Folding

Process in which crustal rocks are distorted by compressional forces by

being caused to bend upwards and downwards.
It occurs on fairly young sedimentary rocks.

Parts of a Fold

(a) Anticlines (upfolds)-parts of the earths surface which bend

upwards when folding occurs.
(b) Synclines (down folds)-Parts of the earths surface which
bend downwards when folding occurs.
(c) Crest-upper most part of Anticline.
(d) Trough-lowest part of a syncline
(e) Limp-rock layers sloping on both sides of a fold
(f) Axis-imaginary line drawn vertically through the centre of
the anticline.
Types of a Fold
1. Simple Symmetrical Folds

-Which are symmetrical about the anticline.

-Formed by 2 compressional forces of equal magnitude.

2. Asymmetrical Folds
-Which are asymmetrical about the anticlines axis or in which one limp
is steeper than the other.
-Formed by two compressional forces of unequal magnitude in which
one is stronger than the other.
3. Over Folds

In which anticline of one fold is pushed over the limp of the other.
4. Isoclinal Folds

- Which are packed closely together and with limps almost parallel to
each other.
- Vertical Isoclinal folds are formed by compressional forces of equal
magnitude while inclined Isoclinal folds are formed by forces of unequal
magnitude.
5. Recumbent Folds
Which lie in a horizontal manner.
Formed by two compressional forces one of which is very strong.
6. Nappe/Overthrust Fold

In which one limp is pushed over the other limp.

The forces are very strong and they cause a fracture/fault to develop.
7. Anticlinorium and Synclinorium Complex

Folds characterised by minor upfolds and minor downfolds.

 Land is first subjected to weak compressional forces resulting into
minor folds.
 Later the land is subjected to much greater compressional forces
resulting into new upfolds with minor folds (Anticlinorium) and new
down folds with minor folds (Synclinorium).
Resultant Features Due To Folding
1. Fold Mountains and Their Distribution

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\

The Himalayas Mountain range in Asia

Worlds highest and most impressive mountains and the most
conspicuous feature of folding.
 Himalayas - Asia
 Everest - Nepal-Tibet border highest point.
 Andes - Peru in S. America
  Alps - South Central Europe
 Rockies - America
 Atlas - Africa.
 Appalachian - America

The Alps Mountain range in Europe

Theories of Origin of Fold Mountains
a. Contraction Theory
- During the earth’s formation surface rocks cooled faster and wrinkled
to form Fold Mountains.
b. Convectional Currents Theory
- Horizontal convectional currents in the mantle exerted frictional pull
on crustal rocks.
- Continental crusts were pulled towards each other.
- Sediments between them were squeezed into folds.
c. Continental Drift Theory
- During break of Gondwanaland India drifted northwards and collided
with Eurasia.
- Sediments between were squeezed to form fold mountains e.g.
Himalayas and Everest.
d. Plate Tectonics Theory
- When an oceanic plate meets another or it meets a continental plate, the
sediments under the sea are compressed to form Fold Mountains.
- When two continental plates meet the sial layer is compressed to form
fold mountains
- E.g. Alps was formed when Africa plate pushed against the rigid
European plate

2. Escarpments

The Niagara Escarpment

- A relatively continuous line of steep slopes facing the same direction.
- Formed one compressional force causes folding resulting in one steep
limp of the anticline which forms the escarpment.

3. Depressions
Formed when not very strong forces cause folding causing some parts of
the earths surface to form synclines forming basins.
4. Ridges and Valleys
- When folding occurs anticlines form uplands/ridges/hills while
synclines form valleys.

5. Rolling Plains
- A high fairly level land between mountains.
- Formed when rocks at the edges of a region become intensely folded
and the middle parts resist folding resulting into mountains which
enclose a high fairly level land.

7.Inter-montane basins
-Formed when some parts of inter-montane plateau sink more to form
basins.
Significance of Folding To Human Activities/Economic significance
Positive/Advantages
1. Fold Mountains are a tourist attraction which brings foreign exchange.
2. Fold Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers.
3. Some fold mountains have valuable mineral deposits such as coal and
petroleum.
4. Fold Mountains act as protective barriers during war.
5. Some fold mountains on the path of rain bearing rainfall influence
rainfall causing the windward slopes to receive heavier rainfall.
6. Folding can lead to formation of valuable minerals due to
metamorphism.
7. Folding brings valuable minerals to the surface making them easily
available.

Negative/disadvantages
1. Fold Mountains on the path of rain winds cause the leeward
slopes to receive less rainfall.
2. Fold Mountains discourage settlement due to cold temperatures
and rugged terrain
3.Folding can lead to burying of minerals.
4.Fold Mountains are a barrier to road and railway where there are
no passes and where there are passes they may be covered by snow.
Orographic fog hinders pilot’s visibility.

To Physical Environment
1. Folding can result in submerged coastal zones which are used as
harbours.
2. Can lead to metamorphism of rocks changing their original state
and making them more resistant to erosion.
3. Depressions formed by folding turn into wet land important for
water purification.
4. Folding leads to faulting and magma may escape through faults
leading to Vulcanicity and earth quakes.
FAULTING
What are Faults?
Faults are fractures or cracks that develop in the crust.

 When tensional forces cause crustal rocks to stretch and fracture at

the region of maximum tension.
 When compressional causes squeezing of crustal rocks to fracture
at the areas where they are intensely squeezed.
 When vertical movements exert pressure on rocks leading to
fracturing.
 When shear forces cause crustal rocks to tear.

Parts of a Fault
1. Upthrow - part of the land displaced upwards.
2. Downthrow - part of the land displaced downwards.
3. Throw - vertical displacement.
4. Heave - horizontal displacement
5. Hade - inclination of fault to vertical plane
6. Fault line - fault path
7. Fault plane - separation of land created by the fault
Types of Faults
Normal Faults
2 Type formed by tensional forces in which one block slides
downwards in relation to the other.
- Rocks are subjected to tensional forces

- A normal fault develops

- One block slides downwards.
Reverse Fault
Type formed by compressional forces in which one block of land is
pushed upwards in relation to the other.
- Rocks are subjected to compressional forces

- A reverse fault develops.

- One block is pushed over the other.

Shear/Tear Fault

- Type formed by shear forces in which adjacent blocks of land slide past
one another.
- If a shear fault occurs between continents it’s called a Transform fault.
- e.g. San Andrean fault of California and great glen fault of Scotland.
Thrust Faults

Type formed when very strong compressional forces cause almost

horizontal faults to develop and one block of land is pushed over the
other.
Anticlinal fault

Type formed when anticlines are compressed further and cracks form on
the crest.
Features Resulting From Faulting
Fault Scarp/Escarpment
Below is a picture of the Riftvalley Escarpment in Kenya

Steep line of
slopes formed by vertical movement of earth along a fault e.g. Mau,
Nguruman, Nyandarua and Nandi.
- Are exposed parts of a fault plane.
- It may be formed due to normal faulting or reverse faulting when
overhanging blocks are eroded.

Fault Steps
- Land resembling the staircase or steps of a house with a series of fault
scarps at different levels.
- Parallel vertical faults develop.
- Land between the faults is unequally displaced downwards.
- A series of fault scarps at different levels is formed.
E.g. Keiyo escarpment and at Kijabe.
Fault Blocks/Block/Horst Mountains
Blocks of land raised above the surrounding land
- Where tectonic forces cause faulting and land on one side of the fault
get raised or sink along the fault planes.
- Examples of fault blocks are Aberdare/Nyandarua ranges, Mau
escarpment and Nandi Hills.
- Where Blocks of land bordered by normal faults which are almost
parallel to each other sink leaving the middle block standing.
Examples of horsts are Ruwenzori of W. Uganda and Usambara and
Pare mountains of Tanzania.

Tilt Blocks
- Fault blocks which are inclined on one side.
- Occurs when the fault block, horst or fault steps have greater uplift on
one side and as a result they are not flat at the top but tilted. The
resultant features are tilted fault blocks, tilted horst and tilt fault steps
which form ridges and fault guided valleys.
Rift Valley
- Along narrow trough with steep escarpments on both sides.
Theories of Formation
Tensional Theory
 Rocks are subjected to tensional forces.
 Normal faults which are almost parallel develop.
 One block slides downwards forming the rift valley.
Compressional Theory
 Rocks are subjected to compressional forces.
 Reverse fault which are almost parallel develop.
 The side blocks are pushed over the middle block
 Overhanging blocks are worn out by denudation to form escarpments
Anticlinal Theory
Suggests the rift valley was formed by Anticlinal arching.

 Upward forces pushed sedimentary rock strata upwards.

 The rock layers bent into a big arch.
 A gaping/huge crack developed at the crest of the arch due to
tension forming the rift valley.
The Great Rift Valley/The Great E.A Rift Valley
- The world’s biggest rift valley.
It starts in Syria and ends in Mozambique.
It’s divided into 4 parts.
1. Ethiopian Rift system - starts from Afar in Ethiopia to the Kenyan
border around L. Stephanie.
2. Gregory Rift system - Starts from the northern border of Kenya with
Ethiopia to Tanzania. It has a small N.E-S.W branches:

 Kano Rift valley in Kenya

 L. Eyasi Rift Valley in Tanzania
3. Western Rift valley - Starts at Sudan border to south of L. Rukwa.
Features which are here are Ruwenzori Mountain and Lakes Albert,
Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika and Rukwa.
4. Malawi Rift valley - a continuation of Gregory Rift system to
Zambezi River in Mozambique. It has a small N.E-S.W branch called
Luangwa valley

The Gregory Rift Valley

Named after a geologist called Gregory J.W who carried out extensive
studies in this area.
It’s where the Rift Valley features are more pronounced.
Features associated with it

 Fault blocks - Aberdare range, Mau, Nandi and Cherangani hills.

 Step faults - Kijabe and Tambach
 Tilt blocks - Aberdare range uplifted and tilted eastwards and Mau
escarpment uplifted and tilted westwards.
 Lava flows and volcanic cones e.g. Menengai and Ngorongoro
crater.
 Rift Valley lakes formed when unequal sinking created faults
which were later filled with water. The lakes are deep and
elongated. Examples are Lakes Naivasha, Nakuru, Elementaita,
Baringo, Bogoria, Ol Bolossat and Turkana. Most of the lakes are
salty with exception of L. Naivasha which has fresh water.
Why Most Rift Valley Lakes Are Salty
(a) Lack of outlets to drain away salts contained in them.
(b) Lack of enough water to dilute salinity due to little rainfall and lack
of rivers flowing in them.
(c) High rates of evaporation causing increased accumulation of salts.
(d) Lake’s water being in contact with rocks with mineral salts which it
directly dissolves.
(e) Washing into the lake of mineral rich soils by surface runoff.

Why L. Naivasha Has Fresh Water

(a) It has underground drainage to the Indian Ocean.
(b) There is inflow of fresh water from rivers and rain.
(c) The latest volcanic eruption covered the bed rock with lava.

Major Faulted Areas of the World

(a) The Great Rift Valley from Syria to Mozambique.
(b) Northern England and the Great Glen Fault of Scotland.
(c) The Central Massif of Europe.
(d) The middle Rhine Rift Valley region.
Significance of Faulting
To Human Activities
1. Rift valley lakes are important for fishing, irrigation and domestic use.
2. The Rift Valley and associated features are a tourist attraction which
earns foreign exchange.
3. Hot springs and geysers formed during faulting can be harnessed for
geothermal power.
4. Block Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers due
to the heavy rainfall they receive on the windward side.
5. Faulting results in the exposure of minerals such as diatomite in Gilgil
and Fluorspar in Kerio Valley.
6. Fault scarps may expose underground water resulting in the formation
of scarp springs.
7. Unequal subsidence caused by faulting may cause formation of
depressions which may form lakes which useful for fishing, transport
and mining e.g. L. Naivasha.

Negative Impacts of Faulting

1. Faulting disrupts transport and communication by disjointing land.
2. Faulting may lead to loss of life and property by causing land to sink.
3. Faulting may cause a river to disappear or change its course and flow
along the fault line.
4. Steep scarp slopes formed by faulting are prone to soil erosion.
5. Faulting has given rise to semi-desert conditions in some areas when
Block Mountains on the path of rain winds cause leeward sides to
receive little rainfall.