Kamande Steve Kaguchwa

ENC 211-0418/2021
B.Sc. Civil Engineering
Group A
PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING I
 JAR TEST
OBJECTIVE
 To determine optimum dosage for alum in water treatment.
INTRODUCTION
The Jar Test is a laboratory procedure used in water treatment to determine the optimal
dosage of coagulant and flocculant chemicals for the removal of suspended solids from
water. The test helps in optimizing the treatment process and achieving efficient water
clarification. The degree to which colloidal suspension reflects light at 90º angle to the
entrance beam is measured by turbidity. The unit of measure is a Turbidity Unit (TU) or
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU). It is determined by reference to a chemical mixture that
produces are producible refraction of light. Turbidity in excess of 5 TU is easily detectable in
a glass of water and are usually objectionable for aesthetic reasons. For a given particle size,
the higher the turbidity, the higher the concentration of colloidal particles. The jar test,
device consists of a number of stirrers (4 to 6) provided with paddles. The paddles can be
rotated with varying speed with the help of a motor and regulator. Samples will be taken in
jars or beakers and varying dose of coagulant will be added simultaneously to all the jars.
The paddles will be rotated at 100 rpm for 1 minute and at 40 rpm for 20 to 30 minutes,
corresponding to the flash mixing and slow mixing in the flocculator of the treatment plant.
After 30 minutes settling, supernatant will be taken carefully from all the jars to measure
turbidity. The dose, which gives the least turbidity, is taken as the optimum coagulant dose.
This test provides information on the effects of the concentrations of the coagulants, mixing
of the raw water, and the water quality parameters such as pH and alkalinity on the
coagulation process. The jar test is often used for the design of treatment facilities and in the
routine operation of treatment plants.
Coagulation and flocculation are important unit processes in water and wastewater
treatment plants. The purpose of coagulation/flocculation/flocculation is to remove
suspended matter, turbidity, colour, microorganisms, and odour producing substances.
Coagulation involves the addition of chemicals to destabilize [allow them to agglomerate]
the suspended particles, colloidal materials, and macromolecules. Some common
coagulants used are aluminium sulphate (alum) and ferric sulphate. Flocculation is usually
defined as the aggregation of destabilized particles into larger flocs under slow mixing
conditions. The flocs formed are subsequently removed by sedimentation and/or filtration.
Coagulants are used in water treatment plants to remove natural suspended and colloidal
matter, to remove material which do not settle in plain sedimentation, and to assist in
filtration. The primary purpose of the Jar Test is to simulate and evaluate the coagulation-
flocculation process that occurs in water treatment plants. It helps in determining the most
effective combination and dosage of chemicals to achieve the desired water quality
standards.

APPARATUS
1. Jar tester
2. Turbidity meter
3. 6 No. 1000ml beakers
4. pH meter
5. Pipette

REAGENTS
1. Sodium hydroxide solution
2. Sodium carbonate solution
3. Alum
4. Kaolin

PROCEDURE
Set 1
1. Using 1000ml beaker take well mixed sample of 800ml into the 6 beakers.
2. Measure the pH of the sample.
3. Adjust to normal using sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate if the sample is acidic.
4. Label the beakers 1-6.
5. Lower the jar tester stirring blades into the beakers.
6. Set the jar tester at 160rpm speed.
7. Dose the beaker, just below the stirrer blades using pipettes with 5mg/l, 15mg/l, 25mg/l,
35mg/l, 45mg/l.
8. Immediately start the jar tester stirring.
9. Let it stir for one minute.
10. Slow mix at 25 rpm for 15 minutes.
11. Stop the stirring.
12. Let the sample stand for 30 minutes.
13. Draw out the supernant from each beaker and determine the turbidity.
14. Record the turbidity of each beaker as NTU units.

Set 2
1. Take 800ml samples into the bakers.
2. Adjust the pH of the samples using sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate or sulphuric
acid so that it is as follows;

BEAKE pH
R
1 5.0
2 5.5
3 6.0
4 6.5
5 7.0
6 8.0

3. Follow steps 5 and 6 as set 1.

4. Dose all beakers with the dose that resulted in the lowest turbidity in set 1.
5. Continue as in steps 8, 9, 10, 11 in set 1.
6. Record the turbidity of each beaker as NTU units.

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Aluminium Sulphate: 10g/l
Formula for concentration: C1V1 = C2V2
Turbidit
Beake Dosage Alum
V2 (ml) C2 y
r (ml) V1 (g/l) C1
(NTU)
1 0 10 800 0.00 33.30
2 5 10 805 62.11 9.03
3 15 10 815 184.05 2.04
4 25 10 825 303.03 6.85
5 35 10 835 419.16 9.59
6 50 10 850 588.24 13.13

The optimum turbidity is at the turning point of turbidity-concentration curve.

Turning Point

X – axis 190.00
Y – axis 2.00
 35

30

25

20
Turbidity
(NTU)

15

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Concentration

Optimum concentration = 190mg/l

Optimum dosage for alum = 15 ml
PRECAUTIONS
1. Keep in mind that vibration can produce inaccurate readings. Take measurements on a
level, stationary surface that is not affected by motor or machinery movement.
2. Turbidity meters should be calibrated with an appropriate calibration standard in each
measuring range.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Human error e.g. ignorance, lack of experience etc.
2. Faulty apparatus.
RECOMMENDATION
Apparatus used should be checked for faulty.
The experimenter should maximize concentration to minimize human errors as much as
possible.
CONCLUSION
The minimum turbidity is 9 NTU and is obtained with a concentration of184.4mh/l of alum.
REFERENCE
PHE I Lecture notes.
Lab technician notes/ Lab manual.
 ALKANILITY
OBJECTIVE
 To determine the amount of alkalinity in a water sample.

INTRODUCTION
The ability of water to neutralize acid is known as alkalinity. The hydroxide, carbonate, and
bicarbonate are the sources of alkalinity. It is crucial for corrosion control as well as
coagulation and softening processes. Values for alkalinity are given in mg/l as CaCO 3. In
practice, alkalinity is determined as the amount of strong acid needed to titrate a water
sample to a pH of 4.7.
Alkalinity can be either positive or negative because it can also be defined as the sum of the
strong bases in water less the sum of the strong acids. Alkalinity is negative if the
concentration of strong acids is greater than the concentration of strong bases; however,
water does not necessarily need to be highly basic (i.e., have a high pH) in order to be highly
alkaline.
Total alkalinity is the sum of HCO3-, CO32- and OH-. It is commonly represented as CaCO3
equivalent. This indicates that alkaline substances like hydroxides, bicarbonates, and
carbonates eliminate hydrogen ions from the water, reducing its acidity and raising pH.
Usually, they create new compounds by joining forces with the hydrogen ions. Alkalinity, or
the buffering capacity of water, can therefore also be defined as the capacity to maintain a
relatively steady PH. This is because water contains hydroxyl, carbonate, and bicarbonate
ions.
Factors Affecting Alkalinity
 Rocks e.g. limestone containing (calcium carbonate) which dissolves in water during
geological process and flows with it
 Soils for example Clay soils which naturally has an acidic pH that ranges from 4-6. Rocks
ammonia-based fertilizers added to soil produce acid as they are decomposed, Lime is
often added to such a soil to increase soil pH and buffer soil and fertilizer acids.
 Salts
 Certain industrial and other wastewater discharges (i.e., from the water supply, ground
water, and materials added during domestic use including detergents and soap-based
products which are alkaline, this higher alkalinity is due to a higher concentration of
nutrients and ions, some with acid buffering properties, such as silicates and
phosphates). Storm water runoff leading to streams can carry lime (either calcite or
dolomite), which is applied to lawns and agricultural fields.
 Acid rain also contributes to the alkalinity of waters.

Alkalinity can be measured using three separate tests, which are often conducted in this
order: methyl orange test (to determine total alkalinity), phenolphthalein test (to determine
OH- and CO32- alkalinity), and pH test (to determine OH - alkalinity). Since HCO3- and CO32- are
typically produced from CaCO3 or MgCO3, alkalinity and hardness (the concentration of
divalent ions) have comparable values in the majority of fluids.
APPARATUS
1. Dropper
2. Burette
3. Conical flask
4. Wash bottle
5. Pipette
6. Measuring cylinder

REAGENTS
1. Phenolphthalein indicator
2. Distilled water
3. Bromocresol green indicator
4. 0.02N sulphuric acid
5. Sample A
6. Sample B

PROCEDURE
Using phenolphthalein indicator:
1. 20ml of sample A was measured using a measuring cylinder.
2. It was then poured into a 250ml beaker and then diluted by distilled water up to 100ml.
3. 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator were then added to the diluted sample and
observations were made.
4. It was then titrated against the sulphuric acid up to the changing point i.e. colour
changed from blue to colourless.
5. The volume of the acid used was noted and recorded.
6. 20ml of sample A was then diluted to 100ml by distilled water and the procedure
repeated.
7. The same procedure was done this time round using sample B.
Using bromocresol green indicator:
1. 20ml of sample A was measured using a measuring cylinder.
2. It was then poured into a 250ml beaker and then diluted by distilled water up to 100ml.
3. 2 drops of bromocresol green indicator were then added to the diluted sample and
observations were made.
4. It was then titrated against the sulphuric acid up to the changing point i.e. colour
changed from yellow to green.
5. The volume of the acid used was noted and recorded.
6. 20ml of sample A was then diluted to 100ml by distilled water and the procedure
repeated.
7. The same procedure was done this time round using sample B.
RESULTS
Sample A:

Indicator Initial Volume Final Volume

phenolphthalein 0 1
bromocresol green 1 5.5

Sample B:

Indicator Initial Volume Final Volume

phenolphthalein 10.5 16.5
bromocresol green 5.5 10.5

DATA ANALYSIS
Average volume of the acid used in sample A is 2.75 cm3
( 10.5−5.5 ) + ( 16.5−1 0 .5 )
Average volume of the acid used in Sample B = =5 .5
2
Acid volume ×normality ×50000
Total alkalinity as mg/l CaCO3 =
V olume of sample used

Sample A
2.75 × 0.02× 50000
Total alkalinity as mg/l CaCO3 = = 187.50
20
= 187.50 mg/l of CaCO3
Sample B
5 .5 ×0.02 ×50000
Total alkalinity as mg/l CaCO3 = =¿ 275
20
=275 mg/l of CaCO3

DISCUSSION
Sample A is soft water since it has a concentration of calcium carbonate of 187.5mg/l while
Sample B is hard water since it has a concentration of calcium carbonate of275mg/l. A water
sample is said to be hard water if it contains more than 200 mg of calcium carbonate per
litre and it is considered soft water if it contains less than 100mg of calcium carbonate per
litre. Sample A has a low pH as compared to Sample B. Sample A is acidic in nature while
sample B is a basic. Sample B can cause scaling in pipes while sample A is more corrosive.
 CONCLUSION
i. We were able to determine the amount of alkalinity in the different water sample.
ii. We learnt also the importance of studying alkalinity of water, and this included;
 Aquatic organisms benefit from a stable pH value in their optimal range. To maintain
a fairly constant pH in a water body, a higher alkalinity is preferable.
 The alkalinity value is necessary in the calculation of carbonate scaling tendencies of
saline water
 The alkalinity acts as a pH buffer in coagulation and lime-soda softening of water
 In wastewater treatment alkalinity is an important parameter in determining
amenability of waste to the treatment process and control of such processes such as
anaerobic digestion
iii. We were able to learn the implication of different levels of alkalinity especially in
portable water
REFERENCES
 Lecture notes
 Lab manuals
 WATER HARDNESS

OBJECTIVE
 Aims to measure the amount of hardness of the sample of water provided.

INTRODUCTION
The term 'hardness' comes from the fact that a typical hard water reacts with ordinary soap
to form a curd or scum. Some hardness is also precipitated by boiling and forms the scale
found inside kettles and utensils. The precipitate formed by heating is the temporary, or
carbonate, hardness and consists of Permanent, or non-carbonate, hardness (which is not
precipitated by heating) is due to other salts of calcium and magnesium present in the water,
usually in lesser quantities than the bicarbonates.
Hard water results due to high concentrations of Mg + and Ca+ ions in the water mainly
through leaching from minerals. Hard water is generally not harmful to humans but can
result in serious problems when used industrially.
Additionally hard water results in the deposition of scale in hot water pipes and boilers
leading to losses due to increased maintenance costs.
Water hardness is measured in terms of mg of CaCo 3 per liter of water according to the
following scale:

Soft Moderately Hard Hard Very Hard

0 – 60 mg/l 61 – 120 mg/l 121 – 180 mg/l >181 mg/l

APPARATUS
1. Pipette
2. Burette
3. Beaker
4. Standard EDTA solution (0.02N) = Dissolve 3.723g of EDTA salt or a litre of distilled water.
5. Dissolve 3 drops of erichrome black T into a 30ml of distilled water.

REAGENTS
1. Standard EDTA solution 0.01M (0.02N) = Dissolve 3.723g of EDTA sodium salt/Litre of
dissolved water.
2. Dissolve 0.5g of Erichrome black T into 100ml of distilled water.
PROCEDURE
1. We Pipette to measure 40ml of water sample where we transferred it to 3 clean 250 ml
conical flasks.
2. We added 2ml of ammonia buffer solution to the water so that the pH will be
maintained between 9 and 10.
3. Add 3 drops of EBT indicator to the conical flasks and the sample turned to wine red.
4. Before titrating, we rinsed the burette with few ml of EDTA
5. We then filled the burette with 0.01M the EDTA solution.
6. Titrate the sample against the EDTA solution in the burette till all calcium and
magnesium ions present in the sample react with EDTA. The presence of the blue colour
indicates that all the calcium and magnesium ions are complexed with the EDTA and
forms a metal EDTA complex which was the end of titration.

RESULTS

Test 1

Initial reading 0.0 cm3

Final reading 3.5 cm3

Volume used 3.5 cm3

Test 2

Initial reading 9.0 cm3

Final reading 12.0 cm3

Volume used 3.0 cm3

Test 3

Initial reading 12.0 cm3

Final reading 15.2 cm3

Volume used 3.2 cm3

DATA ANALYSIS

Volume of EDTA × normality × 50000

Total hardness =
volume of sample used

Sample A
3.5× 0.02 ×50000
Total hardness = = 87.5
40
Sample B
3.0 × 0.02× 50000
Total hardness = =¿ 75.0
40
Sample C
3.2 ×0.02 ×50000
Total hardness = =¿ 80.0
40

DISCUSSION
Sample A turned to steel blue while sample B turned to wine red. A colour change to steel
blue indicates that all the calcium and magnesium ions have reacted with EDTA meaning the
maximum hardness level was achieved. A colour change to wine red indicates the presence
of calcium and magnesium ions in the water.

CONCLUSION

The water samples can be classified as being moderately hard according to the standard
tabulated in the theory section.