COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWER FOR INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

CRITICAL THINKING AND ARGUMENTATION

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,

analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to reach an informed conclusion. It
involves logical reasoning, self-regulation, and open-minded inquiry.

• Characteristics of Critical Thinking:

o Logical and coherent reasoning

o Recognition of biases and assumptions

o Ability to distinguish between valid and fallacious reasoning

o Skepticism and intellectual humility

o Clarity, precision, and depth in thought

TYPES OF ARGUMENTS

• Deductive Argument: A form of reasoning where the conclusion necessarily follows

from the premises. If the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. This
form of reasoning is commonly used in mathematics and formal logic.

• Inductive Argument: A type of reasoning that makes broad generalizations based on

specific observations. While inductive arguments provide strong evidence for the
conclusion, they do not guarantee its truth.

LOGICAL FALLACIES

Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that weaken arguments. They often appear
convincing but are based on flawed logic. Recognizing fallacies helps in developing strong
arguments and avoiding misinformation.

COMMON TYPES OF LOGICAL FALLACIES

1. Ad Hominem (Personal Attack)

• Definition: Attacking the person making the argument instead of addressing the
argument itself.

• Example: "You can't trust his opinion on climate change; he's not a scientist."
 • How to Avoid: Focus on the argument’s content, not the person presenting it.

2. Straw Man

• Definition: Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.

• Example: "People who support renewable energy just want us to live without
electricity."

• How to Avoid: Address the strongest version of an opponent’s argument.

3. Appeal to Authority

• Definition: Stating a claim is true simply because an authority figure believes it.

• Example: "A famous actor says this diet is the best, so it must be true."

• How to Avoid: Rely on evidence and reasoning, not just authority figures.

4. False Dilemma (Black-and-White Thinking)

• Definition: Presenting only two options when more exist.

• Example: "Either you support government surveillance, or you support terrorism."

• How to Avoid: Consider all possible perspectives and solutions.

5. Slippery Slope

• Definition: Claiming that one action will inevitably lead to a series of negative events.

• Example: "If we allow students to use calculators, soon they won’t know basic math
at all."

• How to Avoid: Provide logical steps and evidence for each consequence.

6. Hasty Generalization

• Definition: Drawing a conclusion based on insufficient evidence.

• Example: "I met two rude people from that country, so everyone from there must be
rude."

• How to Avoid: Use large, representative samples before making conclusions.

7. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (False Cause)

• Definition: Assuming that because one event happened before another, it caused the
second event.
 • Example: "I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game. My socks must be lucky."

• How to Avoid: Look for real causal relationships supported by evidence.

8. Circular Reasoning

• Definition: Using a statement to prove itself.

• Example: "I know ghosts exist because I saw one."

• How to Avoid: Provide independent evidence to support claims.

9. Bandwagon Fallacy (Appeal to Popularity)

• Definition: Assuming something is true because many people believe it.

• Example: "Everyone else is skipping class, so it must be okay."

• How to Avoid: Base beliefs on evidence, not popularity.

10. Begging the Question

• Definition: Assuming the truth of a statement without evidence.

• Example: "Reading is important because it is essential to gaining knowledge."

• How to Avoid: Provide independent reasoning or evidence.

HOW TO AVOID FALLACIES IN ARGUMENTS

1. Analyze the Logic – Break down statements and examine whether they follow sound
reasoning.

2. Ask for Evidence – Support claims with data, studies, or sound reasoning.

3. Stay on Topic – Address the issue at hand instead of diverting the discussion.

4. Be Open to Different Perspectives – Consider alternative viewpoints and

acknowledge complexities.

5. Think Critically – Question assumptions and test arguments against logic.

I. RENE DESCARTES: "I THINK, THEREFORE I AM"

• René Descartes is known as the Father of Modern Philosophy.

• Famous for Cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am").

• He used methodical doubt to question everything and arrive at fundamental truths.

• He distinguished between the mind (thinking substance) and the body (extended
substance), leading to Cartesian Dualism.

II. CARTESIAN DOUBT

• A methodical process of doubting in order to arrive at certainty.

• Rejects beliefs that can be doubted, accepting only what is clear and distinct.

• Leads to foundational knowledge: the existence of the self as a thinking being.

III. CAUSAL THEORY

• Asserts that an idea must be caused by something with at least as much reality as the
idea itself.

• Used by Descartes to argue for the existence of God, stating that the idea of a perfect
being must come from something truly perfect (God).

IV. SELF AS A SUBJECT

• The self is an active agent in shaping meaning and existence.

• Key ideas:

o You give your life meaning.

o You are an actor, not a spectator.

o You must face absurdity and your limitations.

o Existence is about personal choice and responsibility.

V. EXISTENCE

• Defined as the state of being in reality and living.

• Important existentialist ideas:

o Existence is unique to each individual.

o Life has no predetermined essence; individuals create meaning.

 o We live in reality, bound by choices.

VI. ABSURDITY

• The tension between:

1. Man’s desire to understand the world.

2. The reality that not everything has an answer.

• Existentialists like Albert Camus argue that we must embrace the absurd and live
authentically.

VII. FREEDOM

• The capacity to make choices for oneself, including:

o Speaking, acting, thinking, and choosing a way of life.

o Existentialists argue that freedom comes with responsibility.

VIII. SOREN KIERKEGAARD - FATHER OF EXISTENTIALISM

• Proposed three spheres of existence:

1. Aesthetic Stage – Living for pleasure, avoiding boredom.

2. Ethical Stage – Following laws, moral standards, and social rules.

3. Faith Stage – Recognizing the authority of God and accepting human

limitations.

IX. SELF AS AN OBJECT

• Charles S. Peirce: An object is a tangible, observable entity.

• John Locke: The mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate); knowledge comes from
experience.

Primary Qualities

• Exist within an object, independent of perception (e.g., shape, motion).

Secondary Qualities

• Depend on the observer’s perception (e.g., color, taste).

X. MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY - PERCEPTION AND KNOWLEDGE

• Knowledge is gained through assembling stimuli into experiences.

 • Perception is crucial for understanding the world.

• Abstract Knowledge: Learned knowledge that enables response to commands.

• Embodied Knowledge: Gained through sensory experiences.

XI. HUMANITY AS STEWARDS OF THE WORLD

• Environmental ethics define humanity’s role in protecting nature.

Pre-Socratics and Cosmocentrism

• Thales of Miletus: Water is the foundation of life.

• Heraclitus: Fire symbolizes destruction and impermanence.

• Leucippus & Democritus: Everything is composed of indivisible atoms.

• Anaximander: The "apeiron" (the boundless) is the source of everything.

Judeo-Christian Stewardship

• St. Thomas Aquinas: God is the highest good (Summum Bonum).

• Humans are stewards of God’s creation.

Utilitarianism

• An action is right if it is useful.

• Different from consequentialism, which bases morality on outcomes.

Confucianism & The Rule of Reciprocity

• "Do not do unto others what you do not want others to do to you."

• Applied to environmental ethics: Respect nature to ensure it does not harm us.

XII. PHILOSOPHY BEHIND VEGETARIANISM

• Animals are sentient beings that feel pain and pleasure.

• Peter Singer: Criticized speciesism (unfair preference for humans over animals).

• Moral duty to consider non-human animals in ethical decisions.

XIII. DEONTOLOGY - DUTY-BASED ETHICS

• Focuses on moral rules and principles rather than consequences.

• Humans must follow ethical duties regardless of the outcome.

XIV. GOVERNMENTAL ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMS

• Research environmental laws and their rationale.

• Reflect on the importance of protecting nature for future generations.