Chapter 5 - Model Testing.

5.1 Steady Flow Past General Bodies

- In general, CD = CD (Re ).

- For bluff bodies

Form drag >> Friction drag ⇒ CD ≈ const ≡ CP (within a regime)

Recall that the form drag (CP ) has only regime dependence on Reynold’s number,
i.e, its NOT a function of Reynold’s number within a regime.

- For streamlined bodies

CD (Re ) = Cf (Re ) + CP

5.1.1 Steps followed in model testing:

(a) Perform an experiment with a smooth model at ReM (ReM << ReS ) and obtain
the model drag CDM .
(b) Calculate CP M = CDM − Cf M (ReM ) = CP S = CP ; CDM measured, Cf M (ReM )
calculated.
(c) Calculate CDS = CP + Cf S (ReS )
(d) Add ΔCf for roughness if needed.

CP measured

CD predicted
Cf (Rship)
Cf (Rm)
calculated
Cf (Rship) calculated
R
Rm Rship

5
 Caution: In an experiment, the boundary layer must be in the same regime (i.e.,
turbulent) as the prototype. Therefore turbulence stimulator(s) must be added.

�
TBL �
TBL
LBL
CP turbulent regime

U MODEL

Laminar Cf Turbulent Cf

R Turbulent boundary layer

to be triggered here

5.1.2 Drag on a ship hull For bodies near the free surface, the Froude number Fr is
due to wave effects. Therefore CD = CD (Re , Fr ). In general the ra-
important, �
Re gL3
tio = . It is impossible to easily scale both Re and Fr . For example
Fr ν
Re Lm 1 νm gm
= constant and = ⇒ = 0.032 or = 1000!
Fr Lp 10 νp gp

This makes ship model testing seem unfeasible. Froude’s Hypothesis proves to be
invaluable for model testing
calculate measure indirectly
� �� � � �� �
CD (Re , Fr ) ≈ Cf (Re ) + CR (Fr )
� �� � � �� �
Cf for flat plate residual drag
of equivalent wetted area

In words, Froude’s Hypothesis assumes that the drag coefficient consists of two parts,
Cf that is a known function of Re , and CR , a residual drag that depends on Fr num­
ber only and not on Re . Since Cf (Re ) ∼ Cf (Re )flat plate , we need to run experiments
to (indirectly) get CR (Fr ).

Thus, for ship model testing we require Froude similitude to measure CR (Fr ), while
Cf (Re ) is estimated theoretically.

6
 5.1.3 OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE FOR FROUDE MODEL TESTING
(S ≡ ‘SHIP’ M ≡‘MODEL’; in general νS = νM , and ρS =
 ρM )
�
1. Given US , calculate: FrS = US / gLS = FrM

�
2. For Froude similitude, tow model at: UM = FrS gLM

3. Measure total resistance (drag) of model: Measure DM

DM
4. Calculate total drag coefficient for model: CDM = 2
0.5ρM UM SM
����
wetted area

0.075
5. Use ITTC line to calculate Cf (ReM ): Cf (ReM ) =
(log10 ReM − 2)2

6. Calculate residual drag of model: CRM = CDM − Cf (ReM )

7. Froude’s Hypothesis: CRM (ReM , Fr ) = CRM (Fr ) = CRS (Fr ) = CR (Fr )

0.075
8. Use ITTC line to calculate Cf (ReS ): Cf (ReS ) =
(log10 ReS − 2)2

9. Calculate total drag coefficient for ship: CDS = CR (Fr ) + Cf (ReS ) + ΔC

����f
∼
= 0.0004
typical value

� �
10. Calculate the total drag of ship: DS = CDS · 0.5ρS US2 SS
����
wetted area

11. Calculate the power for the ship: PS = DS US

12. Repeat for a series of US

7
 2.20 - Marine Hydrodynamics, Spring 2005
Lecture 20

2.20 - Marine Hydrodynamics

Lecture 20

Chapter 6 - Water Waves

6.1 Exact (Nonlinear) Governing Equations for
Surface Gravity Waves, Assuming Potential Flow

Free surface definition

y = η ( x, z , t ) or F ( x, y, z , t ) = 0
y

x
z

B(x, y, z,t) = 0

Unknown variables

Velocity field: v (x, y, z, t) = ∇φ (x, y, z, t)
Position of free surface: y = η (x, z, t) or F (x, y, z, t) = 0
Pressure field: p (x, y, z, t)

Governing equations
Continuity: ∇2 φ = 0 y < η or F < 0
Bernoulli for P-Flow: ∂φ
∂t
+ 21 |∇φ|2 + p−pa
ρ
+ gy = 0; y < η or F < 0
Far way, no disturbance: ∂φ/∂t, ∇φ → 0 and p = pa − ρgy
 
atmospheric hydrostatic

1
Boundary Conditions

1. On an impervious boundary B (x, y, z, t) = 0, we have KBC:

∂φ  (x, t) · n
v · n
ˆ = ∇φ · n
ˆ= =U ˆ (x, t) = Un on B = 0
∂n

Alternatively: a particle P on B remains on B, i.e., B is a material surface. For

example if P is on B at t = t0 , P stays on B for all t.

B(xP , t0 ) = 0, then B(xP (t), t) = 0 for all t,

so that, following P B is always 0.

DB ∂B
∴ = + (∇φ · ∇) B = 0 on B = 0
Dt ∂t

For example, for a flat bottom at y = −h ⇒ B = y + h = 0 ⇒

  
DB ∂φ ∂ ∂φ
= (y + h) = 0 ⇒ = 0 on B = y + h = 0
Dt ∂y ∂y ∂y
  
=1

2. On the free surface, y = η or F = y − η(x, z, t) = 0 we have KBC and DBC.

KBC: free surface is a material surface, no normal velocity relative to the free surface.
A particle on the free surface remains on the free surface for all times.
DF D ∂φ ∂η ∂φ ∂η ∂φ ∂η
=0= (y − η) = − − − on y = η
Dt Dt ∂y ∂t ∂x 
∂x ∂z
∂z  
 still
vertical slope slope
unknown
velocity of f.s. of f.s.

DBC: p = pa on y = η or F = 0. Apply Bernoulli equation at y = η:

∂φ 1
+ |∇φ|2 + g η = pa on y = η
∂t 2   
still unknown
non-linear term

2
 6.2 Linearized (Airy) Wave Theory
Assume small wave amplitude compared to wavelength, i.e., small free surface slope
A
<< 1
λ

Wave height H crest

Wave amplitude A
H = A/2

SWL

Water depth h
trough wavelength Wave period T
λ

Consequently
φ η
, << 1
λ2 /T λ
We keep only linear terms in φ, η.

∂
For example: ()|y=η = ()y=0 + η ()| + . . . Taylor series
    ∂y  y=0
keep
discard

3
6.2.1 BVP In this paragraph we state the Boundary Value Problem for linear (Airy) waves.

∂ 2φ ∂φ
+g =0
∂t 2 ∂y
y=0
∇ 2φ = 0
y = -h

∂φ
=0
∂y

Finite depth h = const Infinite depth

GE: ∇2 φ = 0, −h < y < 0 ∇2 φ = 0, y < 0
∂φ
BKBC: ∂y = 0, y = −h ∇φ → 0, y → −∞
⎫
FSKBC: ∂φ ∂η ⎬
∂y = ∂t , y = 0 2
→ ∂∂t2φ + g ∂φ
∂y = 0
FSDBK: ∂φ
∂t + gη = 0, y = 0 ⎭

Introducing the notation {} for infinite depth we can rewrite the BVP:

Constant finite depth h {Infinite depth}

∇2 φ = 0, −h < y < 0 ∇2 φ = 0, y < 0 (1)
∂φ
= 0, y = −h {∇φ → 0, y → −∞} (2)
∂y

∂2φ ∂φ ∂ 2φ ∂φ
+ g = 0, y = 0 +g = 0, y = 0 (3)
∂t2 ∂y ∂t2 ∂y

Given φ calculate:
   
1 ∂φ  
1 ∂φ 
η (x, t) = − η (x, t) = − (4)
g ∂t y=0 g ∂t y=0

∂φ ∂φ
p − pa = −ρ − ρgy p − pa = −ρ − ρgy (5)
 ∂t   ∂t 
hydrostatic hydrostatic
dynamic dynamic

4
6.2.2 Solution Solution of 2D periodic plane progressive waves, applying separation of
variables.
We seek solutions to Equation (1) of the form eiωt with respect to time. Using the
KBC (2), after some algebra we find φ. Upon substitution in Equation (4) we can
also obtain η.

gA cosh k (y + h) gA
φ= sin (kx − ωt) φ= sin (kx − ωt) eky
ω cosh kh ω
⎧ ⎫
⎨ ⎬
= A cos (kx − ωt)
η  = A cos (kx − ωt)
η 
⎩ ⎭
using (4) using(4)

where A is the wave amplitude A = H/2.

Exercise Verify that the obtained values for φ and η satisfy Equations (1), (2), and
(4).
6.2.3 Review on plane progressive waves

(a) At t = 0 (say), η = A cos kx → periodic in x with wavelength: λ = 2π/k

Units of λ : [L]
λ
k = wavenumber = 2 /λ [L-1]
x K

(b) At x = 0 (say), η = A cos ωt → periodic in t with period: T = 2π/ω

Units of T : [T ]
T

ω = frequency = 2 /T [T-1], e.g. rad/sec

t
    
(c) η = A cos k x − ωk t ω L
Units of :
k T
ω ω 
Following a point with velocity , i.e., xp = t + const, the phase of η does
k k
ω λ
not change, i.e., = ≡ Vp ≡ phase velocity.
k T

5
6.2.4 Dispersion Relation
So far, any ω, k combination is allowed. However, recall that we still have not made
use of the FSBC Equation (3). Upon substitution of φ in Equation (3) we find that
the following relation between h, k, and ω must hold:

∂ 2φ ∂φ
+ g =0 −→ −ω 2 cosh kh + gk sinh kh = 0 ⇒ ω 2 = gk tanh kh
∂t2 ∂y ↑
φ= gA
ω
sin(kx−ωt)f (z)

• This is the Dispersion Relation

ω 2 = gk tanh kh ω 2 = gk (6)

Given h, the Dispersion Relation (6) provides a unique relation between ω and k,
i.e., ω = ω(k; h) or k = k(ω; h).
• Proof

C
ω2h
C ≡ = (kh) tanh (kh)
g 
kh

from (6)
1 tanh kh
C
= tanh kh
kh
kh → obtain unique solution for k
kh =f(c)

• Comments
- General As ω ↑ then k ↑, or equivalently as T ↑ then λ ↑.
  
λ ω g g
- Phase speed Vp ≡ = = tanh kh Vp =
T k k k
Therefore as T ↑ or as λ ↑, then Vp ↑, i.e., longer waves are ‘faster’ in terms of
phase speed.
- Water depth effect For waves the same k (or λ), at different water depths, as h ↑
then Vp ↑, i.e., for fixed k Vp is fastest in deep water.
- Frequency dispersion Observe that Vp = Vp (k) or Vp (ω). This means that waves of
different frequencies, have different phase speeds, i.e., frequency dispersion.

6
6.2.5 Solutions to the Dispersion Relation : ω 2 = gk tanh kh
Property of tanh kh:
long waves
shallow water
  
sinh kh 1 − e−2kh ∼ kh for kh << 1. In practice h < λ/20
tanh kh = = =
cosh kh 1 + e−2kh 1 for kh >∼ 3. In practice h > λ2
  
short waves
deep water

Shallow water waves Intermediate depth Deep water waves

or long waves or wavelength or short waves
kh << 1 Need to solve ω 2 = gk tanh kh kh >> 1
∼ h < λ/20 given ω, h for k ∼ h > λ/2
(given k, h for ω - easy!)
√
ω2 ∼
= gk · kh → ω = gh k (a) Use tables or graphs (e.g.JNN fig.6.3) ω 2 = gk
√ g 2
λ = gh T ω 2 = gk tanh kh = gk∞ λ= T
2π
k∞ λ Vp  
⇒ = = = tanh kh λ(in ft.) ≈ 5.12T 2 (in sec.)
k λ∞ Vp∞
(b) Use numerical approximation
(hand calculator, about 4 decimals )

i. Calculate C = ω 2 h/g
ii. If C > 2: ”deeper” ⇒
kh ≈ C(1 + 2e−2C − 12e−4C + . . .)
If C < 2: ”shallower” ⇒
√
kh ≈ C(1 + 0.169C + 0.031C 2 + . . .)
No frequency dispersion Frequency dispersion Frequency dispersion
 
 g g
Vp = gh Vp = tanh kh Vp = λ
k 2π

7
6.3 Characteristics of a Linear Plane Progressive Wave

λ η(x,t) = y
2π Vp
k= A
λ MWL x
2π
ω=
T
H = 2A h

Define U ≡ ωA

Linear Solution:
Ag cosh k (y + h)
η = A cos (kx − ωt) ; φ= sin (kx − ωt) , where ω 2 = gk tanh kh
ω cosh kh
6.3.1 Velocity field

Velocity on free surface v (x, y = 0, t)

1 ∂η
u(x, 0, t) ≡ Uo = Aω cos (kx − ωt) v(x, 0, t) ≡ Vo = Aω sin (kx − ωt) =
tanh kh ∂t

Velocity field v (x, y, t)

∂φ Agk cosh k (y + h) ∂φ Agk sinh k (y + h)

u= = cos (kx − ωt) v= = sin (kx − ωt)
∂x ω cosh kh ∂y ω cosh kh
cosh k (y + h) sinh k (y + h)
= 
Aω cos (kx − ωt) ⇒ = 
Aω sin (kx − ωt) ⇒
sinh kh sinh kh
U U

⎧ ⎧
⎪ ⎪
cosh k (y + h) ⎨ ∼ e sinh k (y + h) ⎨ ∼ e
ky ky
u deep water v deep water
= =
Uo cosh kh ⎪
⎩ ∼1 Vo sinh kh ⎪
⎩ ∼1+ y
shallow water h
shallow water

• u is in phase with η • v is out of phase with η

8
 Velocity field v (x, y)
Shallow water Intermediate water Deep water

9
 6.3.2 Pressure field

• Total pressure p = pd − ρgy.

• Dynamic pressure pd = −ρ ∂φ
∂t
.
• Dynamic pressure on free surface pd (x, y = 0, t) ≡ pdo

Pressure field

Shallow water Intermediate water Deep water

cosh k (y + h)
pd = ρgη pd = ρgA cos (kx − ωt) pd = ρgeky η
cosh kh
cosh k (y + h)
= ρg η
cosh kh
pd
same picture as Uuo
p do
pd (−h) pd (−h) 1 pd (−h)
= 1 (no decay) = = e−ky
p do pdo cosh kh p do
 
p= ρg(η − y) p = ρg ηeky − y
  
“hydrostatic” approximation

V p = gh V p = gλ
2π
y y y y y
y
x x
∇ ∇

kh << 1 kh >> 1

pd p ( − h) pd o pd o p (− h) pd o
p (− h) p (− h)

Pressure field in shallow water Pressure field in deep water

10
6.3.3 Particle Orbits (‘Lagrangian’ concept)
Let xp (t), yp (t) denote the position of particle P at time t.
Let (x̄; ȳ) denote the mean position of particle P.
The position P can be rewritten as xp (t) = x̄ + x (t), yp (t) = ȳ + y  (t), where
(x (t), y  (t)) denotes the departure of P from the mean position.
In the same manner let v ≡ v(¯ x, y,
¯ t) denote the velocity at the mean position and
vp ≡ v (xp , yp , t) denote the velocity at P.

P (x , y ) vp = v (x̄ + x , ȳ + y  , t) =⇒
P P
(x' , y ' ) TSE

∂v ∂v
vp = v (¯
x, y,
¯ t) + (¯ ¯ t) x +
x, y, ¯ t) y  + . . . ⇒
(x̄, y,
(x, y) ∂x ∂y
  
ignore - linear theory

vp ∼
= v

To estimate the position of P, we need to evaluate (x (t), y  (t)):

cosh k (ȳ + h)
x = dt u (¯
x, y,
¯ t) = dt ωA cos (kx¯ − ωt) ⇒
sinh kh
cosh k (ȳ + h)
= −A sin (kx̄ − ωt)
sinh kh
sinh k (ȳ + h)
y = dt v (¯
x, y,
¯ t) = dt ωA sin (kx̄ − ωt) ⇒
sinh kh
sinh k (ȳ + h)
= A cos (kx̄ − ωt)
sinh kh

Check: On ȳ = 0, y  = A cos (kx̄ − ωt) = η, i.e., the vertical motion of a free surface
particle (in linear theory) coincides with the vertical free surface motion.
It can be shown that the particle motion satisfies

x2 y 2 (xp − x̄)2 (yp − ȳ)2

+ = 1 ⇔ + =1
a2 b2 a2 b2
cosh k (ȳ + h) sinh k (ȳ + h)
where a = A and b = A , i.e., the particle orbits form
sinh kh sinh kh
closed ellipses with horizontal and vertical axes a and b.

11
 crest
Vp

ky
A
(a) deep water kh >> 1: a = b = Ae A
ky
circular orbits with radii Ae decreasing
exponentially with depth
trough
ky
Ae

A
Vp = gh
(b) shallow water kh << 1:

A y
a= = const. ; b = A(1+ )
kh h
decreases linearly
with depth A/kh

Vp

(c) Intermediate depth

P Vp
A
Q S Q S

R R R

λ
6.3.4 Summary of Plane Progressive Wave Characteristics

f (y) Deep water/ short waves Shallow water/ long waves

kh > π (say) kh << 1

cosh k(y+h) eky 1

cosh kh
= f1 (y) ∼
e.g.pd

cosh k(y+h) 1
sinh kh
= f2 (y) ∼ eky kh
e.g.u, a

sinh k(y+h) y
sinh kh
= f3 (y) ∼ eky 1+ h
e.g. v, b

13
C (x) = cos (kx − ωt) S (x) = sin (kx − ωt)

(in phase with η) (out of phase with η)

η
A
= C (x)

u v
Aω
= C (x) f2 (y) Aω
= S (x) f3 (y)

pd
ρgA
= C (x) f1 (y)

y� x�
A
= C (x) f3 (y) A
= −S (x) f2 (y)

a b
A
= f2 (y) A
= f3 (y)

b
a

14
 2.20 - Marine Hydrodynamics, Spring 2005
Lecture 21

2.20 - Marine Hydrodynamics

Lecture 21

6.4 Superposition of Linear Plane Progressive Waves

1. Oblique Plane Waves

v
k
kz
z
kx
v
Vp k = (k x , k z )

θ
x

(Looking up the y-axis from

below the surface)

Consider wave propagation at an angle θ to the x-axis

k·x



 
η =A cos(kx cos θ + kz sin θ −ωt) = A cos (kx x + kz z − ωt)
gA cosh k (y + h)
φ= sin (kx cos θ + kz sin θ − ωt)
ω cosh kh 
ω =gk tanh kh; kx = k cos θ, kz = k sin θ, k = kx + kz

1
2. Standing Waves

+ Same A, k, ω, no phase shift

η =A cos (kx − ωt) + A cos (−kx − ωt) = 2A cos kx cos ωt

2gA cosh k (y + h)
φ=− cos kx sin ωt
ω cosh kh

90o at all times

y
t = 0, T, 2T, …

amplitude
2A

node
T 3T
t= , ,L antinode T 3T 5T
2 2 t= , , L
4 4 4

∂η ∂φ nπ nλ
∼ = · · · sin kx = 0 at x = 0, =
∂x ∂x k 2

∂φ 
Therefore, = 0. To obtain a standing wave, it is necessary to have perfect
∂x x
reflection at the wall at x = 0.
AR
Define the reflection coefficient as R ≡ (≤ 1).
AI

A I = AR
x AR
R= =1
AI

2
3. Oblique Standing Waves

ηI =A cos (kx cos θ + kz sin θ − ωt)

ηR =A cos (kx cos (π − θ) + kz sin (π − θ) − ωt)

z
ηR
θR
θ θI
x θR = π − θI
θ
ηI

Note: same A, R = 1.

x k x z k z−ωt

 
 
ηT = ηI + ηR = 2A cos (kx cos θ) cos (kz sin θ − ωt)
 
 

standing wave in x propagating wave in z

and

2π 2π ω
λx = ; VPx = 0; λz = ; VPz =
k cos θ k sin θ k sin θ
Check:

∂φ ∂η
∼ ∼ · · · sin (kx cos θ) = 0 on x = 0
∂x ∂x

3
4. Partial Reflection

ηI ηR

 
ηI =AI cos (kx − ωt) = AI Re ei kx−ωt
 
ηR =AR cos (kx + ωt + δ) = AI Re R e−i kx ωt

R: Complex reflection coefficient

AR
R = |R| e−iδ , |R| =
AI
 
ηT =ηI + ηR = AI Re ei kx−ωt 1 + Re− ikx

|ηT | =AI 1 + |R| + 2 |R| cos (2kx + δ)

free surface
| ηT | wave envelope
AI λ
2
1+ | R |2
∇ x

node
antinode
At node,
|ηT | = |ηT | = AI (1 − |R|) at cos (2kx + δ) = −1 or 2kx + δ = (2n + 1) π
At antinode,
|ηT | = |ηT | = AI (1 + |R|) at cos (2kx + δ) = 1 or 2kx + δ = 2nπ

λ
2kL = 2π so L =
2

|ηT | − |ηT |
|R| = = |R (k)|
|ηT | + |ηT |

4
5. Wave Group
2 waves, same amplitude A and direction, but ω and k very close to each other.

VP1
η = Aei k1 x−ω1 t
η = Aei k2 x−ω2 t
VP2
ω , =ω , (k , ) and VP1 ≈ VP2

 
ηT = η + η =  Aei k1 x−ω1 t 1 + ei δkx−δωt with δk = k − k and δω = ω − ω

Vg
2π
λg =
δk
2A
VP1 ≈ VP2

2π 2π
T= Tg =
ω δω
2π
= λ1 ≈ λ 2
k1

⎫
|ηT | = 2 |A| when δkx − δωt = 2nπ ⎬ δω
xg = Vg t, δkVg t−(δω) t = 0 then Vg =
⎭ δk
|ηT | = 0 when δkx − δωt = (2n + 1) π

5
In the limit,

dω 
δk, δω → 0, Vg = ,
dk k1 ≈k2 ≈k

and since

ω = gk tanh kh ⇒
ω  1  2kh

Vg = 1+
k2
 
sinh 2kh
 

Vp n

⎫
(a) deep water kh >> 1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ Vg
n= Vg
= ⎪
⎪
Vp ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
(b) shallow water kh << 1 ⎬
VP
Vg ≤ Vp
n= Vg
= 1 (no dispersion) ⎪
⎪
⎪
Vp ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
(c) intermediate depth ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
Appear Disappear
⎪
⎭
<n<1

6
6.5 Wave Energy - Energy Associated with Wave Motion.
For a single plane progressive wave:

Energy per unit surface area of wave

• Potential energy PE • Kinetic energy KE
 η
PE without wave = ρgydy = − ρgh KEwave = dy ρ (u + v )
−h −h
η
PE with wave ρgydy = ρg (η − h ) Deep water = · · · = ρgA to leading order
 

−h KE const in x,t

PEwave = ρgη = ρgA cos (kx − ωt) Finite depth = · · ·

Average energy over one period or one wavelength
PEwave = ρgA KEwave = ρgA at any h

• Total wave energy in deep water:

E = PE + KE = ρgA cos (kx − ωt) +
• Average wave energy E (over 1 period or 1 wavelength) for any water depth:
E = ρgA [ + ] = ρgA = Es ,
↑ ↑
PE KE

Es ≡ Specific Energy: total average wave energy per unit surface area.
• Linear waves: PE = KE = 21 Es Vp
(equipartition).
x
• Nonlinear waves: KE > PE.
Vp
E
Es PE = Es cos2 (kx − ωt)
1
PE = 12 E

½ KE = 12 E =
x

Recall: cos x = + cos 2x

7
6.6 Energy Propagation - Group Velocity

S
Vp

E = E s per area V

Consider a fixed control volume V to the right of ‘screen’ S. Conservation of energy:

dW dE
= = J-
dt

 dt

 

rate of work done on S rate of change of energy in V energy flux left to right

where

η  
dφ ∂φ
J- = pu dy with p = −ρ + gy and u =
dt ∂x
−h
ω 
kh
J- = ρgA 1+ kh
= E (nVp ) = EVg
k 
 
  


E n
Vp
 

Vg

e.g. A = 3m, T = 10 sec → J- = 400KW /m

8
6.7 Equation of Energy Conservation

∆x
1 2
x
E = E (x ), = (x )
1 2

h = h(x)

J- − J-
∆t = ∆E∆x

∂J- 
J- = J- + ∆x + · · ·
∂x 
∂E ∂J-
+ = 0, but J- = Vg E
∂t ∂x
∂E ∂
+ Vg E = 0
∂t ∂x

∂E
1. = 0, Vg E = constant in x for any h(x).
∂t
2. Vg = constant (i.e., constant depth, δk << k)
 
∂ ∂
+ Vg E = 0, so E = E (x − Vg t) or A = A (x − Vg t)
∂t ∂x

i.e., wave packet moves at Vg .

9
6.8 Steady Ship Waves, Wave Resistance

D
U
Vp = U
2A

E = 21 ρgA2
E = 0 ahead of ship

(
= Vg E = ( 12 U ) 12 ρgA2 )
L

x=0

C.V.

• Ship wave resistance drag Dw

Rate of work done = rate of energy increase
d
Dw U + J- = EL = EU
dt
deep water

1
 
Dw = (EU − EU 2 ) = E = ρgA ⇒ Dw ∝ A
force / length U energy / area

• Amplitude of generated waves

The amplitude A depends on U and the ship geometry. Let ≡ effective length.
L
- +-
l
To approximate the wave amplitude A superimpose a bow wave (ηb ) and a stern wave
(ηs ).
ηb = a cos (kx) and ηs = −a cos (k (x + ))
ηT = ηb + ηs
 
A = |ηT | = 2a sin k  ← envelope amplitude
g
Dw = ρgA = ρga sin k ⇒ Dw = ρga sin U2

• Wavelength of generated waves To obtain the wave length, observe that the phase
speed of the waves must equal U . For deep water, we therefore have

ω deep g U
Vp = U ⇒ = U water −→ = U , or λ = 2π
k k g

10
• Summary Steady ship waves in deep water.

U = ship speed

g g U
Vp = = U ; so k = and λ = 2π
k U g
L =ship length, ∼ L
   
g ∼ 1 ∼ 1
Dw =ρga sin U2 =
ρga sin = ρga sin
2FrL 2FrL

1
Fl = ≈ 0.56 ⇒
π
max at:
Dw
ρga 2 U hull ≈ 0.56 gl ≅ 0.56 gL ⇒ U hull ∝ L

U
Fl = , where l ≤ L
0 gl
1 Increasing U
π

Small speed U
• Short waves
• Significant wave cancellation
• Dw ~ small

11
 2.20 - Marine Hydrodynamics, Spring 2005
Lecture 22

2.20 - Marine Hydrodynamics

Lecture 22

6.9 Wave Forces on a Body

UP

U = ωA
U ωA
Re = =
ν ν
UT AωT A
Kc = = = 2π
  

 
F A  h
CF = =f , , Re , , roughness, . . .
ρgA2 λ
 λ
 λ
Wave Diffraction
steepness parameter

1
6.9.1 Types of Forces

1. Viscous forces Form drag, viscous drag = f (Re , Kc , roughness, . . .).

• Form drag (CD )

Associated primarily with flow separation - normal stresses.

�����
��������������

• Friction drag (CF )


Associated with skin friction τw , i.e., F ∼ τw dS.
body
(wetted surface)

τω b.l.

2
2. Inertial forces Froude-Krylov forces, diffraction forces, radiation forces.
Forces arising from potential flow wave theory,

∂φ 1
F = ndS, where p = −ρ
pˆ + gy + |∇φ|2
∂t 2  
body
(wetted surface) =0, for linear theory,
small amplitude waves

For linear theory, the velocity potential φ and the pressure p can be decomposed to

φ= φI + φD + φR
  
Incident wave Diffracted wave Radiated wave
potential (a) potential (b.1) potential (b.2)
p ∂φI ∂φD ∂φR
− = + + + gy
ρ ∂t ∂t ∂t

(a) Incident wave potential

• Froude-Krylov Force approximation When  << λ, the incident wave field is not
significantly modified by the presence of the body, therefore ignore φD and φR .
Froude-Krylov approximation:
φ ≈ φI  
∂φI
∂φI ⇒ FF K = −ρ ˆ ← wave
+ gy ndS can calculate knowing (incident)

p ≈ −ρ
kinematics (and body geometry)
+ gy ∂t
∂t body   
surface
≡ pI

• Mathematical approximation After

 applying 
the divergence theorem, the FF K
can be rewritten as FF K = − ˆ =−
pI ndS ∇pI d∀.
body body
surface volume

If the body dimensions are very small comparable to the wave length, we can
assume that ∇pI is approximately constant through the body volume ∀ and
‘pull’ the ∇pI out of the integral. Thus, the FF K can be approximated as
   
∼
FF K = − ∇pI ∀
d∀ =  − ∇pI
at body body at body
center body volume center
volume

The last relation is particularly useful for small bodies of non-trivial geometry ­
for 13.021, that is all bodies that do not have a rectangular cross section.

3
 (b) Diffraction and Radiation Forces

(b.1) Diffraction or scattering force When  ≮ < λ, the wave field near the body
will be affected even if the body is stationary, so that no-flux B.C. is satisfied.

�
� φ��
φ�� ���������������
�
� φ�� φ��
� φ��
∂φ ∂
� φ�� =�= (φ � + φ � )
∂� ∂�
�
∂φ � ∂φ
� �� = − � ← �����
∂� ∂�
�  
∂φD
FD = −ρ ndS
ˆ
∂t
body
surface

(b.2) Radiation Force - added mass and damping coefficient Even in the
absence of an incident wave, a body in motion creates waves and hence inertial wave
forces.
�
��
�
� φ��
� φ�� �
� � ∂φ � �
= �⋅�
� ∂�
�
�
 
∂φR
FR = −ρ ˆ = − mij U̇j − dij Uj
ndS
∂t  
body added wave
surface mass radiation
damping

4
6.9.2 Important parameters

⎫
(1)Kc = UT
= 2π A ⎪
⎪
 ⎪
⎬
Interrelated through maximum wave steepness
A
≤ 0.07
⎪
⎪ λ
 ⎪
⎭ A 
(2)diffraction parameter λ  λ
≤ 0.07

• If Kc ≤ 1: no appreciable flow separation, viscous effect confined to boundary layer

(hence small), solve problem via potential theory. In addition, depending on the value
of the ratio λ ,

– If λ << 1, ignore diffraction , wave effects in radiation problem (i.e., dij ≈

0, mij ≈ mij infinite fluid added mass). F-K approximation might be used,
calculate FF K .

– If λ
>> 1/5, must consider wave diffraction, radiation ( A ≤ 0.07
/λ
≤ 0.035).

• If Kc >> 1: separation important, viscous forces can not be neglected. Further on if

 0.07 
≤ so << 1 ignore diffraction, i.e., the Froude-Krylov approximation is valid.
λ A/ λ
1
F = ρ2 U (t) |U (t)|CD (Re )
2 
relative
velocity

• Intermediate Kc - both viscous and inertial effects important, use Morrison’s formula.
1
F = ρ2 U (t)|U (t)|CD (Re ) + ρ3 U˙ Cm (Re , Kc )
2

5
• Summary

I
Limiting case:
wave breaking occurs

II III

I. Use: CD and F − K approximation.

II. Use: CF and F − K approximation.

III. CD is not important and F − K approximation is not valid.