped step response
𝑟𝑟1 = 𝜌𝜌 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖; 𝑟𝑟2 = 𝜌𝜌 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
( s + a) 2 + ω 2
Period of T = 2π / ω
oscillation
Rise time = T /4
Table 2. First order system Decay ratio C/B = exp(−(ζ / τ )T )
Transfer  K  Overshoot B/A = exp(−(ζ / τ)T / 2)
function Y (s) =   X (s)
τ s + 1 Settling time = 5τ / ζ

Cont’d..

15
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16
 B49CF2

B49CF2 Datasheets (continued, 1)

Taylor series
One variable:
f '(x) f ''(x) f '''(x)
f ( x) = f ( x ) + (x − x) + (x − x)2 + ( x − x ) 3 + .......
1! 2! 3!
Two or more variables:
∂ f ( x1 ) ∂ f ( x2 )
f ( x1 , x 2 ,...) = f ( x1 , x 2 ,..) + ( x1 − x1 ) + ( x 2 − x 2 ) + .......
∂x1 ∂x 2

Control valve characteristics

∆Pv
A flow of liquid through a control valve is described by the equation: f = C v
Gf
In which f is the flow in US gallons per minute, ∆Pv the pressure drop across the
valve (in psi), G f the specific gravity of the fluid, i.e. the density of a fluid relative to
that of water. C v is the valve coefficient and has units gpm/(psi1/2)

The metric equivalent of C v is K v . It is defined as the volume flow in cubic metres per
hour of water at a pressure drop across the valve of 1 bar.
∆Pv
f = Kv
Gf
with f in m3/h, and ∆Pv in bar. K v has units m3/hr / (bar1/2).

Conversion between K v and C v is straightforward: K v = 0.86 × C v

Please be aware that K v can stand for the metric control valve coefficient or the
control valve gain. They have different meanings!

Control valve gain with constant pressure drop

f max
Control valve gain of valve with linear characteristics: K v = ± in gpm / %CO
100
ln α
For a valve with equal percentage characteristics: Kv = ± f (gpm / %CO)
100

Control valve gain with variable pressure drop

Control valave gain for a valve with linear characteristics:
1 C v max ∆p 0
Kv = ± (gpm / %CO)
100 (1 + k L C v )
2 3/ 2
Gf
And for a valve with equal percentage characteristics:
ln α f
Kv = ± (gpm/ %CO)
100 (1 + k L C v 2 )

Cont’d..

17
 B49CF2

B49CF2 Datasheets (continued, 2)

Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller (PID)

The equation describing the response of a PID controller is:

Kc de(t )
m(t ) = m + K c e(t ) +
tI ∫ e(t )dt +K c t D
dt

Transfer function:

M (s) 1
Gc ( s ) = = K c (1 + + τ D s )
E (s) τI

Table 4. Tuning formulas for quarter decay ratio response, Ziegler-Nichols

closed-loop or on-line tuning method.

Controller type Proportional gain Integral time Derivative time

Proportional-only, K cu - -
P Kc =
2
Proportional- K Tu -
integral, PI K c = cu τI =
2.2 1.2
Proportional- K T Tu
integral-derivative, K c' = cu τ 'I = u τ 'D =
1.7 2 8
PID*

*These PID formulas are for a PID controller with the transfer function
M (s)  1  τ ' + 1 
Gc ( s ) = = K c'  + '  D'  , α has a value between 0.05 and 0.2; its value
E (s)  τ D s  ατ D + 1 
depends on the controller used, and would normally be given by the manufacturer of
the controller.

END OF PAPER

18
 B49CF2

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Chemical Engineering

______________________________________________________________

B49CF

PROCESS MODELLING AND CONTROL

Semester 2 – 2013/14

______________________________________________________________

Monday, 19 May 2014

Duration: 2 Hours

Instructions to candidates:

Answer THREE out of the following five questions.

Candidates are expected to make reasonable assumptions where necessary

Where a distribution of marks within a question is shown, this should not be

taken to be definitive but is for guidance only

Marks for sections of questions are shown in round brackets.

Candidates are expected to show all calculation steps, equations used and
assumptions made (if any).
 B49CF

1. (a) Determine the Laplace Transform of the following functions:

(i) f (t ) = 4 + 4t ;

(ii) f (t ) = 2t exp(3t ) ;

(iii) f (t ) = 4 exp(−t + 2) ;

(iv) f (t ) = 3 cos(2t ) ;

(v) f (t ) = sin(6t ) exp(−2t ) .

(5 marks)

(b) Determine the inverse Laplace Transform of the following function:

2 2 2
F ( s) = + +
s s+2 s +2
2

(3 marks)

(c) Determine the transfer functions of the following ODEs:

d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
(i) 4 +3 + 2 y (t ) = x(t ) + 0.5 ;
dt 2 dt

d 4 y (t ) d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
(ii) 5 −4 +3 − 2 y (t ) = x(t ) − 1 .
dt 4 dt 2 dt
(2 marks)

Q1 Cont’d…/

Page 2 of 18
 B49CF

Q1 Cont’d/

(d) Determine whether the following transfer functions are stable or not, and
whether they give a monotonic or an oscillatory response:

Y (s) 3
(i) = ;
X (s) s − 1

Y (s) 3
(ii) = 2
X ( s ) s + 5s + 6
(4 marks)

(e) Determine the equation describing the relation between A(s), B(s), C(s) and
D(s) from the block diagram shown in Figure 1e.

A(s)

+ D(s)
B(s) +
G1(s) G2(s)
_
_
C(s)

Figure 1e: A block diagram.

(3 marks)

Q1 Cont’d…/

Page 3 of 18
 B49CF

Q1 Cont’d/

(f) Determine the equation describing the relation between A(s), B(s) and D(s)
from the block diagram shown in Figure 1f.

G1(s)

_
A(s)
+ D(s)
+
G2(s) G3(s)
+
B(s)

Figure 1f: A block diagram.

(3 marks)

(g) Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure 1g.

_
D(s)
A(s) +
G1(s) G2(s)

Figure 1g: A block diagram.

(5 marks)

Page 4 of 18
 B49CF

2. A ramped input is often used during the start-up of a continuous process to avoid
sudden changes in the process. If a ramp input is used the system’s input is
described by a ramp function:

x(t ) = 0 for t < 0

x(t ) = at for t ≥ 0

(a) Determine the function describing the deviation variable X(s).

(2 marks)

A system has a first order transfer function:

Y (s) K
=
X ( s ) τs + 1

(b) Put the result of (a) into the first order transfer function describing the system.
Following this, perform an expansion by partial fractions.
(5 marks)

(c) Determine from the results obtained an equation describing the response of
the system as function of time.
(3 marks)

(d) y (0) = 0 ; K = 1 and a = 1. Make a sketch of the system response as a

function of time. Also draw in the same graph a sketch of the system input.
(5 marks)

Q2 Cont’d…/

Page 5 of 18
 B49CF

(e) A lead-lag unit has the following transfer function:

Y ( s ) τ lead s + 1
=
X (s) τ s +1
lag

A ramp function with a = 1 is applied to the input of the lead-lag unit. The
time constant for the lead is larger than the time constant for the lag
τ >τ  .
 lead lag 

Make a sketch of the response of a lead-lag unit as a function of time.

(10 marks)

Page 6 of 18
 B49CF

3. The temperature of a gas flow coming out of a furnace is controlled with a P-only
controller (K c = 1 %CO/%TO). The setpoint of the temperature is at first 500oC.

(a) The temperature sensor used can measure temperatures between 300 and
800oC. It is linear across this range. The sensor has a transmitter associated
with it with a 0 – 10 V output. What is the sensor gain?
(2 marks)

(b) What is the output (in V) of the sensor/transmitter if the temperature is at the
setpoint?
(2 marks)

(c) Give the equations (in time and s-domain) of the controller equation
describing the relation between the error and the controller output.
(2 marks)

Q3 Cont’d…/

Page 7 of 18
 B49CF

Q3 Cont’d/

(d) The sensor/transmitter is disconnected from the controller. The controller

output is then changed manually. After a step change in the controller output
a new steady state temperature is reached. The system’s response closely
follows a first order response. Figure 3.1 shows the (steady state) values of
the sensor output for different settings of the controller output. Determine the
value of the bias in the controller function.
(2 marks)

600

575

550

525

500
Steady state
475
Temperature
450
o
( C)
425

400
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Controller output (mA)

Figure 3.1: Steady state temperature for different values of the controller
output.

(e) What is the process gain, i.e. the gain between the
controller output (= process input) and the process output. Give the answer
both in actual units (mA, V, oC etc.) and in %CO and %TO?
(3 marks)

Q3 Cont’d…/

Page 8 of 18
 B49CF

Q3 Cont’d/

(f) Why would one prefer to use a PI controller?

(2 marks)

(g) Give the equations (in time and s-domain) of the PI controller equation
describing the relation between the error and the controller output.
(2 marks)

(h) Sketch in separate graphs the expected change as a function of time in:
(i) the setpoint (in V);
(ii) the error (in V);
(iii) the controller output (in mA);
(iv) the temperature (in oC);
(v) the transmitter output (in V).
(10 marks)

Page 9 of 18
 B49CF

4.

f1(t) f2(t)

LT LC I/

h(t)

f3(t)

Figure 4.1: A level control system.

(a) Figure 4.1 shows a liquid level control system. Determine the unsteady-state
mass balance for the tank contents.
(4 marks)

(b) The relation between flow f 3 (t) and the head in the tank is described by
f 3 (t) = h(t)/R.

R = 6 min / m2. Surface area of tank A = 1 m2. Show that the transfer
functions relating the head H(s) in the tank and flows F 1 (s) and F 2 (s) are
described by:

H (s) Kp
= G p (s) =
F2 ( s ) τs + 1

H (s) Kp
= G (s) =
F1 ( s ) d τs + 1
(4 marks)

Q4 Cont’d…/

Page 10 of 18
 B49CF

Q4 Cont’d/

(c) Calculate the values of K p and τ.

(2 marks)

Figure 4.2: shows the block diagram for the level control system.

F1(s)

Hsp(s) R(s) E(s) F2(s) H(s)

Km Gc(s) KIP Kv

C(s)
Km

Figure 4.2: Block diagram of a level control system

It can be assumed that:

- the level sensor/transmitter, I/P transducer and control valve all have
negligible dynamics, i.e. their transfer functions are described by their
gains only.
- The controller is a proportional controller, i.e. G c (s) = K c .

(d) If H sp (s) is the function describing the level setpoint, show that the closed-loop
transfer function for setpoint changes is described by:

H (s) K1
=
H sp ( s ) τ 1s + 1
(4 marks)

(e) Show that, irrespective of the values of the gains, the response time of the
control loop (τ 1 ) is always shorter than that of the process (τ).
(3 marks)

Q4 Cont’d…/

Page 11 of 18
 B49CF

∆H
(f) h sp is a step function whose Laplace transform is H sp ( s ) =
. Show that the
s
response of the closed-loop to the unit step change of size ΔH is described
by:

h(τ ) = h(o) + K1∆H (1 − exp(−τ / τ 1 ) )

(4 marks)

(g) The level transmitter has a span of 2 m and an output range of 0 - 100%. The
range of the output of the I/P transducer is 3 to 15 psi for a 0 to 100% change
in the input signal.

The control valve has a gain K v of 1.0 × 10-2 m3 / min psi. The controller gain
is given values of 4, 8 and 20 %CO/%TO. Calculate the corresponding
values of K 1 and τ 1 .
(4 marks)

Page 12 of 18
 B49CF

5. A feedback controller is used to control the temperature in a reactor. A simplified

block diagram of the feedback controller is shown in Figure 5.1. G c (s) is a
standard controller of the P, PI or PID type.

Ysp(s) E(s) M(s) Y(s)

Gc(s) Gp(s)

Figure 5.1: A feedback control system.

(a) A proportional controller is initially used with K c = 3 %CO/%TO. A step

change is made in the setpoint which initially leads to a constant error of
2 %TO. Sketch the controller output as a function of time.
(3 marks)

(b) The controller is changed to a PI controller with K c = 3 %CO/%TO

and τI = 1 min. Again, a step change is made in the setpoint which initially
leads to a constant error of 2 %TO. Sketch the output of the controller as a
function of time.
(3 marks)

(c) The controller is changed to a PID controller with K c = 3 %CO/%TO,

τ I = 1 min and τD = 1 min. Again, a step change is made in the setpoint
which initially leads to a constant error of 2% TO. Sketch the output of the
controller as a function of time.
(4 marks)

Q5 Cont’d…/

Page 13 of 18
 B49CF

Q5 Cont’d/

(d) An improved controller output can be obtained if, instead of the standard PID
controller, a special form of a PID controller is used of the form:

 1  K cτ D s
M ( s ) = K c 1 + E (s) − Y (s)
 τ s ατ D s + 1
 I 

Copy Figure 5.1 into your exam script and modify the block diagram to show
how the new controller can be implemented.
(5 marks)

Q5 Cont’d…/

Page 14 of 18
 B49CF

Q5 Cont’d/

(e) The reactor is shown in Figure 5.2. The reactor is fed with a constant flow of
reactant. The reactor is filled with catalyst. The reaction occurring in the
reactor is highly exothermic, but the reactor is kept cool by a flow of ethylene
glycol through cooling coils.

Copy the reactor into your exam script:

(i) add a flow controller to control the inflow into the reactor;
(ii) add a temperature controller to control the temperature in the reactor;
(iii) add a level controller to control the level in the reactor;
(iv) specify the fail-safe positions of the valves;
(v) specify whether the controllers have to be set a direct
(increase-increase) or reverse (increase-decrease) action.
(10 marks)

Feed
Symbol for
a valve

Ethylene glycol coolant

Product

Figure 5.2: A reactor.

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 B49CF

B49CF Datasheets – Laplace transforms

The Laplace transform of an equation f (t ) is defined as:

∞
0[ f (t )] = F ( s ) = ∫ f (t ) exp(− st )dt
0

Table 1. Laplace transforms of

common functions.
Function f (t ) Laplace
transform
F ( s ) = [ f (t )] Table 3. Second order system
Dirac function 1 Transfer  K 
Y (s) =  2 2  X (s)
δ (t ) function
τ s + 2ζτ s + 1 
Unit step u (t ) 1
s Roots − ζ − ζ 2 −1
a a r1 = ;
τ
s
t 1 − ζ + ζ 2 −1
r2 =
s2 τ
tn n!
s n +1 Damping Response
exp(−at ) ratio value
1
ζ ≥1 Overdamped= monotonic
s+a and stable
t exp(−at ) 1 ζ =1 Critically damped;
(s + a )2 monotonic and stable
t n exp(−at ) n! 0 ≤ ζ ≤1 Underdamped=oscillatory
(s + a )n+1 and stable
ζ=0 Undamped=sustained
sin(ωt ) ω
oscillations
s +ω2
2
−1 ≤ ζ ≤ 0 Unstable; growing
cos(ωt ) s oscillations
s +ω2
2
ζ ≤ −1 Runaway; monotonic
exp(−at ) sin(ωt ) ω unstable
( s + a) 2 + ω 2
exp(−at ) cos(ωt ) s+a Underdamped step response
𝑟𝑟1 = 𝜌𝜌 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖; 𝑟𝑟2 = 𝜌𝜌 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
( s + a) 2 + ω 2
Period of T = 2π / ω
oscillation
Rise time = T /4
Table 2. First order system Decay ratio C/B = exp(−(ζ / τ )T )
Transfer  K  Overshoot B/A = exp(−(ζ / τ)T / 2)
function Y ( s) =   X (s)
τ s + 1 Settling time = 5τ / ζ

Cont’d..

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 B49CF

B49CF Datasheets

Taylor series
One variable:
f '(x) f ''(x) f '''(x)
f ( x) = f ( x ) + (x − x) + (x − x)2 + ( x − x ) 3 + .......
1! 2! 3!
Two or more variables:
∂ f ( x1 ) ∂ f ( x2 )
f ( x1 , x 2 ,...) = f ( x1 , x 2 ,..) + ( x1 − x1 ) + ( x 2 − x 2 ) + .......
∂x1 ∂x 2

Control valve characteristics

A flow of liquid through a control valve is described by the equation:
∆Pv
f = Cv
Gf
In which f is the flow in US gallons per minute, ∆Pv the pressure drop across
the valve (in psi), G f the specific gravity of the fluid, i.e. the density of a fluid
relative to that of water. C v is the valve coefficient and has units gpm/(psi1/2)

The metric equivalent of C v is K v . It is defined as the volume flow in cubic

metres per hour of water at a pressure drop across the valve of 1 bar.
∆Pv
f = Kv
Gf
with f in m3/h, and ∆Pv in bar. K v has units m3/hr / (bar1/2).

Conversion between K v and C v is straightforward: K v = 0.86 × C v

Please be aware that K v can stand for the metric control valve coefficient or
the control valve gain. They have different meanings!

Control valve gain with constant pressure drop

f max
Control valve gain of valve with linear characteristics: K v = ± in gpm /
100
%CO
ln α
For a valve with equal percentage characteristics: Kv = ± f (gpm /
100
%CO)

Control valve gain with variable pressure drop

Control valave gain for a valve with linear characteristics:
1 C v max ∆p 0
Kv = ± (gpm / %CO)
100 (1 + k L C v )
2 3/ 2
Gf
And for a valve with equal percentage characteristics:
ln α f
Kv = ± (gpm/ %CO)
100 (1 + k L C v 2 )
Cont’d..

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 B49CF

B49CF Datasheets

Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller (PID)

The equation describing the response of a PID controller is:

𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
𝑚𝑚(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑚𝑚
� + 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡) + � 𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷
𝜏𝜏𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Transfer function:
𝑀𝑀(𝑠𝑠) 1
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠) = = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (1 + + 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠)
𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠) 𝜏𝜏𝐼𝐼 𝑠𝑠

Table 4. Tuning formulas for quarter decay ratio response, Ziegler-

Nichols closed-loop or on-line tuning method.

Controller type Proportional Integral time Derivative time

gain
Proportional- K - -
only, P K c = cu
2
Proportional- K Tu -
integral, PI K c = cu τI =
2.2 1.2
Proportional- K T Tu
integral- K c' = cu τ 'I = u τ 'D =
1.7 2 8
derivative, PID*

*These PID formulas are for a PID controller with the transfer function
M (s)  1  τ ' + 1 
Gc ( s ) = = K c' 1 + '  D'  , α has a value between 0.05 and 0.2; its
E (s)  τ D s  ατ D + 1 
value depends on the controller used, and would normally be given by the
manufacturer of the controller.

END OF PAPER

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