CONTOURING

CONTOUR

• An imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal

elevation is known as contour.

• In other words, contour is a line in which the ground surface is intersected

by a level surface obtained by joining points of equal elevation. This line
on the map represents a contour and is called contour line.
 CONTOUR MAP

• A map showing contour lines is known as Contour map.

• A contour map gives an idea of the altitudes of the surface features as
well as their relative positions in plan serves the purpose of both, a plan
and a section.

• The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of the earth is called
Contouring
 PURPOSE OF CONTOURING

Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as a
road, a railway, a canal, a dam, a building etc.

i) To determine intervisibility of different points

ii) To locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge line.

iii) To mark the alignment of roads and railways so that the quantity of earthwork
both in cutting and filling should be minimum
PURPOSE OF CONTOURING

iv) For getting information about the ground whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.

v) To find the capacity of a reservoir and volume of earthwork especially in a

mountainous region.

vi) To trace out the given grade of a particular route.

vii) To locate the physical features of the ground such as a pond depression, hill, steep or
small slopes.
 CONTOUR

CONTOUR INTERVAL

• The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contours is called the
contour interval.
HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT:
• The horizontal distance between any two adjacent contours is called as
horizontal equivalent.
• The contour interval is constant between the consecutive contours while the
horizontal equivalent is variable and depends upon the slope of the ground.
 FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR INTERVAL DEPENDS

The contour interval depends upon the following factors:-

i) The Nature of the Ground: In flat and uniformly sloping country,

the contour interval is small, but in broken and mountainous region
the contour interval should be large otherwise the contours will
come too close to each other.
 FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR - INTERVAL DEPENDS

ii. The Purpose and extent of the survey: Contour interval is small if
the area to be surveyed is small and the maps are required to be
used for the design work or for determining the quantities of earth
work etc. while wider interval shall have to be kept for large areas
and comparatively less important works.
 FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR - INTERVAL DEPENDS

III. The Scale of the Map: The contour interval should be in the inverse ratio to the
scale of the map i.e. the smaller the scale, the greater is the contour interval.

IV. Time and Expense of Field and Office work: The smaller the interval, the
greater is the amount of field-work and plotting work.
 COMMON VALUES OF THE CONTOUR- INTERVAL

The following are the common values of the contour interval adopted for various purposes:-

i) For large scale maps of flat country, for building sites, for detailed design work and for calculation of
quantities of earth work: 0.2 to 0.5 m.

ii) For reservoirs and town planning schemes: 0.5 to 2m.

iii) For location surveys: 2 to 3m.

iv) For small scale maps of broken country and general topographic work: 3m,5m,10m,or 25m.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

i. All points in a contour line have the same elevation.

ii. Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and steep-
slope where they run close together.

iii. A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniformly spaced
and a plane surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

v) A series of closed contour lines on the map represent a hill, if the values
higher are inside
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

vi) A series of closed contour lines on the map indicate

a depression if the higher values are outside

vii) Contour lines, cross ridge or valley lines are at right

angles. If the higher values are inside the bend or loop in
the contour, it indicates a Ridge.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right
angles. If the higher values are outside the bend, it
represents a Valley

viii) Contours cannot end anywhere but close on themselves either within or
outside the limits of the map.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

ix) Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another

on map except in the case of an overhanging cliff.

x) Contour lines never run into one another except

in the case of a vertical cliff. In this case several
contours coincide and the horizontal equivalent
becomes zero.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

X) Depressions between summits is called a saddle. It is represented by four sets of contours as shown.
It represents go a dip in a ridge or he junction of two ridges and in case of mountain it takes form of a
pass. Line passing through the saddle and summits give water shed lines.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

There are mainly two methods of locating

contours:-
(1)Direct Method and
(2) Indirect Method.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

Direct Method:
In this method, the contours to be located are directly traced out in the field by locating and marking a
number of points on each contour. These points are then surveyed and plotted on plan and the contours
drawn through them.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

Direct Method:

•This method is most accurate but very slow and tedious as a lot of
time is wasted in searching points of the same elevation for a contour.

•This is suitable for small area and where great accuracy is required
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

Procedure: To start with, a temporary B.M is established near the area to be

surveyed with reference to a permanent B.M by fly leveling.
The level is them set up in such a position so that the maximum number of points can
be commanded from the instrument station.
The height of instrument is determined by taking a back sight on the B.M. and adding
it to the R.L. of benchmark.
The staff reading required to fix points on the various contours is determined by
subtracting the R.L. of each of the contours from the height of instrument.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

Example:
If the height of instrument is 82.48m., then the staff readings required to locate 82, 81 and 80m
contours are 0.48, 1.48 and 2.48m respectively.
The staff is held on an approximate position of point and then moved up and down the slope
until the desired reading is obtained.
The point is marked with a peg. Similarly various other points are marked on each contour. The
line joining all these points give the required contour.
It may be noted that one contour is located at a time. Having fixed the contours within the
range of the instrument, the level is shifted and set up in a new position.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

Procedure:
• The new height of instrument and the required staff readings are then calculated in a
similar manner and the process repeated till all the contours are located.
• The positions of the contour points are located suitably either simultaneous with levelling
or afterwards.
• A theodolite, a compass or a plane table traversing is usually adopted for locating these
points.
• The points are then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by joining the
corresponding points by dotted curved lines.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

Direct Method By Radial Lines:

 This method is suitable for small areas, where a
single point in the center can command the
whole area. Radial lines are laid out from the
common center by theodolite or compass and
their positions are fixed up by horizontal angles
and bearings.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

 Temporary bench marks are first established at the centre and near the
ends of the radial lines.
 The contour points are then located and marked on these lines and their
positions are determined by measuring their distances along the radial
lines.
 They are then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by joining all
the corresponding points with the help of a plane table instrument.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

2. Indirect Method:

 In this method the points located and surveyed are not necessarily on the
contour lines but the spot levels are taken along the series of lines laid
out over the area.
 The spot levels of the several representative points representing hills,
depressions, ridge and valley lines and the changes in the slope all over
the area to be contoured are also observed.
 Their positions are then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by
interpolation.
 This method of contouring is also known as contouring by spot levels.
METHODS OF CONTOURING
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

This method is commonly employed in all kinds of surveys as this is cheaper, quicker and less
tedious as compared to direct method. There are mainly three method of contouring in indirect
method:
(i) By Squares:
 In this method, the whole area is divided into number of squares, the side of which may vary
from 5m to 30m depending upon the nature of the ground and the contour interval. The
square need not be of the same size throughout.
 The corners of the squares are pegged out and the reduced levels of these points are
determined with a level.
METHODS OF CONTOURING
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

 The important points within the squares

may be taken when required and located
by measurements from the corners.
 The squares are plotted and the reduced
levels of the corners are written on the
plan.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

By Cross-Sections: This method is most suitable for the survey of long narrow
strips such as a road, railway or canal etc.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

 This method is most suitable for the surveys of long narrow strips such
as a road, railway or canal etc.

 Cross sections are run transverse to the center line of the work and
representative points are marked along the lines of cross-section.

 The cross-section lines need not necessarily be at right angles to the

center line of the work.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

 This may be inclined at any angle to the center line if necessary.

 The spacing of the cross-sections depends upon the topography of the

country and the nature of the survey.

 The common value is 20 to 30 m in hilly country and 100m in flat

country. The levels of the points along the section lines are plotted on
the plan and the contours are then interpolated as usual as shown in the
fig.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

(iii) By Tacheometric method:

 A tacheometer is a transit theodolite having a diaphragm fitted with two stadia
wires, one above and other below the central wire.
 The horizontal distance between the instrument and staff station may be
determined by multiplying the difference of the staff readings of the upper and
lower stadia wires with the stadia constant of the instrument, which is usually
100.
 Thus the tacheometer is used for both the vertical as well as horizontal
measurements.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING

 This method is most suitable in hilly areas as the number of stations which can
be commanded by a tacheometer is far more than those by a level and thus the
number of instrument settings are considerably reduced.
 A number of radial lines and laid out at a known angular interval points are
marked by pegs along these radial lines.
 Their elevations and distances are then calculated and plotted on the plan and
the contour lines are then interpolated.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

• The process of spacing the contours proportionally between the plotted ground
- points is termed as interpolation of contours.

• This becomes necessary in the case of indirect contouring as only the spot
levels are taken in this method. While interpolation of contours the ground
between any two points is assumed to be uniformly sloping.

• There are three main methods of interpolation.

 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

¡) By Estimation: The position of the contour points between ground points are
estimated roughly and the contours are then drawn through these points. This is a
rough method and is suitable for small scale maps.

ii) By arithmetical calculation: This is very tedious but accurate method and is used for
small areas where accurate results are necessary. The contours are interpolated as
under.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
 Suppose A and B are two points at a distance of 30 m and the reduced level of A
and B are 25.45m and 27.54m respectively.
 Taking the contour interval as 1m, 26 and 27m contours may be interpolated in
between A and B.
 The difference of level between A and B is 2.09m.
 The difference of level between A and 26m,and A and 27m is 0.55mand 1.55 m
respectively. Therefore the horizontal distance between A and 26 m contour
=0.55/2.09 x 30m and Between A and 27 m contour =1.55/2.09 x 30m. These
distances are then plotted to scale on the map
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

• Graphical method of interpolation is

simpler as compared to arithmetical
method and also the so results obtained
are accurate.
• As shown in the fig. suppose the contour
interval is 5m, then on a piece of tracing
cloth, a number of parallel lines spaced
at 0.5 m (usually 1/10th of the contour
interval) are drawn.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

• Every tenth line being made thick.

• Suppose it is required to interpolate

contours between two points A and
B of elevation 51.5m and 62.5m
respectively.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

 If the bottom line represents an elevation of 50m.

 Then the successive thick lines will represent 55m, 60m and 65m, etc. Place
the tracing cloth so that the point A is on the third line from the bottom, now
move the tracing cloth until B is on the fifth line above the 60m thick line.

 The intersection of the thick lines 1and 2 representing elevations of 55m and
60 m and the line AB give the position of the points on the 55m and 60m
contours respectively and are pricked through on the plan with a pin.
 DRAWING THE CONTOUR LINES

 Contour lines are drawn as fine and smooth free hand curved lines.

 Sometimes they are represented by broken lines.

 They are inked in either in black or brown colour.

 A drawing pen gives a better line than a writing pen and French curves should be
used as much as possible. Every fifth contour is made thicker than the rest.
 DRAWING THE CONTOUR LINES

 The elevation of contours must be written in a uniform manner, either on the

higher side or in a gap left in the line.

 When the contour lines are very long, their elevations are written at two or three
places along the contour .In the case of small scale maps, it is sufficient to figure
every fifth contour.
 USES OF CONTOUR MAP
(i) A contour map furnishes information regarding the features of the ground,
whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.

(ii) From a contour map, sections may be easily drawn in any direction

(iii) Intervisibility between two ground points plotted on map can be ascertained

(iv) It enables an engineer to approximately select the most economical or suitable

site for an engineering project such as a road, a railway, a canal or a pipe line etc.
 USES OF CONTOUR MAP

(v) A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.

(vi) Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be determined from the contour
map.

(vii) Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of earth work.