Comprehensive Notes on Computer Networks (Based on S.

Tanenbaum)

UNIT I: Introduction Concepts

Goals and Applications of Networks
Goals:
1. Resource Sharing:
o Networks allow multiple devices to share hardware resources like
printers and servers, software applications, and data.
2. Reliability:
o By providing redundancy, networks ensure data remains
accessible even if some nodes fail.
3. Scalability:
o Networks are designed to grow in size (adding users, devices, or
data) without significant performance degradation.
4. Cost Efficiency:
o Shared resources and centralized management reduce overall
costs.
5. Communication:
o Enable real-time and asynchronous communication through
emails, video conferencing, and instant messaging.
Applications:
• Business: Secure financial transactions and communication between
branches.
• Education: Access to online libraries, remote learning, and collaborative
tools.
• Healthcare: Telemedicine, sharing medical data, and remote
monitoring.
 • Entertainment: Streaming platforms like Netflix and gaming networks.

Network Structure and Architecture

Definition: A network connects multiple devices (nodes) using communication
links to share data and resources.
Types of Architectures:
1. Client-Server Architecture:
o Centralized servers provide resources and services to client
devices.
o Example: Websites hosted on servers accessed by user devices.
2. Peer-to-Peer Architecture (P2P):
o All devices have equal roles, acting as both servers and clients.
o Example: File-sharing systems like BitTorrent.
Network Structures:
• LAN (Local Area Network): Small geographic area.
• WAN (Wide Area Network): Large geographic area.
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): City-wide networks.

The OSI Reference Model

Purpose:
• Provides a standardized framework for understanding and designing
network protocols.
Seven Layers:
1. Physical Layer:
o Deals with the physical transmission of raw bits over a medium.
 o Examples: Cables (Ethernet, fiber optics), wireless signals.
2. Data Link Layer:
o Provides reliable data transfer by handling framing, error
detection/correction, and flow control.
o Examples: MAC addresses, ARP.
3. Network Layer:
o Handles routing, addressing, and packet forwarding.
o Examples: IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP.
4. Transport Layer:
o Ensures reliable end-to-end communication.
o Protocols: TCP (reliable) and UDP (unreliable).
5. Session Layer:
o Establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions between devices.
o Example: Video conferencing sessions.
6. Presentation Layer:
o Translates data formats, encrypts data, and compresses it for
efficient transmission.
o Examples: JPEG, MP3, SSL.
7. Application Layer:
o Interfaces directly with the end user.
o Examples: HTTP, SMTP, FTP.

Network Topology Design and Delay Analysis

Topologies:
1. Bus Topology:
 o All devices share a single communication line.
o Advantage: Cost-effective.
o Disadvantage: A failure in the backbone affects all devices.
2. Star Topology:
o Devices connect to a central hub.
o Advantage: Fault isolation.
o Disadvantage: Hub failure impacts the entire network.
3. Ring Topology:
o Devices are connected in a circular fashion.
o Advantage: Predictable data flow.
o Disadvantage: A single point of failure can disrupt the network.
4. Mesh Topology:
o Every device connects to every other device.
o Advantage: High redundancy.
o Disadvantage: Expensive and complex.
Delay Analysis:
• Propagation Delay:
o Time taken for a signal to travel through the medium.
o Depends on distance and signal speed.
• Transmission Delay:
o Time required to push all data bits onto the medium.
o Formula: Packet size / Bandwidth.
• Processing Delay:
o Time routers take to analyze headers and determine the route.
 • Queuing Delay:
o Time spent waiting in queues at routers or switches.

Physical Layer and Transmission Media

Transmission Media:
1. Wired Media:
o Twisted Pair: Common in LANs; susceptible to electromagnetic
interference.
o Coaxial Cable: Higher bandwidth; used in cable TV.
o Fiber Optics: Transmits data as light; high speed and long
distance.
2. Wireless Media:
o Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi and cellular networks.
o Microwaves: Requires line-of-sight; used in satellite
communication.
o Infrared: Used in remote controls and short-range
communication.
Switching Methods:
1. Circuit Switching:
o Dedicated communication path.
o Example: Telephone networks.
2. Packet Switching:
o Data split into packets; routed independently.
o Example: Internet.
3. Message Switching:
 o Entire message stored and forwarded.
o Example: Email.
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network):
• Digital telecommunication standard that integrates voice, video, and
data on a single line.
• Two types: Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary Rate Interface
(PRI).

UNIT II: Medium Access Sub-layer

Channel Allocation and LAN Protocols
Channel Allocation:
1. Static Allocation:
o Fixed division of resources (e.g., Frequency Division Multiple
Access - FDMA).
2. Dynamic Allocation:
o Resources are assigned as needed.
o Example: ALOHA protocols.
ALOHA Protocols:
• Pure ALOHA:
o Nodes send data anytime; prone to collisions.
o Efficiency: 18%.
• Slotted ALOHA:
o Nodes send only at defined times; reduces collisions.
o Efficiency: 37%.
IEEE Standards and FDDI
IEEE Standards for LANs:
• 802.3 (Ethernet):
o Defines wired LANs using CSMA/CD.
• 802.11 (Wi-Fi):
o Defines wireless LANs.
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface):
• High-speed network using fiber optics.
• Uses a dual-ring topology for redundancy.

Data Link Layer

Functions:
• Framing: Divides data into frames for transmission.
• Error Detection: Identifies errors using techniques like parity bits and
CRC.
• Flow Control: Prevents sender from overwhelming receiver.
Sliding Window Protocols:
• Stop-and-Wait: Sender waits for acknowledgment after each frame.
• Go-Back-N: Sender retransmits all frames after an error.
• Selective Repeat: Only erroneous frames are retransmitted.
Error Handling:
• Detection: Methods like checksum and cyclic redundancy check (CRC).
• Correction: Techniques like Hamming Code and forward error
correction (FEC).
UNIT III: Network Layer
Point-to-Point Networks
• Direct communication link between two devices.
• Example: Dedicated leased lines for WAN connections.

Routing
Static Routing:
• Routes are manually configured.
Dynamic Routing:
• Adapts to network changes using protocols like RIP and OSPF.
Algorithms:
1. Shortest Path (Dijkstra): Finds the shortest path based on link weights.
2. Distance Vector (Bellman-Ford): Routes based on distance vectors
shared among neighbors.

Congestion Control
Definition:
• Congestion occurs when the network is overloaded with data, leading to
performance degradation.
Methods:
1. Open Loop:
o Prevent congestion before it happens (e.g., admission control).
2. Closed Loop:
o Detect and alleviate congestion after it occurs (e.g., packet
discarding).
Internetworking - TCP/IP
TCP/IP Model:
• 4 layers: Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Interface.
IP Packet:
• Header fields include Source IP, Destination IP, TTL, Protocol, and
Checksum.
IP Addressing:
• IPv4: 32-bit addresses (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
• IPv6: 128-bit addresses, designed to address IPv4 exhaustion.

UNIT IV: Transport Layer

Design Issues
• Reliability: Ensure complete and error-free data transfer.
• Multiplexing: Handle multiple connections simultaneously.
• Connection Management: Establish, maintain, and terminate
connections.

Session Layer - Design Issues

• Manages sessions between applications.
• Provides synchronization and dialog control.

Remote Procedure Call (RPC)

• Allows programs to execute functions on a remote server as if they were
local.
UNIT V: Presentation Layer
Data Compression Techniques
• Reduces data size for efficient transmission.
• Examples: Lossless (Huffman coding) and Lossy (JPEG).
Cryptography
• Secures data through encryption and decryption.
• Examples: Symmetric (AES) and Asymmetric (RSA) encryption.

UNIT VI: Application Layer

File Transfer, Access, and Management
• Protocols: FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
• Functions: Uploading/downloading files, managing file directories.
Electronic Mail
• Protocols: SMTP, IMAP, and POP3.
Virtual Terminals
• Example: Telnet, used for remote access.

UNIT VII: Security

Network Security Goals
1. Confidentiality: Ensure data is accessible only to authorized users.
2. Integrity: Protect data from unauthorized modification.
3. Availability: Ensure network resources are available when needed.
Techniques
 1. Firewalls: Control access to networks.
2. Encryption: Protect data in transit.
3. Authentication: Verify user identities (e.g., passwords, biometrics).

This document provides detailed explanations of all units and subtopics for
your Computer Networks course. Let me know if specific areas need further
expansion!