UNIT-3

DIELECTRICS
Dielectrics are nothing but insulators in which there are no free electrons for conduction. In
dielectrics forbidden energy is greater than 6ev.

Electric dipole: The arrangement of equal and opposite charges

separated by a distance is called electric dipole or dipole.

Dipole moment: Electric dipole moment is product of magnitude of charge and distance of
separation between the two charges. If q is the magnitude of the charge and r is the distance of
separation, the dipole moment is given by

µ e = q x r coulomb-meter

Nonpolar dielectrics: In an atom or molecule, if the center of gravity of positive charge

coincides with the center of gravity of negative charge, the distance of separation between two
charges is zero. The net dipole moment is zero (µ e = q x 0 = 0). Such a molecule is called
nonpolar molecule and medium formed by these molecules is called nonpolar dielectric.

Ex. H2, N2, Co2, CH4, C6H6 etc.

Polar dielectrics: when two or more atoms form a molecule and if the center of gravity of
positive charge do not coincide with that of negative charge, molecule possess some permanent
dipolemoment such molecule is said to be polar molecule. The medium formed by these
molecules is called polar dielectric.

Example: H2O, HCl, N2O, NH3……

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OR RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY r:

Let us consider a parallel plate capacitor connected to voltage source V0. Let the charges on the
plates be +Q0 and –Q0.

The capacitance of the capacitor when no medium is placed between the plates is
 0 A -------
C0 = (1) where‘d’ is distance of separation between the plates and ‘A’ is area
d
of the plate.

When the plates of the condenser are disconnected from the voltage source, the magnitude of
charge Q0 on either plate must remain constant. When the dielectric is placed between the plates
of the condenser, the potential difference decreases to a value V and capacitance of the
condenser increases to ‘C’.

1
 A
C= where  is permittivity of the medium.
d

 0 r A
C= = rC0
d
C
Dielectric Constant or relative permittivity r =
C0

So dielectric constant is defined as the ratio of the capacity of the condenser with dielectric
between the plates to the capacity of the condenser with air or vaccum in between the plates.

It is also defined as the ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of the air or free
space.

r = where 0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m or C2/N-m2 is permittivity of air or free space.
0

FIELD VECTORS IN DIELECTRICS:

  
1. Electric Field Intensity ( E ) 2. Dielectric Polarization ( P ) 3. Electric Displacement ( D )

1. Electric Field Intensity (E): Electric field intensity at any point in the electric field is defined
as the force experience by unit positive charge placed at that point. Let ‘F’ be the force acting on
a charge ‘q’ then according to definition,


E = F N/coulomb
q

The direction of ‘E’ is same as direction of F

2. Dielectric Polarization ( P ): The induced dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric

medium placed in the external field is called dielectric polarization P .
 
P
i.e. = (1) where V is the volume of dielectric
V ----------
It is vector quantity whose direction is induced negative charge to induced positive charge.
But induced dipole moment is the product of induced charge and distance of separation between
the charges.
If q1 and l are the induced charge and length of the dielectric (distance of separation),

 q1 x l q1
P = = C/m2 (∵V = area x length) 2
A xl A
Thus electric polarization is also equal to the induced charge per unit area
_
3. Electric Displacement ( D ): Electric displacement is nothing but electric flux density. i.e.
electric lines of force per unit area. Mathematically it can be written as real charge per unit area
of the conducting surface. Let a charge ‘q’ be uniformly distributed on a conducting surface of
area ‘A’,
q
D= C/m2 or q = D A.
A
_
_

In integral form q = ∫ D. ds
The electric displacement is also equal to the product of absolute permittivity of the medium ()
and resultant electric field intensity E
_
i.e. D =  E

Electric Susceptibility e :

The electric polarization P is proportional to the electric field intensity E

P  E or P = 0eE where e is proportionality constant called electric

susceptibility
P
e =
0E

RELATION BETWEEN E AND R:

Consider a parallel plate condenser of plate area ‘A’. let it be completely filled with a
dielectric. Let the magnitude of the real charge on either plate is ‘q’ coulombs. Let a charge of
magnitude ‘q1’ is induced on the dielectric faces as shown in figure.
Let ‘E’ be the electric field intensity. According to Gauss law in electrostatics,

_ q  q1
or
∫ E. ds =
S 0
q  q1
E.A =
0
⇒ q q1
0 E =  or 0 E = D – P
A A
_ _
D = 0E + P - ---------- (1) This is the relation between D, E and P 3
Dividing the above equation by 0E, we get
_ _
D P
= 1+
_
0E
0 E

 1+ or ∵ D E
0
r = 1+ or

 = r – 1 - ------- (2)

Polarizability (): Dipole moment is directly proportional to the electric field intensity.
E or  = E where ‘’ is polarizability of the medium
If medium possess ‘N’ molecules per unit volume, polarization
P = NE
INTERNAL FIELD OR LOCAL FIELD OF THE CUBIC DIELECTRICS:

Def: The electric field experienced by a dipole inside the dielectric medium is called local field
or internal field Ein. It is different from the externally applied field.
Body of the dielectric between the condenser
plates is shown in figure. We have to calculate the
electric field experienced by a dipole at the center of the
dielectric. Let us consider a spherical cavity with in the
dielectric as shown in the figure. Polarized charges also
appear on the surface of the sphere.
Consider a molecule of dielectric at the center
‘C’of the dielectric. The dipole experiences the
following fields in addition to the applied field.
Ein = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4
Where E1 is electric field at center ‘C’ due to the charges on the surface of condenser plates.
E2 is electric field at center ‘C’ due to the charges on the surface of the dielectric
E3 is electric field at center ‘C’ due to the charges on the surface of the sphere
E4 is electric field at center ‘C’ due to the permanent dipoles inside the sphere.
But in our present case, nonpolar, isotropic dielectric, it is zero. i.e. E4 = 0
 Ein = E + E3 --------- (1) (∵E1 + E2 = E, externally applied field) 4
 Consider a small element of area ‘ds’ on the surface of the sphere making an angle ‘d’
with the center and ‘’ with the field direction. The polarization will be parallel to the electric
field E.
q1
The charge on the surface element is q1 = Pcos ds (∵ p= , pcos is parallel component of
A
polarization)
1 q1
Electric field intensity at center ‘C’ due to this charge is dE3 =
4 0 r 2
1 p cos ds
= - ------ (2)
4 0 r2
Where ‘r’ is radius of the sphere. This field intensity is along ‘r’. Therefore parallel component
of the electric field E will be dE3 cos
1 p cos ds
dE3 = cos ---------- (3)
4 0 r2
The area of the small surface element is ds = 2r(AB x BM)
BM AB AB
From fig. sin = or BM = r sin, sin d = or d  or AB = r d
r r r
ds = 2 r2 sin d
Substitute this value in equation (3), we get

P
dE3 2 cos  sin d ----------- (4)
2
=
0

Electric field intensity at ‘C’ due to the charges on whole sphere will be


P
E3 = ∫ cos 2  sin  d
2 0 0

=
P
.
2
∵ put cos  t, dz   sin d 
2 0 3
P
=
3
0

P
 Total internal field Ein = E +
30
- --------(5) 5
CLAUSIUS-MOSSOTTI EQUATION:
This equation gives the relation between the dielectric constant r and polarizability 
We know  = r – 1 or
P
= r – 1
0E
P = 0(r – 1) E ----------- (1)
P
Internal field Ein = E +
3 0
Substitute the ‘P’ value from equ.(1) in equ.(2)

 0 ( r  1)
Ein = E + E
30
r 1
= E + 1
3
r  2
=E - ------- (2)
3
Polarization is also proportional to the internal field Ein.
P = N Ein --------------- (3)
Where N is total no. of molecules in the dielectric,  is polarizability
r  2
0(r – 1) E = N E (from equ. (1) and (2))
3
 r  1 N
= -------- (4) is called Clausius-Mossotti equation.
 r  2 30
M
Multiplying the above equation by , where M is molecular weight and  is density.

r 1 M N M
=
r  2  3 0 
r 1 M =  NA N A x density
 2  3 - ----- (5) ∵number of molecules  Molecular Weight
r 0

Where NA is Avogadro’s number = 6.023 x 1026/kmol

r 1 M
The quantity is called molar polarization of a dielectric. 6
r  2 
TYPES OF POLARIZATION:
1. Electronic polarization 2. Ionic polarization 3. Dipolar or orientation polarization
Electronic polarization:
When an electric field is applied to the atom, electrons in the atom are displaced relative to the
nucleus and produce dipole moment.
Polarization arises due to the displacement of electron cloud relative to the nucleus, with in the
same atom is called electronic polarization.
Electronic polarizability (e):
As shown in the figure +ze is charge of
nucleus is surrounded by an electronic
cloud of charge –ze distributed in a sphere
of radius ‘R’. Thus charge density of the
electrons is charge/volume,

ze 3 ze
=- 4 =  - ------- (1)
 R3 4  R3
3
When this system is subjected to an external field of intensity E, the nucleus and electron
experiences a lorentz force of magnitude ZeE. Therefore electron and nucleus pulled apart
opposite direction and a coulomb attraction force is developed between them. Let the
displacement of electrons be ‘x’.
Thus Lorentz force = -ZeE and
1 ch arg eenclosed in the sphereof radius x
Coulomb force = Ze x
4 0 x2
The charge enclosed in the sphere of radius ‘x’ = charge density x volume (with radius x)
4

3 ze  x3
= x
4  R3 3
Zex 3
=-
R3
1 Zex 3 (ze) (ze) x
Hence coulomb force = Ze x x - =-
4 0 x 2
R3 4 0 R 3 7
At thermal equilibrium the two forces are equal
(ze) (ze) x Ze x
i.e. –ze E = - or E=
4 0 R 3 4 0 R 3
4 0 R 3 E
x= This is expression for distance of separation between the two
ze
charges when electric field is applied.
 Dipole moment e = charge x displacement
4 0 R 3 E
= ze x
ze
3
= 40R E
= e E
Where e = 40R3 is called electronic polarizability

Ionic polarization:
This polarization occurs in ionic bonding compounds. When an
electric field is applied positive and negative ions displace in opposite
directions causing a change in length of ionic bond. This effect of change
in length causes to dipole moment. So polarization arises due to relative
displacement of ions is called ionic polarization.
Let us consider m and M are the masses of the positive and
negative ions respectively. When electric field E is applied on an
ionic dielectric then positive ions displace in the direction of the
applied field through x1 units of distance and negative ions displaced
in opposite direction to the field through x2 units of distance as shown
fig.b

Hence net distance between two opposite ions x = x1 + x2 ----------- (1)

Lorentz force acting on the positive ion = eE ----- (2)
Lorentz force acting on the negative ion = eE ----- (3)
When ions are displaced in their respective directions from the mean positions, then the restoring
force appears on the ions which tend to move the ions back to the mean positions. 8
  Restoring force acting on the positive ion = k1 x1 ---------(4) where k1 force constant = mω02
Restoring force acting on the negative ion = k2 x2 ------- (5) where k1 force constant = Mω02
At equilibrium position Lorentz force is equal and opposite to restoring force
Ee Ee
Hence eE = k1 x1 or x1 = and x2 =
m02 M 02
From equation (1)
x = x1 + x2
Ee Ee
 x= +
m02 M 02

Ee 1 1
= [ + ]
02 m M

But dipole moment µ = charge x displacement

Ee 1 1
=e [ + ]
0
2 m M

Ee 2 1 1
= [ + ]
20 m M


We know that ionic polarizability αi =
E
e 2
1 1
= [ + ]
0
2 m M
Hence we can say that ionic polarizability is inversely proportional to square of the angular
mM
velocity ω0 and reduced mass ( ).
mM

9
Dipolar or Orientation Polarization:
This type of polarization only occurs in polar substances. In the absence of an external
field the orientation of these dipoles is random. So that the net polarization is zero
When applied field is very strong these dipoles come to align. For ordinary fields these dipoles
not come to align completely
because the orientation of dipoles is
continuously disturbed by
temperature.
Anyway the dipole moment is
induced when electric field is
applied to polar molecules. This
polarization is known as dipolar polarization. This polarization is strongly temperature
dependent.
2
Polarizability 0 =
3KBT

where µ is the average dipole moment of all molecules.