Chemical Quality of Water

• Chemical quality parameters of water are related to the solvent capabilities of water.

• Chemical quality parameters include:

• Total dissolved solids (TDS)

• Alkalinity
• Hardness
• Fluorides and chlorides
• Metals
• Organics
• Nutrients
• pH and dissolved gases (oxygen)

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 Total dissolved solids (TDS):
 This is the material remaining in water after filtration for suspended solids analysis.

 They result from the solvent action of water on solids, liquids, and gases.

 Their impacts include:

- aesthetically displeasing taste, odor, and color
- may be toxic and carcinogenic

 Can be measured by:

- gravimetric methods (as discussed earlier)
- electrical conductivity of water (EC)

• Specific conductance: the ability of water to conduct electricity

TDS (mg/L) ≈ EC (mmho/cm or dS/m) × 640 (the constant is in the range of 550 to 900)
TDS (mg/L) ≈ EC (mS/m) × 0.064 (the constant is in the range of 0.055 to 0.09)
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 Classification of water based on their content of TDS:

Note: kg/m3 = 103 mg/L

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pH and dissolved gases (oxygen):
• The pH is calculated as pH = -log [H+] and is indicative of acidity or basicity of water.
• pH should be between 6.5 and 8.5 for acceptable taste of water.

• Sources of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water are:

o Photosynthesis (due to the effect of algae)
o Re-aeration (dissolution of oxygen from air into water)

Metabolism of inorganic compounds during daytime:

algae + CO2 + 2H2O sun light 2CH2O + O2 + H2O

(CH2O) new algae waste product

Endogenous catabolism in the absence of sunlight to provide algae with energy:

CH2O + O2 CO 2 + H2O

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  Dissolved oxygen is necessary for aquatic life and for taste and freshness of water.

 Generally 8-10 mg/L of dissolved oxygen is needed in water.

 As pressure increases, dissolved oxygen concentration in water increases.

 As temperature increases, dissolved oxygen concentration in water decreases.

 For example:

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) T (°C)

14.1 mg /L 0 °C
9.7 mg / L 10 °C
9.3 mg / L 15 °C
9.17 mg / L 20 °C
8.3 mg / L 30 °C

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 Alkalinity:
• Defined as the ability of water to neutralize acids (acid neutralizing capacity of
water).
• Calculated as:
Alkalinity = [HCO3-] + 2 [CO32-] + [OH-] – [H+]
This equation is only applicable in concentration the units of equivalent/Liter
• Sources of alkalinity:
o Dissolution of carbon dioxide (CO2):
CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 Carbonic acid
H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3- Bicarbonate
HCO3- ⇌ H+ + CO32- Carbonate
o Surface runoff:

CaCO3 ⇌ Ca2+ + CO32-

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 Hardness
 Source of hardness:
all divalent cations M2+ ; especially Ca2+ and Mg2+

 Effects include economy:

1. Soap becomes more expensive
2. Clogging of pipes
3. Reduction of heat transfer capacity

 General classification of water according to hardness:

Soft hardness is < 50 mg/L as CaCO3
Moderately Hard hardness is 50 – 150 mg/L as CaCO3
Hard hardness is 150 – 300 mg/L as CaCO3
Very Hard hardness is > 300 mg/L as CaCO3

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Fluorides and Chlorides:

 Chlorides in concentrations of 250 mg/L or greater are objectionable because:

- Taste
- Toxic to plants
- Diarrhea
 Humans can get accustomed (acclimation).
 Sources include treatment chemicals (disinfection).

 Fluorides optimum concentrations in water are in the range of 0.70 - 1.2 mg/L (~ 1 mg/L).
 Absence of fluorides in drinking water encourages dental caries or tooth decay.
 Excessive concentrations of fluorides produce mottling of the teeth or dental fluorosis.
 Fluorides are generally added to water.

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 Metals:

(1) Nontoxic metals:

o Include:
 Calcium and magnesium (hardness ions).
 Sodium
o Elevates blood pressure.
o Affects people suffering from kidney, heart, and circulatory ailments.
o Corrosive.
o Toxic to plants.

• Iron and manganese (Fe and Mn):

o Impart brownish color to laundered goods.
o Affects taste of beverages (tea and coffee).
o Mn cause medicinal taste.
o Odor problems due to some types of bacteria that uses Fe and Mn as energy sources.
o Fe 0.3mg/L.
o Mn 0.05mg/L.

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 Lead and copper (Pb and Cu):
o lead causes high blood pressure in older people.
o In children; lead affects mental and physical development; interferes with growing; decreases attention
span and hearing.
o Copper causes unpleasant taste and may cause stomach and intestinal distress.
o Pb 0.05mg/L.
o Cu 1mg/L.
o Sources for both is pipes (plumbing).
o Copper maybe toxic to many biological species when present together with Zinc.

 Zinc (Zn):
o Causes undesirable taste.
o No detrimental health effect.
o 5mg/L.

 All of the above mentioned metals (with the exception of lead) are non-toxic.

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 (2) Toxic metals:

 These metals include:

o Arsenic As+2 0.05mg/L
o Cadmium Cd+2 0.01mg/L
o Chromium Cr+3, Cr+6 0.05mg/L
o Mercury Hg+2 0.002mg/L
o Selenium Se+2 0.01mg/L
o Silver Ag+ 0.05mg/L
o Barium Br+2 1.0mg/L

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 Nutrients
• Nitrogen:
o Sources include:
▪ Proteins, chlorophyll, and many other biological compounds.
▪ Animal wastes, chemical fertilizers, and wastewater discharges.
o Causes growth of aquatic plants (Algae ⇒ taste + odor).
o Forms: Nitrate NO3- and nitrite NO2-
o In drinking water: total N ≤ 10mg/L
o Causes methemoglobinemia (infant cyanosis or blue babies):
Nitrate NO3- reduction NO2- Nitrite

This reaction is due to the growth of nitrate-reducing bacteria in the intestinal track of babies due to low
acidity.

Nitrate is then absorbed into the blood stream, and starts competing with oxygen for hemoglobin.

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 Phosphorous:
 Present as phosphate PO43-
 Sources include:
o Soils and fertilizers.
o Municipal wastewater.

 Effects are:
o Not toxic and no health threats.
o Causes growth of aquatic plants (algae).
o Interferes with water treatments especially coagulation (even at concentrations of 0.2mg/L).

Sulfate (SO4-2):
 Sources: naturally occurring+ wastewater discharges.
 Has laxative effect.
 ≤250mg/L in drinking water.

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 Organics:
 Sources: proteins, grass, leaves … + industries.
 Naturally occurring and synthetic.
 Natural organics cause taste and odor.
 Synthetic organics are toxic and carcinogenic.
 They react and form by-products:
o Trihalomethanes (THMs).
o Suspected carcinogens.
o Allowable concentration 50 µg/L.
o If they are present in water, this indicates that other oxidation by-products that are more
serious and harmful are also present.
 Trihalomethanes:
CH4 + halogens (X) trihalomethanes Example of THMs:
Cl CHX3 CHCl3 chloroform
Br CHBr3 bromoform
F CHCl2Br
I CHClBr2
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