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Chapter 7 - notes of psychology ncert

Introduction To Psychology (University of Delhi)

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AHLCON INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES
CLASS- XII
CHAPTER 7- SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES
A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals, who are interacting
and interdependent, who have common motives, have a set of role relationships among its
members, and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.
Characteristics of Groups
 A social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as
belonging to the group.
 A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals.
 A collection of individuals who are interdependent, i.e. what one is doing may have
consequences for others.
 Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need through their joint association.
 A gathering of individuals who interact with one another either directly or indirectly.
 A collection of individuals whose interactions are structured by a set of roles and norms.
Other Related Terms
Crowd- collection of people who may be present at a place/situation by chance. There is neither
any structure nor feeling of belongingness. Behaviour of people in crowds is irrational and
there is no interdependence among members.
Teams- Members have complementary skills and are committed to a common goal. Members
are mutually accountable for their activities. In teams, there is a positive synergy attained
through the coordinated efforts of the members.
S Groups Teams
No.
1. Performance is dependent on Both individual contributions and teamwork
contributions of individual matter
members.
2. The leader holds responsibility for Although there is a leader, members hold
the work. themselves responsible.

Audience- Collection of people who have assembled for a special purpose, may be to watch a
cricket match or a movie. They are generally passive but sometimes they go into a frenzy and
become mobs.
Mobs- Have a definite sense of purpose. There is polarisation in attention, and actions of
persons are in a common direction. Mob behaviour is characterised by homogeneity of thought
and behaviour as well as impulsivity.
Why Do People Join Groups?/ Reasons for Joining a Group

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1. Security : When we are alone, we feel insecure. Being with people gives a sense of
comfort, and protection. As a result, people feel stronger, and are less vulnerable to
threats.
2. Status : When we are members of a group that is perceived to be important by others,
we feel recognised and experience a sense of power.
3. Self-esteem : Being a member of prestigious groups enhances one’s self-concept and
establish a positive social identity.
4. Satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs : Groups satisfy one’s social and
psychological needs such as sense of belongingness, giving and receiving attention,
love, and power.
5. Goal achievement : Groups help in achieving such goals which cannot be attained
individually.
6. Provide knowledge and information : As individuals, we may not have all the
required information. Groups supplement this information and knowledge.
Conditions that facilitate Group Formation-
1. Proximity : Repeated interactions with the same set of individuals give us a chance to
know them, and their interests and attitudes. And Common interests, attitudes, and
background increase the likelihood of forming a group.
2. Similarity : Similarities paves the way for formation of groups because when we meet
similar people, they reinforce and validate our opinions and, we feel we are right and
thus we start liking them.
3. Common motives and goals : When people have common motives or goals, they get
together and form a group which may facilitate their goal attainment.
Stages of Group Formation
1. Formation- When group members first meet, there is a great deal of uncertainty about
the group, the goal, and how it is to be achieved. People try to know each other and
assess whether they will fit in. There is excitement as well as apprehensions.
2. Storming- storming. In this stage, there is conflict among members about how the
target of the group is to be achieved, who is to control the group and its resources, and
who is to perform what task. When this stage is complete, some sort of hierarchy of
leadership in the group develops
3. Norming- Group members by this time develop norms related to group behaviour. This
leads to development of a positive group identity.
4. Performing- The group moves towards achieving the group goal. For some groups,
this may be the last stage.
5. Adjourning- In this stage, once the function is over, the group may be disbanded.
During the process of group formation, groups also develop a structure. We should remember
that group structure develops as members interact.
Elements of Group Structure
1. Roles are socially defined expectations that individuals in a given situation are expected
to fulfil. For e.g. As a daughter or a son, you are expected to respect elders.
2. Norms are expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established, agreed upon, and
enforced by group members. They may be considered as a group’s ‘unspoken rules’.

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3. Status refers to the relative social position given to group members by others.It can be
of two types:-
 Ascribed- given may be because of one’s seniority.
 Achieved- the person has achieved status because of expertise or hard work.
4. Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, binding, or mutual attraction among group
members. It
‘we feeling’ or a sense of belongingness. As the group becomes more cohesive, group
members start to think, feel and act as a social unit, and less like isolated individuals.
Members of a highly cohesive group have a greater desire to remain in the group
Extreme Cohesiveness may not be beneficial always, as it may lead to Groupthink.

Groupthink: A mode of thinking in which the desire to reach unanimous agreement the group
may take irrational and improper decisions.

Types of Groups-

S Primary Groups Secondary Groups

No.
1. Are pre-existing formations which are Are those which the individual joins by
usually given to the individual. For e.g choice. For e.g. membership of a political
family, caste and Religion. party.
2. There is a face-to-face interaction, close Relationships among members are more
physical proximity, and they share warm impersonal, indirect, and less frequent.
emotional bonds.
3. Are central to individual’s functioning No such role is played by Secondary
and have a very major role in developing groups.
values and ideals of the individual during
the early stages of life.
4. Boundaries are less permeable, i.e. It is easy to leave and join another group.
members do not have the option to
choose its membership.

S Formal Groups Informal Groups

No.
1. Functions of the group are stated Functions of the group are not explicitly
explicitly and formally and formally stated.
2. The formation of formal groups is based No specific rules/laws and roles
on some specific rules or laws and governing their behavior.
members have definite roles.

S In Group Out Group

No.
1. Refers to one’s own group. Refers to another group.
2. We use the term WE. We use the term THEY.

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3. People in the ingroup are generally Members of the outgroup are viewed
supposed to be similar, are viewed differently and are often perceived
favourably, and have desirable traits. negatively in comparison to the ingroup
members.

Social Loafing
Is a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task, i.e. one in which outputs
are pooled with those of other group members. An example of such a task is the game of tug-
of-war. Such situations give opportunities to group members to relax and become a free rider.

Why does social loafing occur?

• Group members feel less responsible for the overall task being performed and therefore exert
less effort.
• Motivation of members decreases because they realise that their contributions will not be
evaluated on individual basis.
• The performance of the group is not to be compared with other groups.
• There is an improper coordination (or no coordination) among members.
• Belonging to the same group is not important for members. It is only an aggregate of
individuals.

Social loafing may be reduced by:

• Making the efforts of each person identifiable.
• Increasing the pressure to work hard (making group members committed to successful task
performance).
• Increasing the apparent importance or value of a task.
• Making people feel that their individual contribution is important.
• Strengthening group cohesiveness which increases the motivation for successful group
outcome.

Group Polarisation

Tendency of the group to take extreme decisions than individuals alone. The strengthening of
the group’s initial position as a result of group interaction and discussion is referred to as group
polarisation. This may sometimes have dangerous repercussions for the group.

Why does group polarisation occur?

 In the company of like-minded people, we are likely to hear newer arguments favouring
our viewpoints. This will make us more favourable towards our decision.
 When we find others also favouring our decision, we feel that this view is validated by
the public. This is a sort of bandwagon effect.

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 When we find people having similar views, we are likely to perceive them as ingroup.
We start identifying with the group, begin showing conformity, and as a consequence
our views become strengthened.

Social Influence
Refers to those processes whereby our attitudes and behaviours are influenced by the real or
imagined presence of other people.

Kelman distinguished three forms of social influence:-

1. Identification- refers to influence process based on agreement-seeking or identity-
seeking.
2. Internalisation- is a process based on information-seeking.
3. Compliance

Three Major Types of Social Influence-

1. Conformity- means behaving according to the group norm, i.e. the expectations of
other group members. Persons who do not conform (called ‘deviants’ or ‘non-
conformists’) get noticed more than those who do conform. It is the most indirect form
of Social Influence.
Why do people conform?

1. Norms represent a set of unwritten and informal ‘rules’ of behaviour that provide
information to members of a group about what is expected of them in specific situations.
This makes the whole situation clearer, and allows both the individual and the group to
function more smoothly.
2. People feel uncomfortable if they are considered ‘different’ from others. Behaving in a
way that differs from the expected form of behaviour may lead to disapproval or dislike
by others, which is a form of social punishment.
3. The norm is seen as reflecting the views and beliefs of the majority. Most people believe
that the majority is more likely to be right rather than wrong.

*Read and lean The Autokinetic Effect and Asch Experiment from the Book.

Determinants of Conformity

1. Size of the group : Small Group= More Conformity

Large Group= Less Conformity
However, in a large group, if there is strong agreement among
most of the members there will be more conformity.

2. Size of the minority : When the size of the minority starts increasing the likelihood
of conformity decreases. In fact, it may increase the number of dissenters or non-
conformists in the group.

3. Nature of the task : Correct/ Incorrect Answer= More Conformity

Opinions on Topic = Less Conformity

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4. Public or private expression of behaviour : Public= More Conformity

Private= Less Conformity
5. Personality : Research has shown that highly intelligent people, those who are
confident of themselves, those who are strongly committed and have a high selfesteem
are less likely to conform.

Conformity may also take place because of :-

 Informational influence- influence that results from accepting evidence rather than
reality.
 Normative influence- influence based on a person’s desire to be accepted or admired
by others. In such cases, people conform because deviation from group may lead to
rejection.

Compliance-
Compliance refers simply to behaving in response to a request from another person or group
even in the absence of a norm.

Techniques of Compliance
 The foot-in-the-door technique : The person begins by making a small request that
the other person is not likely to refuse. Once the other person carries out the request, a
bigger request is made. Simply because the other person has already complied with the
smaller request, he or she may feel uncomfortable refusing the second request.
 The deadline technique : In this technique, a ‘last date’ is announced until which a
particular product or ‘an offer’ will be available. The aim is to make people ‘hurry’ and
make the purchase before they miss the rare opportunity.
 The door-in-the-face technique : In this technique, you begin with a large request and
when this is refused a later request for something smaller, the one that was actually
desired, is made, which is usually granted by the person.

Obedience
When compliance is shown to an instruction or order from a person in authority, such as
parents, teachers, policemen etc. It is the most direct form of social influence.

Why do people obey?

 People obey because they feel that they are not responsible for their own actions,
they are simply carrying out orders from the authority.
 Authority generally possesses symbols of status (e.g., uniform, title) which people
find difficult to resist.
 Authority gradually increases commands from lesser to greater levels and initial
obedience binds the followers for commitment.
 Many times, events are moving at such a fast speed, for example in a riot situation,
that one has no time to think, just obey orders from above.

*Read and lean the Milgram Experiment from the Book.

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Cooperation and competition

Cooperation- When groups work together to achieve shared goals, we refer to it as

cooperation.
Competition- When members try to maximise their own benefits and work for the realisation
of selfinterest, competition is likely to result.

*Read and lean the Prisoner’s Dilemma Game and Sherif’s Summer Camp Experiment
from the book

Determinants of Cooperation and Competition

 Reward structure : Cooperative reward structure is one which promotes
interdependence. Each is beneficiary of the reward and reward is possible only if all
contribute. A competitive reward structure is one in which one can get a reward only if
others do not get it.
 Interpersonal communication : When there is good interpersonal communication,
then cooperation is the likely consequence.
 Reciprocity : Reciprocity means that people feel obliged to return what they get. Initial
cooperation may encourage more cooperation. Competition may provoke more
competition.

Social identity
Social identity is that aspect of our self-concept which is based on our group membership.
Social identity places us, i.e. tells us what and where we are in the larger social context, and
thus helps us to locate ourselves in society.
Social identity provides members with a shared set of values, beliefs and goals about
themselves and about their social world.

Intergroup conflict
Conflict is a process in which either an individual or a group perceives that other group has
opposing interests, and both try to contradict each other. There is this intense feeling of ‘we’
and ‘they’.
There is also a belief by both parties that the other will protect only its own interests; their (the
other side’s) interests will, therefore, not be protected.
There is not only opposition of each other, but they also try to exert power on each other. This
often leads to escalation of conflict.

Causes/Reasons of Group Conflict

 Lack of communication and faulty communication-leads to suspicion, i.e. there is

a lack of trust. Hence, conflict results.
 Relative deprivation- It arises when members of a group compare themselves with
members of another group, and perceive that they do not have what they desire to have,
which the other group has.

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 Another cause of conflict is one party’s belief that it is better than the other, and what
it is saying should be done. When this does not happen, both parties start accusing each
other.
 A feeling that the other group does not respect the norms of my group, and actually
violates those norms.
 Desire for retaliation for some harm done in the past could be another reason for
conflict.
 Biased perceptions are at the root of most conflicts.Feelings of ‘they’ and ‘we’ lead to
biased perceptions.
 Research has shown that when acting in groups, people are more competitive as well
as more aggressive than when they are on their own.
 Perceived inequity- Equity refers to distribution of rewards in proportion to an
individual’s contributions, if:

But, if you contribute more and get less, you are likely to feel irritated and exploited.

Consequences of intergroup conflict by Deutsch –

 Communication between the groups becomes poor. The groups do not trust each other,
thereby leading to a breakdown in communication and this generates suspicion for each
other.
 Groups start magnifying their differences and start perceiving their behaviour as fair
and the other’s behaviour as unfair.
 Each side tries to increase its own power and legitimacy. As a consequence, the conflict
gets escalated shifting from few specific issues to much larger issues.
 Once conflict starts, several other factors lead to escalation of conflict. Hardening of
ingroup opinion, explicit threats directed at the outgroup, each group retaliating more
and more, and other parties also choosing to take sides.

Conflict resolution strategies

 Introduction of superordinate goals : A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial to

both parties, hence both groups work cooperatively.
 Altering perceptions : Conflicts can also be reduced by altering perceptions and
reactions through persuasion, educational and media appeals, and portrayal of groups
differently in society.

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 Increasing intergroup contacts : Conflict can also be reduced by increasing contacts

between the groups. This can be done by involving groups in conflict on neutral grounds
through community projects and events.
 Redrawing group boundaries : Redefining the group boundaries so that groups come
to perceive themselves as belonging to a common group.
 Negotiations : Negotiation refers to reciprocal communications so as to reach an
agreement. But sometimes it is difficult to resolve the conflict through negotiations; at
that time mediation and arbitration by a third party is needed.
a.Mediators help both parties to focus their discussions on the relevant issues and reach
a voluntary agreement.
b. Arbitration- the third party has the authority to give a decision after hearing both
parties.
 Structural solutions : Conflict can also be reduced by redistributing the societal
resources according to principles based on justice:-
a. Equality (allocating equally to every one)
b. Need (allocating on the basis of needs)
c. Equity (allocating on the basis of contributions of members).

 Respect for other group’s norms : It is necessary to respect and be sensitive to the
strong norms of various social and ethnic groups. It has been noticed that a number of
communal riots between different groups have taken place because of such
insensitivity.

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